Chapter II

Review of related literature and studies

For a wide background and to provide more information about the study, the following

related literature and studies were examined.

Related literature

The use of tricycle has emerged to be the mode of transportation in most developing

cities of the world. Tricycle (motorized and non-motorized) is the prime mode of intra-city

transportation though considered as informal sector, its impact on transportation and

management is beyond question. In China, working tricycles continue to provide social and

economic needs despite the threat of being phased out due to the neoliberal mobility developing

within the city. In India, the same mode of transportation is used by common people which posed

a major challenge to the growing population on how the government would maintain good air

quality. In Nigeria, the use of motorized tricycle is encouraged within the city limits to decongest

the traffic. In Metro Manila, Philippines, it is the prevailing mode of transportation using

secondary streets occupying the front seat in local policy making in local governance and urban

development. In General Santos City Philippines, there is a high utilization of public transport.

The modal share of the city revealed that 81% of school and work-related trips use various mode

of public transport. On the average, it is 374,000 person-trips were produced, of which 19% use

private transport and 81% is public transport. Of the public mode of transport, tricycles serve the

highest number of person-trips at 42%. The trend on the modal share continue to decline on

jeepneys and multicab with the tremendous increase of tricycles in the city (Cueto, et. al., 2007).
 In many cities of developing countries, more than half of the total public transport

demand is served by paratransit. Rapid increases in urban population and per capita income,

along with inadequate existing transport infrastructures, have stimulated paratransit usage as

inexpensive and convenient public transport modes. A comparative study of their operational

characteristics is presented in order to provide basic data for discussion of urban transport issues

in developing countries. Some future directions are given to increase their efficiency and thus to

improve urban mobility (Shimazaki et. al., 2009).

According to a survey in 1984, Metro Manila was a motorized vehicle dependent city.

Although the demand for Tricycles has been increasing rapidly with the growth of scattered

residential areas, it is not large because passengers can use the well-developed Jeepney system

and because Tricycle and Pedicabs are banned on major roads. Tricycle users do not belong to

any particular income group, and the low income group prefers Jeepney to time significantly.

Thus, paratransit looks convenient for short distance as compared to the bus. Passenger-handling

capacities of paratransit and buses in Bangkok India, twice as many daily passengers are carried

by Auto Rickshaw than by Cycle Rickshaw due to the speed differences. Although a vast

difference is observed in passenger-handling capacities, the individual output of paratransit along

with their large numbers has played a significant role in urban public transport. Finally, unlike

conventional bus service, the paratransit modes have no obligation to provide a service on routes

where demands are low. The operator provides service only when profitable for him. Often the

shared and collective types of paratransit do not leave the terminal until the vehicles are full, and

this leads to a longer waiting time.

Tricycle even at the same fare level. Most trips by public transport occur within a

distance of 2.5 to 7.5 km, and the Jeepney captures about 85 percent of the demand of this
distance. The majority of bus passengers travel 7.6 to 10 km compared to 2.6 to 5 km by

Jeepney, indicating that average trip distance by bus is longer than Jeepney. The bus and Jeepney

are directly competitive in the trip length of 5 to 7.5 km. The higher competitive power of the

Jeepney in the shorter trip distances is attributed to its high frequency which is 3.5 times higher

than the bus even on average. The hourly passenger capacity carried by Jeepney and bus is

almost the same for a short distance. But above this range hourly capacity of the bus is almost

twice that of the Jeepney. A survey in 1992 for Metro Manila indicates, however, that the share

of nonmotorized paratransit is as high as 20% (3). These areas are not served by bus or Jeepney,

and they use nonmotorized paratransit for short distance trips for shopping or other purposes. In

India, the average journey speed including waiting time of a Cycle Rickshaw is almost the same

as the bus and minibus, although vehicle speed differs among bus, minibus, and Cycle Rickshaw.

In general, bus is the cheapest mode and taxi is the most expensive in all cities. The fares

of paratransit modes are higher than bus because they provide convenient means of travel with a

high frequency of service. The fare systems are classified into three groups: fixed, metered, and

negotiated. Mostly, the fares of individual types of paratransit are decided through negotiation

between passengers and drivers. In some countries, like India and Nepal, Auto Rickshaws are

metered. But for shared or collective types of paratransit, fares are fixed (Shimazaki et. al.,

2009).

