Phasors

Phasors can be used to represent time-varying quantities, such as sine waves, in terms of their
magnitude and angular position (phase angle)

Sine Waves Phasor Diagram

60 A i

i = 60 sin (t + 0) A ⃗I =42.43 A 0

120 V
e

60

=
60 60

e = 120 sin (t - 60) ⃗

E = 84.85 V -60

120 V
e

= 60
60

e = 120 sin (t + 60) ⃗

E = 84.85 V 60

Note: For the magnitude of the phasors always use the rms value of the sine wave voltage and
current.
Addition of Phasors

Example. Find the total current if the maximum values of i1 and i2 are 20 and 15 amp, respectively.

40

30

20

10
current

0 i1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 i2
-10
iT
-20 time (sec)

-30

-40

Solution For the maximum values of the currents:

I1 = 14.14 A

I2 = 10.61 A

I1 = 14.14 A I2 = 10.61 A
24.75 A

24.75 A
⃗
IT = ⃗
I1 + ⃗
I2

= 14.140 + 10.610

= 24.75 A0

To convert this to a sine wave equation, the maximum value of the total current

ITm =2( 24.75) = 35 A. The equation of the total current is

iT = 35 sin(t + 0)

Example.
 200
ETm 150

E1m 100
E2m
50

voltage
0 e1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

e2
-50 30°  (degrees) eT
-100

-150

-200

90 V
Solution E1 = = 63.64 A
√2
70V
E2 = = 49.5 A
√2

30
E1 = 63.64 V E2 = 49.5 V
ET = 113.14 V

⃗
ET = ⃗
E1 + ⃗
E2

= 63.64 V-30 + 49.5 V-30

= 113.14 V-30

To convert this to a sine wave equation, the maximum value of the total current

ETm =√ 2 ( 113.14) = 160 A. The equation of the total current is

e T = 160 sin(t - 30)

Example. 60-Hz current i1 = 9 sint A is added to 60-Hz current i2 = 15cost, where  = 260.
Determine (a) the equation of the resultant current; (b) time at which the two currents are equal.
Solution

The resultant equation of the two waves is,

i T = 17.49 sin (260t + 59.04) A

Converting these sine waves as phasors,

I2 = I T = 12.37 A
10.61 A

= 59.04

I1 = 6.36 A

Adding the phasors,

⃗
IT = ⃗
I1 + ⃗
I2

= 6.36 A0 + 10.61 A 90

= (6.36 + j0) + (j10.61)

= 6.36 + j 10.61
I1
= 12.37 A 59.04
Power Factor

The Power factor is the ratio of true power and apparent power. The power factor ranges from 0
to 1.

P
pf =
S

where pf – is the power factor which can expressed as a decimal or percentage.

P – true power in watts (W)

S – apparent power in volt-amperes (VA). The apparent power is just the product of the
total voltage and the total current in an ac circuit.

From the power triangle below which will be learned later, it can be seen that P/S is cos .
Therefore

P
pf = = cos 
S

P – true power
S Q – reactive power
Q S – apparent power
- the phase angle between the total
current and the total voltage or
power factor angle.

Types of Power Factor

 Unity pf (pf = 1) - the voltage and current are in phase. A purely resistive load has a unity
power factor since the voltage and current are in phase. Any circuit whose total inductive
reactive power is equal to the total capacitive reactive power will have a unity power
P
factor.
 Lagging pf (pf is between 0 to 1) – the current lags the voltage by an acute angle .
 Leading pf (pf factor is between 0 to 1) – the current leads the voltage by an acute angle .
 Zero pf – if the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90. Any circuit which has a
zero true power has zero pf. The purely inductive or capacitive load would have a zero pf
since the true power is zero and the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90.

