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Inclusive Education Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa a Pathway to Educational

Access for All

Agbor Ekama Prisca Anne

Faculty of Science of Education, University of Ngoundere, Cameroon

Abstract: Many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are struggling to meet the educational needs of
those children and youth who are relatively easy to reach. This raises concerns about how the
region will ensure that the most disadvantaged can complete primary education. Inclusive
Education is designed to ensure that every child has access to quality education, irrespective of
gender, language, ability, religion, nationality or other characteristics. This is to support
meaningful participation and learning alongside their peers in other to develop their full
potential. (Save the Children 2016:6). The stipulation that students „learn alongside‟ their peers,
„within their community‟ alludes to the historical practice of providing segregated, „special‟
education for Children with Disabilities. The paper confirms that failures to prioritize primary
enrolment leave millions of teenagers out of school later on. The out-of-school rate in sub-
Saharan Africa is 21% for children of primary school age (about 6-11 years), 34% for youth of
lower secondary school age (12-14 years) and 58% for youth of upper secondary school age (15-
17 years), according to UIS data. Provisions within the national educational systems have
demonstrated the difficulties educators face to guarantee inclusive education in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Some of these challenges include, but not limited to, creating activities that includes all
learners, inadequate teachers‟ aid for learners with special needs, lacking experience in an
inclusive setting, lacking experience with severe and profound disabilities etc.
Keywords: Inclusive, Education, Policies, Sub-Saharan Africa, Pathway to Educational Access,
All
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Introduction
Half of the world‟s out-of-school-children are in sub-Saharan Africa, totaling ninety-seven
million children and youth growing up with poverty being the main constraint to access. Without
improvement, more than one in ten adults in the region will not have completed primary school
by 2050 (UNESCO, 2020). The data released in a paper entitled “Leaving no one behind: How
far on the way to universal primary and secondary education?” from the UNESCO Institute of
Statistics (USI) and the Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report, show that in Nigeria alone,
8.7 million children who should be in primary school are simply not there. In Ethiopia it‟s 2.1
million. These are vast numbers that are hard to grasp, but each one represents a massive loss of
potential (UNESCO, 2016).
The paper confirms that failures to prioritize primary enrolment leave millions of teenagers out
of school later on. The out-of-school rate in sub-Saharan Africa is 21% for children of primary
school age (about 6-11 years), 34% for youth of lower secondary school age (12-14 years) and
58% for youth of upper secondary school age (15-17 years), according to UIS data.
We see that conflict continue to rob millions of their right to education. Across the region, about
one-third of all those out of school live in areas plagued by conflict. We also see the severe
impact of poverty: only 65 of the poorest children for every 100 of the richest go to primary
school in Sub-Saharan Africa, according to UNESCO GEM Report analysis. Once again, girls