The average daily revenue of the Jeepney driver in Manila was 397 pesos ($17.68). Daily

expenses were 302 pesos ($13.45). Fuel/oil cost accounted for 53 percent of total daily expenses,

whereas boundary fee (rent, repair, etc.) accounted for 44 percent and others (parking fee,

dispatchers' fee, etc.) accounted for 3 percent of total expenses.

trike is much more comparative with the same as tricycle in terms of configuration or almost as

similar to that of the traditional rickshaw which is three-wheeled, and can ferry several

passengers and dependent on the body design and capacity of the motor engine. Etrike is run by

electricity while the latter is gas-fed. A typical design popular in the Philippines is that a sidecar

which is attached to the side of a motorcycle for carrying passengers. The use of motorized

tricycle is already a part of every residents of General Santos City with the everyday living. It is

used as a mode of commuting, freight delivery system, private family service and source of

income. Based from the Local Public Transport Route Plan of the city, the significant share of

public transport trips emphasizes the role of public transport in the city. Further, the city

considers tricycles as major transport mode catering to the trips generated by people according to

various purposes. The use of tricycle as a mode of transportation actually poses hazards and

adverse effects on the environment’s air quality. Further, about 34% of total vehicular population

in the Philippines is made up of two and three-wheelers which also become the major contributor

to pollution and other environmental and health hazards.

Cerio (2017) Jeepney occupies not only the streets of the country but also the culture,

identity, and values of the Filipino. Aside from it depicts as the “King of the Road” and the

“moving icon of the Philippine culture,” it also reflects Filipino’s ingenuity, creativity,

craftsmanship, and entrepreneurship. However, these symbolisms and functions are being

challenged by modernization and globalization. Is the phase-out of jeepney possible? This paper

analyzed the case of a route in Camarines Sur in which jeepneys had faced an unfortunate fate of

death. Many factors cause the demise of the jeep, one of which is the entrance of motorcycle

taxies or locally known as the “door-to-door.” The case may reflect the conditions of the
transport sector in the rural places in the country or may reflect unilinear outcomes of the

transport vehicle.

Arguably, Jeepney is a symbol of Philippine identity (Menez, 1988) and culture (Hodder,

2000; Güss & Tuason, 2008; Ortega, 2002). Its humble beginnings; mass appealing operational

set-up;idiosyncratic physical structure;vivacious colors; do-it-yourself flashing multicolored

lights and sound accessories;religious and aesthetic items; mind-blowing and emblematic

graffiti, stickers, and paintings;peerless designs; and communal interactions of various actors

such as the driver, passengers and “kabo” or “barker” provides us the distinctiveness of the

Filipino from other race. Jeepney has been part of the landscape of the Philippines from Basco,

Batanes to Jolo, Sulo. It is known as the moving street art representing Filipino’s artistry,

ingenuity, resiliency, and entrepreneurship.

The Jeepney is the most popular mode of public transportation especially in the

metropolitan arterial road in the Philippines (Blanton, 2015) due to its convenience, accessibility

and lower fare (Evans, 2001; Coz, Flores, & LouieHern, 2015). Consequently, it claimed the

brand as the “King of the Road” occupying not only the busy and congested metropolitan cities

but also the provinces passing through the rivers and climbing the mountainous terrain while

carrying cargo, goods or freight along with the passengers. Due to the nature of jeepneys in the

provinces, it has also “evolved to be significantly larger and tougher than those in the cities and

are built to take on bad roads in all weather conditions.” (Regidor , Napalang, & Vergel, 2009 ).

The entrance of jeepney in transport sector after the Second World War (Antonio, 1982)

was due to the desire of the commuting public for faster transportation in which before was using

the ox cart or kareton and horse-drawn or calesa (Mercado, 1994). As American troops began to

leave the Philippines at the end of the war, thousands of surplus US army General Purpose (GP)
vehicles or known as “jeeps’ were sold or given to locals, prompting the emergence of a “ready

market for spare parts” (Nofuente, 1983). The country during that time was devastated and had

greatly affected the railways and transport infrastructures. Consequently, in need to have a low-

priced and heavy-duty public transportation, Filipinos transformed the jeep into Jeepney which

subsequently extended the bodies, painted with festive colors and transforming it to a form of

public transportation (Mercado, 1994). After the original US military jeeps, Filipinos continued

to make their own by importing engine from other countries like Japan and building a local body

structure (Rodell, 2002). Before 1980 three prominent names were known in the jeepney

industry – Francisco, Sarao, and Atendido (Pascua, 2009). In 1995, According to Shimazaki &

Rahman, about 10 percent of the total labor force in Manila was involved in the Jeepney

services. Hence, jeepneys have been contributing to the economy of the Philippines aside from

providing access to public transportation.