Series Resistance and Inductance

 30

VLm
20

VRm
10

ITm
iT
0

vL
90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° vR
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

-1 0

-2 0

-3 0

Characteristics:

1. There is a common current in the circuit, that is, IT = IR = IL.

2. The total voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltage across the resistor and across the
inductor.
3. The apparent power is the algebraic sum of the true power (power taken by the resistive
load) and the inductive reactive power in the inductor.

Omit the current wave, and drawing the total (resultant) voltage. In this case, the total or
resultant voltage is the source or applied voltage.
 40

V Tm 30

V Lm
20

V Rm
10

vR
0

vL
90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
vT
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

-1 0

-2 0

-3 0

-4 0

VL VS

IT
VR (ref)

The Phasor Diagram of a Series RL Circuit.

Note: The angle of the reference is not always zero. It can be any angle other than 0. The figure
below shows an example. This applies to the succeeding circuits.

VL VS

VR
IT (ref)
⃑
V T = VR + jVL volts total voltage in rectangular form

VR = VT cos VL = VT sin
⃑
V T = VT  volts total voltage in polar form

where VT - is the magnitude of the total voltage

VR – the voltage across the resistance of the load

VL - the voltage across the inductance of the load.

 - the phase angle, the angle between the total voltage and the total current.

The magnitude of the total voltage determined by using Pythagorean Theorem.

VT = √V R
2 2
+V L

and

VL
 = tan-1
VR
From the rectangular form of the total voltage, divide each parameter by I since it is common in
the circuit.
⃑
VT VR VL
= +j
⃑ IR IL
IT

⃑
VT ⃑ VR VL
But, ⃑ = Z , = R , = XL
IR IL
IT

so that,
⃑
Z = R + jXL the rectangular form of the impedance

where Z – impedance in ohms ()

R - resistance in ohms ()

X  – inductive reactance in ohms ()

 What is impedance?

The impedance is the joint effect of combining resistive and reactance (inductive or
capacitive) in an AC circuit. Impedance is also defined as the total opposition to alternating
current. The figure below shows the impedance triangle of a series RL circuit.

XL
XL Z

R
R

The impedance triangle of a series RL circuit.

⃑ polar form of the impedance
Z=Z

where Z – the magnitude of the impedance of the circuit.

 - the phase angle.

By Pythagorean Theorem, the magnitude of the impedance is,

Z=¿ √ R +X
2
L
2

And

XL
 = tan-1 which is the same as in the phasor diagram
R

now for the Power Triangle,

VL VS
S
QL

IT
VR (ref)
P
 The Power Triangle in Series RL Circuit.

R
Multiply the voltages by the current,

V L x I L =Q L

V R x I R=P

V T x I T =S

⃑
S=P+ jQ L the rectangular form of the apparent power

⃑ the polar form of the apparent power

S=S

where S=¿ the magnitude of the apparent power

¿ power factor angle which is similar to the phasor diagram and impedance triangle.

The magnitude of the apparent power can be found by Pythagorean Theorem.

S=¿ √ P +Q
2
L
2

QL
and ¿ tan-1 which is the same as in the phasor diagram
P

Also,

P P
S=¿ =
cos pf

P=S cos=I T V T cos

Example. In the circuit below, determine the magnitudes of the following:

a. the impedance
b. total current
c. voltage across the resistor and inductor
d. power, reactive power, and apparent power
e. angle between the total current and the total voltage
f. power factor
 VL = 19.79 V
VS = 24 V

= 55.54
VR = 13.58 V IT (ref)

Solution

(a) XL = 2fL = 2(60 Hz)(290 mH) = 109.33 

Z = √ (75)2 +(109.33)2 = 132.58 

VT 24 V
(b) IT = = = 181.02 mA = IR = IL
Z 132.58

(c) VR = IRR = (181.02 mA)(75 ) = 13.58 V

VL = ILXL = (181.02 mA)(109.33 ) = 19.79 V

(d) P = IR2R = (181.02 mA)2 (75) = 2.46 W

or P = IRVR = (181.02 mA) (13.58) = 2.46 W

QL = IL2XL = (181.02 mA)2 (109.33) = 3.58 VAR

or QL = ILVL = (181.02 mA)(19.79) = 3.58 VAR

S= √ P +Q
2
L
2
= √(2.46)2 +( 3.58)2 = 4.34 VA

(e)
VL 19.79
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 55.54
VR 13.58