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face the most extreme barriers, with fewer than seven of the poorest girls attending at the upper
secondary level for every ten of the poorest boys. The data above confirm that, in global terms,
Sub-Saharan Africa has to be at the top of the list for investment in education. The success – or
not – of policies behind this data show us where countries in the region should be emphasizing
their efforts.
High-stakes exams at the end of primary and lower secondary education can prevent or
discourage students from making the transition to the next level. In Tanzania, for example, less
than half of children passed the primary school leaving exam in 2010: only 41% of those who
reached the end of primary school went on to secondary. Meanwhile, The Gambia abolished
exams at the end of primary school and saw enrolment in lower secondary increase from 44% to
63%. Also, making education compulsory for at least nine years can encourage children to go to
school. Yet for many countries in the region, education is compulsory for less than six years, as
in the case of Angola, Benin, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
UNICEF released a report in 2016 on The State of the World‟s Children, showing that even
children in school for at least four years are not learning the skills and knowledge that are vital
for their intellectual and social development. Because of inaccessibility to quality education, the
same report states that about 130 million children of primary school age in Sub-Saharan Africa
lack basic literacy and numeracy skills. According to the World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa has
the lowest adult literacy rate worldwide, with 60 percent of their population of 15 and over
unable to read and write, which is far below the 80 percent world rate (Soutoul, 2017).
Right now, many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are struggling to meet the educational needs of
those children and youth who are relatively easy to reach. This raises concerns about how the
region will ensure that the most disadvantaged can complete primary education. The task seems
daunting but it is essential. There is need to be a far sharper focus on the wider challenges facing
the children and teenagers who are missing out across the region – the poorest, the girls, children
with disabilities, those caught up in conflict. It is not enough to just build more classrooms or
hire more teachers. Only by reaching out to them, and by drawing them into the classroom, can
the region hope to fulfil its enormous potential.
Countries throughout Sub-Saharan Africa have made a commitment to inclusive education by
ratifying the Convention on the Rights of the Child (with the exception of Somalia) and the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In many cases, countries have gone
further, with their own legislation and/or constitutional provisions. The goal is for all children to
fully exercise their right to an education that meets their needs and prepares them for full
participation in society. But despite commitments to achieving inclusive education by 2030, only
2% of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have an education law that is inclusive of all learners,
no matter their background, identity or ability.
Global Movement towards Inclusive Education
Inclusive Education is a „global education policy‟ (Verger, Novelli, & Altinyelken, 2012)
advanced by UNESCO and other hegemonic Western policy actors such as UNICEF, USAID,
UK‟s Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office, and the World Bank, and accepted by
national governments across Sub-Saharan Africa (Armstrong, Armstrong & Spandagou, 201I).
The international policy context could hardly be more conducive for Inclusive Education. Most
countries around the World are legally obliged to provide Inclusive Education as a result of the
Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), which tied Inclusive Education to the Education For All
agenda. The Statement enjoins governments around the world to:
“Adopt as a matter of law and legislation the policy of inclusive education, Enrolling all
children in regular schools, unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise”
The state parties that took part in the Salamanca Conference and the subsequent signatories of
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) are thus accountable to the UN
and their citizens to implement policies for Inclusive Education (Mittler, 2000 in Mariga,
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McConkey, & Myezwa, 2014). These commitments not only include the rights of all children to
attend a regular or mainstream school, but also to access a “child-centerd” pedagogy capable of
meeting their needs‟ (UNESCO 1994). Nevertheless, despite the clear legal imperative, and more
than 25 years after the Salamanca Statement in most part of Sub-Saharan Africa, Inclusive
Education is legislated rather than planned for. For example, in Uganda the Inclusive Education
Policy is still awaiting confirmation despite the countries successes in Universal Primary
Education, thereby, making Inclusive Education a statement of aspiration rather than a tangible
plan for Action.
Having established the legal basis for the global movement for Inclusive Education, let us
consider what is meant by Inclusive Education and why it is and approach whose time has come.
What is Inclusive Education?
There are so many definitions of Inclusive education brought forward by many scholars,
researchers, and organizations, but what has caught my attention is the definition that Inclusive
Education stress the process of extending meaningful educational opportunities to all:
The term Inclusive Education refers not only to the process of ensuring that all children and
adults-regardless of their gender, age, ability, ethnicity, impairment, HIV status, and so on –
have access to education within their community, but that the education they receive is
appropriate and enables them to participate and achieve, both within their education system and
more widely. (Kaplan, Miles, & Howes, 2011: 23).
Inclusive Education is designed to ensure that every child has access to quality education,
irrespective of gender, language, ability, religion, nationality or other characteristics. This is to
support meaningful participation and learning alongside their peers in other to develop their full
potential. (Save the Children 2016:6). The stipulation that students „learn alongside‟ their peers,
„within their community‟ alludes to the historical practice of providing segregated, „special‟
education for Children with Disabilities.
For much of the 20th century there was a widespread belief in the need for „separate kinds of
education for different kinds of children‟ (Armstrong et al. 2011:29). Such a view is grounded in
a „deficit or „medical‟ model of disability, which locates children differences and disabilities as
individual pathologies (Thomas and Loxley 2007:3). For example, the 1944 Education Act in
Britain identified eleven categories of „handicap‟ (including „blind‟, „deaf‟ and „educationally
subnormal‟) requiring special provision, while children with Down‟s syndrome were categorized
as „ineducable‟ (Runswick-Cole & Hodge, 2009).
Since the 1980s unproblematic assumptions about the categorical distinctions between different
types of children have been challenged. According to the „social‟ model of disability
a person‟s impairment is not the cause of disability, but rather disability is the result
of the way society is organised, which disadvantages and excludes people with
impairments (Armstrong et al. 2011:30). For example, a student with a visual impairment may
become “disabled” if he/she is made to sit too far from the board; a student with a mobility
impairment may become “disabled” if the design of the classroom prevents him from entering
the room or reaching a desk. It is this social model of disability which underlies the global
movement for Inclusive Education, marking a move from an „exclusionary to an inclusive
understanding of educational difficulties‟ (Veck, 2009). Inclusive Education is a question of
rights and social integration, is an educational aim in itself (Armstrong et al. 2011; Srivastava et
al. 2015).
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child asserts the obligation of the state to:
“ensure that the child with a disability has effective access to training, preparation for
employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to the child
achieving the fullest possible social integration, individual development and his/her cultural and
normal development.” Clearly, schooling which segregates some young people on the basis of
disability is inconsistent with „the fullest possible social integration‟, and unconducive to