As the year passes, the originally military warfare vehicle now becomes deeply rooted in

the nation’s consciousness. It is not just a convenient mode of public transportation but also

considered as the icon of Philippine values, culture, and identity. Foreign scholars (e.g.

Okamura, Kaneko, Nakamura, & Wang, 2013; Otsuka, Kikuchi, & Hayami, 1986) find the

jeepney as a unique type of public transportation. Its uniqueness translates from the type of

vehicle to the way it is operated and utilized by passengers. Jeepneys have different types

depending on the manufacturer and have different sizes. Operators used to extend the frame of

the jeepney backward to maximize the number of passengers who can occupy it. It has two long

seats facing each other capable of 14-18 passengers aside from the front seats. In the provinces,

the locals also occupy the top of the jeepney, or the so-called “top load” or they stand on the

edge while holding on its steel body parts designed purposely for them. The passengers sit knee
to knee, henceforth, some believed that the etymology of the word jeepney came from the

combination of “jeep” and “knee.” The word “jeep” on the other hand, was argued that the

etymology came from military abbreviations “GP” or “general purpose” while some also

believed it originated from a popular cartoon character “Eugene the Jeep,” who first appeared in

the Popeye comic strip in 1936 (Blanton, 2015).

Nowhere else in the world, except for the Philippines, that Jeepneys were found. It is a

uniquely Filipino approach to the mass transport problem, and nothing symbolizes Filipino

ingenuity, innovativeness, adaptability, and grit more than this gutsy, cocky, colorful vehicle. No

jeepney is the same. Every jeepney was uniquely blended with designs, graphics, and

inscriptions. From the skills of craftsman in body-building to the talents of artists in customized

painting, the owner as well as the driver purchases or makes ornaments, accessories and hand-

paint the inscriptions over the years, hence, the upshot is a highly individualized assemblage

(Menez, 1988). The driver considers the jeepney as their second home since they occupy most of

their times on it than home. The owners on the other hand usually value the jeepney due to a

sentimental attachment. Some even consider it as important as their wife or children.

Undeniably, as Güss & Tuason (2008) claimed: “The jeepney is a substantial and concrete

artifact of Filipinos’ beliefs and values… the needs of the people it serves, and how it has

become a means of transportation for everyday commuters…the jeepney carries with it the

meaning constructs of life in the Philippines (and) it manifests, through its accessories and

decorations, the values and sentiments of its passengers, owners, and especially drivers.”

The physical structure itself of a jeepney speaks a lot of being a Filipino. Rodell (2002) in

his book “Culture and Custom in the Philippines described the jeep as “the most obvious form of

Philippine folk art.” According to him, each jeepney is specially painted and further
individualized with additional lights, mirrors, and reflections; plastic streamers hung the

antennae; hood decorations such as standing chrome horses, lettering of favorite song titles,

painting of rural scenes or women in erotic poses; extra decals and chrome strips everywhere; the

name of the manufacturer and the proud nickname of the driver “Lover Boy,” “Jeepney King,”

“Action Kid,” etc.. Similarly, Menez (1988) analyzed the jeepney folk art and inscriptions

thematically. In her inventory of the vehicle’s ornaments, she yields the following dominant

motifs: love and sex, driving speed, economic success, religion, and family.

By describing the above jeepney alone can provide us with the glimpse of the Philippine

folk arts. Although in the case of this jeepney, a diffusion of western pop culture is already

observable, but the basic elements of it like the vibrant color, designs, inscriptions, decorations,

ornaments and body structures shows the ingenuity and craftsmanship of the Filipino.