XL 109.33
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 55.54
R 75

P 2.46
(f) pf = = = 0.567 or 56.7% lagging (because the current is lagging)
S 4.34

or cos  = cos 55.55 = 0.567 lagging

Example. A 6-ohm resistor and an 8-ohm inductive reactance when connected in series across a
60-Hz supply take 12 amp. Determine (a) impedance of circuit; (b) voltage across resistor; (c)
voltage across reactance; (d) circuit voltage; (e) power; (f) angle between current and voltage;
(g) power factor; (h) inductance. (i) Draw phasor diagram.

Solution
12 A
R =6

Vs=?
60 Hz

XL = 8

(a) Z= √ 62 +82 = 10 

(b) VR = IRR = (12 A)(6 ) = 72 V

(c) VL = ILXL = (12 A)(8 ) = 96 V

(d) VT = √V R
2
+V L = √(72)2+(96)2 = 120 V
2

(e) P = IRVR = (12 A)(72) = 864 W

(f)

VL 96
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 53.13
VR 72

XL 8
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 53.13
R 6

(g) pf = cos 53.13 = 0.6 or 60% lagging

(h) Phasor diagram:

VL =
96 V VS = 120 V
= 53.13

VR = 72 V IT (ref)
Example. The equation of the emf on an inductive circuit is e = 400 sin 377t and the current is
i = 40 sin (377t - 60). What is the inductance?

Solution:

V T =282.82 0

I T =28.28−60

⃗T
V
⃗Z =
⃗I T

282.820
¿
28.28−60

¿ 10 Ω 60

In rectangular form,

⃗Z =5+ j 8.66 Ω

so that R = 5 Ω and X L =8.66 Ω

X L 8.66
and L= = =22.97 mH
❑ 377

Example . An induction motor which is connected to 120-V 50-Hz source draws a current of 5 A.
If the power factor of the motor is 95% lagging, find (a) the apparent power, (b) the true power
that it takes.

Solution:

(a) S=I T V T =( 5)(120)=600VA

(b) P=¿ I T V T cos=I T V T pf =( 5 ) (120 )( 0.95 ) =570W

.

6.6 Series Resistance and Capacitance

50

40

30

20

10

iT
vR
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
0

vC
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-1 0

-2 0

-3 0

-4 0

-5 0
 60

VTm
40

VCm

VRm
20

vR
0

vC
0

0° 1

 2

90° 3

180°
4 5

270°6

360°7 8 9 10

vT
-2 0

-4 0

-6 0

VR IT (ref)

VT
VC

Phasor Diagram of Series RC Circuit

⃑
V T = VR – jVC volts total voltage in rectangular form

VR = VT cos VC = VC sin
⃑
V T = VT  volts total voltage in polar form

where VT = is the magnitude of the total voltage

VR = the voltage across the resistance of the load or resistor

VC = the voltage across the capacitance of the load or capacitor

 = the phase angle, the angle between the total voltage and the total current.

The magnitude of the total voltage is determined by using Pythagorean Theorem.

VT = √V R
2
+V C2
 VC
and  = tan-1
VR

From the rectangular form of the total voltage, divide each parameter by I since it is common in
the circuit.
⃑
VT VR VC
= +j
⃑ IR IC
IT

⃑
VT ⃑ VR VC
But, ⃑ = Z , = R , = XL
IR IC
IT

So that,
⃑
Z = R - jXC the rectangular form of the impedance

where Z = impedance in ohms ()

R = resistance in ohms ()

XL = capacitive reactance in ohms ()

R R

XC Z

XC

The impedance triangle of a series RC circuit.