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promoting broader social values of equity and respect for all.

According to research conducted by Apie, (2020), Sub-Saharan Africa paints a picture of the
way Africans understand and respond to inclusion as an Education for All movement. Also,
work from African authors and researchers demonstrate critical analyses of the concept taking
into account the prevailing cultural milieu across the region. For instance, writing on the
challenges of inclusive schooling in Africa, using a case study of Ghana, Dei (2005:268),
conceived inclusive education as an „educational system that responds to the concerns,
aspirations and interests of a diverse body, and draws on the accumulated knowledge, creativity
and resourcefulness of local peoples. Commenting further, he pointed out that a school is
inclusive to the extent that every learner is able to identify and connect with his/her social
environment, culture, population and history.
These definitions according to Eleweke & Rodda (2002) and Ajuwon (2008), shared similar
views to affirm that of Dei‟s, particularly as Dei‟s, already carried out research in Europe and
America on the issue. It also aligned with the popular principle that educational systems have to
be restructured to welcome all children in a general school. The variation in the opinions,
however, is that it considered the ways in which the local people manufactured identity in the
manner they conducted their affairs. This simply means that the people try to guard against
mindless application of inclusivity within local contexts. Rather, they keep in check the
colonizing influence of inclusion so that it does not completely distort indigenous cultures and
practices (Ewa, 2015). A vague allusion inherent in the argument is in the sense that this form of
education varies from community to community and the differences are partly due to
geophysical environment, history, economy, social mores and interaction with neighbours
(Kisanji, 1998).
The differences in approach shows that certain aspects of particular communities are resistant to
or unable to cope with the inclusive banner. Even though there are some concerns about the
relevance of inclusive education to local cultures, the presumption is that this model of education
requires fundamental changes. These changes would have to be made in local customs, belief
systems, values and norms relating to the ccvceducation of children in other to attenuate existing
social order. It is however painful to compromise local cultures and traditions, which cannot be
equated with the way the disposition can exert negative effects on the entitlements of all children
to education. Many children are deprived of their rights to education and some exposed to the
risk of exclusion and marginalization in order to save the face of local cultures. Inclusive
education, on the other hand, does not entail the erosion of valued customs and norms, but an
articulation of thoughts and actions in ways that promote practices to genuinely support
engagement of all children through the process of schooling (Ewa, 2015).
Inclusive and Exclusive Educational Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa
Looking at the Sub-Saharan Africa fact sheet as indicated by the 2020 UNESCO Global
Education Monitoring Report, it can be noticed that only 23% of countries in the region have
laws calling for children with disabilities to be educated in separate settings.
 Most countries combine mainstreaming with separate setting arrangements, usually for
learners with severe disabilities. But lack of definition of severe disabilities can lead to
arbitrary decisions. For example, South Africa‟s 1996 schools law stated that the right to
education of children with special needs was to be fulfilled in mainstream public schools
through support services and measures „where reasonably practicable‟
 Among the countries whose laws emphasize inclusion, Ghana‟s 2008 education law defined
inclusive education as a „value system‟ that „holds that all persons … are entitled to equal
access to learning‟ and that „transcends the idea of physical location, but incorporates the
basic values that promote participation, friendship and interaction‟ (Article 5.4).
 In 34% of countries, disability law also regulates inclusion in education.