Meanwhile, it can be observed that jeepneys are named mostly like humans. In the case of the

jeepney above, the name given was “Brad Brent.” Customarily, the owner follows the name of a

member of the family in choosing the name of the jeep. On the other hand, the paintings and

inscriptions determine the values of the owner. This shows how jeepney owners value their

family. In fact, according to Flores (2008) jeepney is like a family. Similarly, we can also

observe how different actors such as the driver, conductor (fare collector), barker (passenger

caller) and passengers respects and value each other. In the study of Güss & Tuason (2008) on

the jeepney drivers of the two major cities in the Philippines - Manila and Davao, they uncover

the key values such as pakikisama and pakikipagkapwa tao(value given by drivers to people and

companionship); bahala na (it indicates a feeling that they can do their best when crises arise and

a confidence in their ability to handle whatever form of problems take); pagsisikap

(perseverance); tiyaga (hard work); pakikipag-kapwa (to be concerned with the other);
pakikisama (favoring smooth interpersonal relations); pakikiramdam (sensitivity and regard for

other); and maka-Diyos (faith in God’s love and mercy).

The values, inclinations, taste, and preference of Filipinos are the inspiration of the

jeepney manufacturers like the Morales Motors in designing their signature patók Jeepneys.

According to the observations of Pascua (2009) patók jeepney is “painted with elaborate, bright

and colorful designs (magara), is equipped with a booming sound system, runs fast

(humaharurot), and creates a lot of noise on the road (e.g., scratching tires, screeching brakes,

and other engine sounds); it is elaborately decorated (maporma); and it must have a lot of

accessories (maborloloy).” Aside from the physical structure of the jeep, Filipino spirit can be

observed in the ordinary routine of the drivers and passenger. The passenger and driver enter into

a communal relationship during the trip, with passenger helping each other on the jeep, passing

fares up to the driver and repeating a request for a stop in the case the driver did not hear the

passenger who asked to get off. Thus, in microcosm, the jeepney displays the communal nature

of Philippine society (Rodell, 2002). In some provinces, elders, women, and children are

prioritized inside the jeep while the men are seen riding on the top of the roof or

standing/hanging from the outer back frame of the jeepney. This shows that the respect for elders

and women are still in practice. Another common practice is the way children, usually below five

years old, place over the lap (kandong) of the guardian to avoid paying the fare. In the same way,

jeepney is the traditional medium of communication in the event where social media, televisions

and other media are not dominantly perpetuating in the country. During the trip, the passengers

are unashamedly talking to each other, even their personal life, tsismis (fake or destructive news

about one or group of individuals usually the neighbor) or throwing a common question “Saan ka

papunta” (Where are you going) which connects to “Ah, may kilala ako diyan” (I know
somebody from that place). In that way, the trip-long communication between/among passenger

strangers will start.

In spite of the praises and contribution of the jeepney in the Philippine society, it is also

seen as an old-rugged artifact needed to be replaced. In fact, the phase out of the jeepney has

been circulating across the global news (e.g. Syed, 2013 for BBC News; Lema, 2007 for

Reuters). The possible phase-out of the jeepney is beeing linked to many factors. In the fishbone

diagram of Chiu (2008) who studied about the problems of the jeepneys and its possible solution,

she identified factors such as environmental, technological, political, economic and ethical.

Since most jeepney as old or refashioned and made up of second-hand reconditioned

Japanese diesel engine, it is known for its notorious smoke belching. Consequently, it led to

significant carbon dioxide (CO2) emission and perceived as “unsustainable modes of

transportation” (Regidor, Napalang, & Vergel, 2009). Hence, the removal of jeepney was

proposed by environmental groups due to non-compliance on the removal of thermostat and

emission gas recycling (EGR) in old model engines (Diaz, 2002 in Chiu, 2008). Chiu also linked

jeepney as one of the primary cause of traffic congestions in the city due to its rude operation on

getting passengers, dropping passengers, speed, and acceleration rates. Thus, some riders are

shifting their preference especially due to the entrance of other utility vehicles and other modes

of transportation. In fact, Evans (2001) considers jeepneys as an informal and not regulated form

of transportation and are risky to passengers.

According to Chiu, one of the problems of the jeepneys is on the issuance of franchises to

PUJ lines as it was canceled by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board

(LTFRB). Chiu also argued that the PUJs have been left out of government’s planning and are

concentred on the brand new car maker. Added to it is the unprofitable operations due to
unstable oil prices, maintenance or repair, the high cost of spare parts, and very low regulated

fare.