⃑
Z = Z polar form of the impedance

where Z = the magnitude of the impedance of the circuit.

 = the phase angle.

By Pythagorean Theorem, the magnitude of the impedance is,

Z= √ R +X
2
C
2

XC
and  = tan-1 which is the same as in the phasor diagram
R
Now for the Power Triangle,

VR IT (ref)
P
VC QC

VT

Power Triangle in Series RL Circuit.

Multiply the voltages by the current,

VC x IC = QC

V R x IR = P

V T x IT = S
⃑ = P + jQ the rectangular form of the apparent power
S C

⃑ = S the polar form of the apparent power

S

where S = the magnitude of the apparent power

 = power factor angle which is similar to the phasor diagram and impedance triangle.
The magnitude of the apparent power can be found by Pythagorean Theorem.

S = √ P2+ Q C 2

and

QC
 = tan-1 which is the same as in the phasor diagram
P
also,

P P
S = =
cos❑ pf

Example. In the circuit below, determine the magnitudes of the following:

a. the impedance
b. total current
c. voltage across the resistor and capacitor
 d. power, reactive power, and apparent power
e. angle between the total current and the total voltage
f. power factor

VR = 13.85 V IT(ref)

 = 54.74

VC = VS =

19.6 V 24 V

Solution

1 1
(a) XL = = = 106.1 
2 fL 2(60 Hz)(25 F )

Z= √(75)2 +(106.1)2 = 129.93 

VT 24 V
(b) IT = = = 184.71 mA = IR = IC
Z 129.93

(c) VR = IRR = (184.71 mA)(75 ) = 13.85 V

VC = ICXC = (184.71 mA)(106.1 ) = 19.6 V

(d) P = IR2R = (184.71 mA)2 (75) = 2.56 W

or P = IRVR = (184.71 mA) (13.85) = 2.56 W

QL = IL2XL = (184.71 mA)2 (106.1) = 3.62 VAR

or QL = ILVL = (184.71 mA)(19.6) = 3.62 VAR

S= √ P +Q
2
L
2
= √ (2.56)2 +( 3.62)2 = 4.43 VA

VC 19.60
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 54.75
VR 13.85
 XL 106.1
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 54.74
R 75

P 2.56
(e) pf = = = 0.578 or 57.8% leading (because the current is leading)
S 4.53

or cos  = cos 57.8 = 57.8%

Example. A 6-ohm resistor and an 8-ohm inductive reactance when connected in series across a
60-Hz supply take 12 amp. Determine (a) impedance of circuit; (b) voltage across resistor; (c)
voltage across reactance; (d) circuit voltage; (e) power; (f) angle between current and voltage;
(g) power factor; (h) inductance. (i) Draw phasor diagram.

Solution

12 A
6 ohms

Vs=?
60 Hz

8 ohms

(a) Z= √ 62 +82 = 10 

(b) VR = IRR = (12 A)(6 ) = 72 V

(c) VC = ICXC = (12 A)(8 ) = 96 V

(d) VT = √V R
2
+V C2 = √(72)2+(96)2 = 120 V

(e) P = IRVR = (12 A)(72) = 864 W

(f)

VC 96
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 53.13
VR 72

XC 8
 = tan-1 = tan-1 = 53.13
R 6
(g) pf = cos 53.13 = 0.6 or 60% leading

(h) Phasor diagram:

VR = 72 V IT (ref)

= 53.13
VS = 120 V
VL = 96 V

Example. The equation of the emf on a capacitive circuit is e = 400 sin 377t and the current is i =
40 sin (377t + 60). What is the capacitance?

Solution:
⃑
V T =282.82 0

⃑
I T =28.28 60

⃗T
V
⃗Z =
I⃗ T

282.820
¿
28.2860

¿ 10 Ω−60

In rectangular form,

⃗Z =5− j 8.66Ω

so that R = 5 Ω and X C =8.66 Ω

 1 1
and C= = =306.3 µ F
X C 377(8.66)