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 In Burkina Faso, a 2010 law on protection and promotion of the rights of people with
disabilities noted that inclusive education was guaranteed at all education levels and that
„any institution of initial and in-service training of teachers/literacy educators … shall take
into account inclusive education in its training programmes‟ (Article 12).
 Senegal‟s 2010 law on people with disabilities guaranteed children and adolescents with
disabilities free education in mainstream schools as close as possible to their homes
 As of December 2019, only seven countries out of 55 in the region had signed Article 16 of
the
 Convention of the Rights of Persons with a Disability, which allows for segregation to
continue for persons with disabilities, but none had ratified it. Cameroon did so in 2021.
 Despite commitments to achieving inclusive education by 2030, only 2% of countries in
sub-Saharan Africa have an education law that is inclusive of all learners, no matter their
background, identity or ability.
 Ghana‟s 2015 policy defines it as an approach that accommodates all children in schools
„regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions‟.
 Nigeria‟s 2017 policy endorses the UNESCO definition, calling it the „process of
addressing all barriers and providing access to quality education to meet the diverse needs
of all learners in the same learning environment‟
 In the region, 83% of countries have laws referring to people with disabilities, 23%
referring to gender, 42% to ethnicity and indigeneity and 65% on language.
 Kenya‟s 2015 Policy Framework for Nomadic Education paid special attention to inclusion
and vulnerability within nomadic communities, especially for girls and children with special
needs. To facilitate access to and participation in education, the policy called for
establishing more mobile schools, introducing open and distance learning and introducing
innovative and flexible community-based education interventions.
Exclusion can be very blatant (very bad) and seen as shameful:
 Equatorial Guinea and the United Republic of Tanzania enforce a total ban on pregnant girls
and young mothers in public schools.
 Some countries do not specify a minimum age for marriage (this can keep very young girls
out of school) but South Sudan, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Somalia. Tanzania raised its
minimum age to 18 years in October 2019.
 Two (Somalia and Liberia) countries have not yet ratified the Convention on the minimum
age to prevent child labour.
 Refugees are often taught in parallel education systems.
 Legislation can reinforce discriminatory behaviour or make it impossible to address issues
related to gender identity and sexual orientation in education. In May 2019, the Kenyan
High Court upheld a colonial-era law that criminalized same-sex intercourse. Nigeria
outlawed discussion of sexual orientation or gender identity and expression in positive or
neutral terms, either in public or in the presence of minors.
Curriculum and textbooks can exclude too:
 A 2011 review of curricula in 10 Eastern and Southern African countries found that none
addressed sexual diversity appropriately. Namibia life skills curriculum in grades 8 and 12
at least refers to the issue of diversity in sexual orientation.
 In South Africa, a government review found that people with physical disabilities accounted
for 2% of visuals and 1% of text mentions in secondary school social science books, and
that intellectual disabilities were not represented.
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More human and material resources are needed for inclusion