Another concerns to PUJs are its drivers. Many drivers were reported for their crooked

behavior and are known for their aggressiveness. Though, this behavior is caused by the heat,

traffic and other problems on the streets. According to Güss & Tuason (2008) the work-related

issues of the jeepney drivers are the “bad road conditions (e.g., traffic congestion, rerouting,

weather conditions), people concerns (e.g., fights with other drivers, police enforcers, non-

paying passengers, unfriendly passengers), jeepney problems (e.g., motor troubles, overheating),

and lack of money.” Likewise, in the ergonomic study of (Coz, Flores, & LouieHern, 2015) on

jeepney drivers’ workplace and working conditions, they find it dangerous to their health and

safety. Another factor of their aggressiveness is the “boundary system.” In boundary system, the

driver enters into a contract, formal or informal, in which the driver will pay a fixed amount of

money every day (Alonzo, 1980). Another form is the share contract, in which the driver and the

owner shares both revenue and expenses in an agreed percentage sharing (Otsuka , Kikuchi , &

Hayami , 1986).

The biggest threat of today, at the time of this writing, is the plan of the government

named “PUV Modernization.” According to the Facebook Page of Department of Transportation

– DOTr Philippines (https://www.facebook.com/pg/DOTrPH/) the program aims to make the

public utility vehicles safe, comfortable and environment-friendly. Specifically, it aims to

encourage people from all income levels to use the country's mass transport systems; offer

spacious, clean, safe, wifi-equipped and PWD-friendly PUVs; prioritize safety of the passengers

and will not make them exposed to pollution, other vehicles, and maybe flood or rain;and

encourage people to commute rather than use or buy their own cars, resulting in less traffic.
Also, with the implementation of PUV Modernization, operators are expected to consolidate to

ensure better fleet management, resulting in efficient and optimum road usage. The drivers, on

the other hand, will be salaried and provided adequate training; will be given regular salaries

with corresponding employment benefits. Hence, no need for drivers to work long hours and

compete for passengers. Further, with PUV Modernization, public transport franchises will be

approved by local transport plans as LGUs are more knowledgeable about local needs, and the

direction of development of their local land use. However, as to the date, the final guidelines are

not yet released so far.

Different approaches are found towards defining the concept of job satisfaction. All the

feelings that an individual has towards his/her job is the job satisfaction (Sowmya and

Panchanatham, 2011). A combination of both positive and negative feelings that the workers

having about their work is represented by job satisfaction. In Maslow’s theory, it is suggested

that the job satisfaction is approached with the perspective of human need fulfillment (Maslow,

1954). Some researchers have studied job satisfaction based on Maslow’s theory. Herzberg’s

Two Factor Theory (Motivation/Hygiene Theory) has been formulated for investigating job

satisfaction (Worlu and Chidoze, 2012; Anastasiou, 2014). Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

assume that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate phenomena. Intrinsic factors which

were named as motivators were found to be satisfiers while extrinsic factors which were named

as hygiene factors were found to be dissatisfiers (Sowmya and Panchanatham, 2011). The

concept of job satisfaction is appeared to have a close relationship with motivation (Mbua,

2003). According to Singh and Tiwari (2011), the relationship between motivation and job

satisfaction is positive, i.e., the increase in motivation is affected by the increase in job

satisfaction while the decrease in motivation is affected by the decrease in job satisfaction. Based
on this correlation, it is accepted to regard the theories of motivation as the theories of job

satisfaction (Ngimbudzi, 2009). Spector (1997) has summarized several common facts of job

satisfaction such as communication, appreciation, nature of the work itself, organization’s

policies and procedures, the nature of the organization itself, co-workers, fringe benefits,

promotion opportunities, personal growth, security and supervision, recognition and pay.

However, these approaches were less popularized due to the emphasis on cognitive progressions

rather than on underlying needs so that the attitudinal outlook has become predominant in the

study of job satisfaction. Sowmya and Panchanatham (2011) pointed out that the pay and

promotion is an essential factor for job satisfaction with respect to the commercial banks.

Further, they have concluded that the employees have substantial feeling towards optimistic

supervision behavior and pleasing organizational arrangement and both job suitability and the

working condition and workers’ interpersonal relationship are related to level of satisfaction

within the working domain based on factor analysis. According to Bogler, (2001), demographic

factors may play an important role in achieving job satisfaction and concluded that the teachers’

perceptions on their occupation influence for their job satisfaction. A significant positive

relationship was perceived between leadership and decision-making styles of principles and

teachers’ job satisfaction (Hui et al., 2013).

A study has been conducted by Amarasena et al. (2015) on examining the effects of

demographic factors on overall job satisfaction among faculty members of state universities in

Sri Lanka using multivariate regression analysis and the results found that the number of children

and monthly gross salary positively influence for faculty members’ overall job satisfaction. Rad

and De Moraes (2009) have conducted a research study on factors affecting the job satisfaction

of healthcare employees. They have concluded that interpersonal relationships and working
conditions, contingent rewards, promotion, benefits and salaries as the best factors for predicting

hospitals employees’ job satisfaction. Considering the transportation sector with respect to three-

wheel drivers, a sociological study has been conducted by Samarakoon, et al. (2018) on

socioeconomic background of three-wheel drivers in rural sector in Sri Lanka. They have

analyzed socio-economic background of three-wheel drivers using percentages. According to

Kirkorowicz (2012), frequent health complains suffered by three-wheel drivers are

musculoskeletal pain, poor utilization of primary care and alcohol/tobacco use are the most

frequent health complaints as found by the study on health concerns of three-wheel drivers in

Galle, Sri Lanka. Schmucker et al. (2011) suggested that three-wheel drivers have high risk for

road traffic injury in the study of focusing risk of accidents among urban South Asian. Kumarage

et al. (2010) have analyzed the economic and social parameters such as pricing of three-wheel

service, income, vehicle ownership, employment type, educational level, age, marital status, and

job satisfaction related to three-wheeler Taxi service in Sri Lanka. Previous literature has

demonstrated that the studies on job satisfaction are dominating in the fields corresponding to the

bank employees, teachers, doctors, nurses etc. However, the studies on job satisfaction with

reference to the three-wheel drivers are rare. The objective of this study is to examine the impact

of individual and household factors on job satisfaction among three-wheel drivers in the

Rathnapura district, Sri Lanka. This study will guild the future researchers by forming a base to

conduct studies with respect to three-wheel transportation mode in Sri Lanka. Following figure 1

indicates the proposed conceptual frame work for the relationships between various factors and

job satisfaction of three-wheel drivers.

Tricycles are popular mode of public transportation among commuters due to their high

accessibility, availability, affordability, and convenience. Being much less expensive in fares
than other vehicles, they play an important role in Nigeria‟s overall transportation system.

Tricycles are the most convenient means of transportation in rural areas especially from the

central town to the villages in most African countries. Within big cities, they are usually located

in smaller roads, lanes and alleys where other public transportations do not or cannot operate.

Most tricycle brands in Nigeria are motorcycles with side cars, which have the legal capacity of

five (5) passengers including the driver. Tricycle is an impressive job machine, creating more

jobs than any other alternative mode of transportation (Oladipupo, 2008).

The tricycle or three-wheeler which assumes different names in most countries such as

auto rickshaw, tuk-tuk, trishaw, auto rickshaw, autorick, bajaj, rick, TVS King, tricycle,

mototaxi, or baby taxi in popular parlance, is a motor vehicle which is used on the road as a

mode of transport for both private and commercial purposes either for passengers or for

deliveries. It is a motorized version of the traditional rickshaw or relotaxi, a small three wheeled

cart operated by a single individual, and is a three-wheeled cabin cycle. Tricycles can be found in

many developing countries and some developed countries (Yakubu, 2012). A tricycle is

generally characterized by a sheet metal body or open frame resting on three wheels, a canvas

roof with drop-down sides, a small cabin in the front of the vehicle for the driver, and seating

space for up to three passengers in the rear. It is generally fitted with an air-cooled motorcycle

engine, with handle-bar controls instead of steering wheel. Human – powered tricycles are

usually powered by pedals, although some models have hand cranks (Dike, 2012). The tricycles

are vehicles with powerful diesel engines, and fuel tank capacity of 10.5 litres. They have

passenger capacity of four people, and payload capacity of 320kg. Also, they have adequate

room for passenger luggage and speed up to 80km per hour. The vehicles are suitable for intra-

city commuting and commercial passenger carriage with low fuel consumption of 38km per litre.
Distinct from the earlier diesel engine types, there are now petrol engine tricycles in operation.