 Human and material resources are critical for implementing inclusive education laws and
policies in mainstream schools. Yet they were found lacking in a review carried out in 13
Sub-Saharan African countries. For instance, itinerant teachers face heavy workloads that
impede their fulfilment of their role. Sign language is not being used in the classroom, and
teachers lack skills in Braille.
 An analysis in Accra, Ghana, argues that, despite steady progress and a comprehensive
legislation and policy framework, students with disabilities must perform the same tasks
within the same time frame as their peers without disabilities, occupy desks placed far from
teachers and are often physically punished by teachers for behavioural challenges;
moreover, teaching is not differentiated
 Malawi increasingly encourages learners with special needs to enrol in mainstream schools,
yet lack of facilities forces many to transfer to special schools, for example, learners with
visual impairment moved to schools for the blind.
 In evaluating the national inclusive education policy, the Namibian government noted a
shortage of resource schools in rural areas, lack of accessible infrastructure, inadequate
awareness and unfavourable attitudes towards disability.
Teachers need training to teach all students
 Fewer than 1 in 10 primary school teachers in 10 Francophone countries in Sub-Saharan
 Africa had any training in inclusive education. In Niger, for instance, only 10 of the 162
teachers working in special needs and inclusive schools were trained to work with children
with disabilities
 In South Africa, the Ministry of Education aimed to ensure each school had at least one
teacher trained to screen and support students, although this target was not met
 South Africa has anti-discrimination legislation and racial desegregation in schools, but
head teachers have autonomy to determine catchment boundaries. In Johannesburg, this is a
factor that increases exclusion of poor suburban children from better-performing schools.
 The pupil/desk ratio in the United Republic of Tanzania in 2016 was 5:1 vs the
recommended 3:1. Moreover, averages tend to hide wide discrepancies at the expense of
disadvantaged areas: The ratio was 7:1 in the Geita, Rukwa and Simiyu regions. In Uganda,
among the Karamoja sub-region‟s four districts with data, the ratio ranged from 5:1 to 124:1
 There is a clear case for school-based screening to enable some straightforward
interventions. Short-sightedness is not generally considered a disabling impairment because
it is easy and cheap to treat with glasses. Yet school-based screening is not yet common. An
analysis of 10 countries in francophone African countries, showed that, in 4 countries, less
than 3% of grade 2 teachers reported that eye tests took place.
Education systems often assume that all children are the same.
 Only four countries in the region (Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe) recognize sign
language as an official language and schools are more likely to have internet access than to
be adapted for learners with disabilities. The Kenyan Constitution promotes development
and use of Kenyan Sign Language, Braille and other communication formats and
technology accessible to people with disabilities. Since most children who are totally deaf in
low-resource settings start primary school with little or no language, the role of local sign
languages as mother tongues is essential in introducing them to basic expression and
communication skills and opening the pathway for progression in formal education
 Students with disabilities often need adapted infrastructure and materials, but Burundi and
Niger reported not having any in primary or secondary schools.

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 In many countries, including Mali, Mauritania and Senegal, most primary schools lack
separate toilets for girls. This is recognized as an important factor in attendance of girls who
have begun menstruating, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where a high percentage of
students are overage.
Concluding Remarks
There are a number of difficulties faced by educators to guarantee inclusive education in Sub-
Saharan Africa. The provisions within the national educational systems demonstrates the need to
preserve local cultures and standard agenda which raises contentions against the inclusive
banner. Researchers who perceive education differently, tend to look at inclusion as an idea that
presumably has the capacity to displace local norms, values and belief systems in relation to the
way children are allowed to engage in school. Such uncompromising position limits the rights of
all children to have quality education in general settings. The implication of this has become
manifest following the extent to which every child accesses, participates and achieves in school
in the region. Inclusive education, is known to be the core philosophy for educating all children
in general schools in the region. This therefore requires educators to adopt a curriculum that can
differentially serve the diverse needs of children in other to enable equal access to education for
all. Thereby achieving the dream to inclusive education opportunity which will go a long way to
enable every child to develop their full potentials in Sub-Sahara Africa.
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