They are however, smaller in capacity than the diesel counterparts and appear to be favoured by

both the operators and the passengers due mainly to the low noise and vibration which they

generate. They also produce cleaner exhaust fumes than the diesel engine tricycles (Chepchieng

etal, 2012). In certain parts of Egypt such as Alexandria, auto rickshaws are used to access long

streets where the use of taxi would be uneconomical, but not necessarily in poorer areas. They

are also found on the streets of Banjul, the Gambia, but are not common as conventional four –

wheel vehicles. They are in operation in several Kenyan towns, where they are considered much

cheaper than the ordinary taxis, except that they cannot operate in the mountainous towns which

are common in Kenya. Auto rickshaws or tricycles are common in Euthopia, Tanzania and

Mozambique. Similarly, tricycles are one of the most popular modes of transport in Bangladash,

Cambodia and the Gaza. They are present all over India where they provide cheap and efficient

transportation. Other countries that use the tricycle in transportation are Indonesia, Pakistan,

Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Italy, Netherlands, United Kingdom, El Salvador,

Cuba, Guatemala and Peru (Chepchieng etal, 2012). Job creation is the notion that jobs are

created in response to some sort of event or situation. Conceptually, it‟s proactive opposite of

unemployment. It‟s mostly a term used for political rhetoric. For example, a candidate might

suggest a particular taxation or subsidy programme or regulatory framework, will create new

jobs. Job creation would occur if the government grew and hire more people to operate it, or if

the demand for goods and services rises substantially. For demand to rise, there would need to be

a significant base of buyers for those goods and services. Job creation failed if the principal

consumers refuse to buy goods and services because they have insufficient money and further, if

the feel economic pressure, the borrow less ( Steven & John,1992). Income generation is an
intervention which imparts vocational skills or provides capital or commodities that enhance the

capacity of individual or groups to generate income e.g micro credit, micro finance and micro

vocational skills training Kennedy etal (2008). Income generation is an intervention programme

attempt to address poverty, unemployment and lack of economic opportunities to increase

participant ability to generate income and secure livelihoods (Hezron, 2016). The ILO‟s

Resolution concerning household income and expenditure statistics define income as follows:

“Household income consist of all receipts weather monetary or in kind (goods and services) that

are received by the household or individual members of the household at annual or more

frequent intervals, but exclude windfall gains and other such in regular typically out time

receipts. Household income receipts are available for current consumption and do not reduce the

net worth of the household through a reduction of its cash, the disposal of its other financial or

non- financial assets or an increase in liabilities (ILO, 2003). Income generating activities are

those activities which can be undertaken by organizations so as to raise revenue to enhance the

project or school finances. The main types of income generating activities include school buses,

farms, hire of class rooms or halls by churches and other social activities like ceremonies or

wedding receptions. A study by Fasakin (2002) conducted on commercial motorcycle business in

Akure-Nigeria examines factors that explain the costs of daily operations and the willingness of

citizens to pay for the commercial motorcycle services and shows that factors that significantly

explain costs of daily operations of Achaba business include: various levies imposed by union

officials (garaging costs); districts of operation; ownership of business; ability of operators to

repair or maintain their vehicles and the total number of hours spent in operations each day. It

also shows that the incident of armed robbery by operators and the education of citizens are also

significant factors affecting citizen's willingness to pay. Other important factors include the
method of determination of trip fares, variations in weather conditions and stability of trip fares.

Perhaps more important a factor responsible for the continuous prominence of commercial

motorcycles in Nigeria presently is the relentless drive by operators to make good profits every

day (Fasakin, 2002). A study was conducted by Onifade, Aduradola & Amao (2012) on the

effect of socio-economic survival of Commercial motorcycle/tricycle riders in Abeokuta and

Odeda Local Government Areas of Ogun state, Nigeria on African cultural values. The study

was carried out using the questionnaire method to elicit vital information from one hundred

respondents who are randomly- selected from ten Commercial motorcycle/tricycle parks within

Abeokuta metropolis and Odeda township respectively. Simple percentage and t-test statistical

tools were used to analysed the data. The findings showed that Commercial motorcycle/tricycle

riding, though a lucrative enterprise has its direct and indirect bearing on the cultural values of

the society. The recklessness that is associated with the business tends to erode certain cultural

and moral values including respect for other road users, respect for authority and elders within

immediate environment. Majority of the riders engaged in the business because of the pressing

need to survive and sustain their families. Yunusa, Lawal, Idris and Garba (2014) on their study

occupational health hazards among motorcyclists using ABU, Zaria as a case study. A cross

sectional survey design was used for the study. Questionnaires were administered to 216

respondents, majority of who were in the age group of 30-34 years with mean age of 31.7 years.

It shows that 83.4% had formal education ranging from primary to tertiary education and 74.5%

of the respondents are of Hausa/Fulani extraction, 55.6% have been involved in an occupational

hazard out of which 86.7% had road traffic accidents. Major outcome of accidents include

bruises, lacerations and fractures. It is therefore concluded that accidental injury is a major form

of occupational health hazard associated with commercial motorcyclists. Abdussalam and

reducing poverty among the riders/operators in Ilorin West Local Government Area, Kwara

State, Nigeria. Sample size of hundred and twenty (120) respondents was chosen using

multistage sampling techniques among the rider populace. However, questionnaires were

employed as a major instrument of data collection and supplemented with personal interview

with the respondents. The analysis was done through descriptive and inferential statistics inform

of percentages and table frequencies as well as Spearman Rank Correlation (rho), using the

software Statistical packages for Social Science (SPSS 20.0). The findings reveal negative but

not significant impact of the “Commercial motorcycle/tricycle” motorcycle riding on poverty

reduction as well as living standard of the respondents. The results show strong and negative

correlation between the variables, r = - 0.9, n = 120, p (.325) ˃.0005, with high amount of money

makes per day associated with lower standard of living. Finally, the paper draws conclusion and

gives meaningful suggestion towards the standardization and enhancement of the “Commercial

motorcycle/tricycle” motorcycle riding in Ilorin West Local Government Area in particular and

Kwara State, Nigeria in general. Yakubu et al (2012) conducted a research on the core

determinants of earning among commercial motorcyclist across the rural-urban divide in Kwara

State, Nigeria. Apart from the specific objective, other issues examined include background of

the respondents; economic and operational characteristics of the commercial motorcycle/tricycle

operators. A total of 80 Questionnaire were distributed to commercial motorcycle/tricycle

operators in both rural and urban areas. Out of this 77 were returned valid. The paper used a

modified Mincerian equation as tool for data analysis. Results from the study show that, the

significant variables like age of commercial motorcycle/tricycle riders; location; and license

holding positively determine earnings while variable such as age; and average fare charged per
trip; negatively determine earnings. The findings further indicate that commercial

motorcycle/tricycle riders earn a minimum of N 500 and maximum of N 2,800 per day. Urban

commercial motorcycle/tricycle operators earn N 591.97 operators higher than the rural

operators; licensed operators also earn N 512.37 higher than non-licensed operators daily. In this

connection, education does not in any way determine earnings of commercial motorcyclists.

Another study by Emmanuel (2013) on the factors affecting Commercial motorcycle/tricycle

services, impact of Commercial motorcycle/tricycle services and constraints hindering

Commercial motorcycle/tricycle services in Community development. A 5-point Likert-type

scale containing pretested statements was used to measure the impacts, while constraints was

measure by the use of A-3 point likert-type scale in three randomly chosen communities from 3

purposively selected Local Government Areas of Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone in Oyo State.

The study found that majority of the rural dwellers are strongly agreed and agreed on the

economy impacts, cultural impacts, societal impacts, health impacts and environmental impacts

derived from commercial motorcycle/tricycle services in rural community development. The

study also revealed that rural dwellers‟ socio-economic characteristics (age, sex, marital status,

household size) influenced their perception of impact of commercial motorcycle/tricycle services

in rural community development while, age, number of years in school, marital status, length of

residence and household size influenced their perception of constraints hindered commercial

motorcycle/tricycle services in community development. Umaru (2013) conducted research in

the same area. The study used a combination of survey techniques to examine the implications of

the activity of commercial cyclists, popularly known as „Achaba‟ (Hausa: motorized rickshaw)

in Nasarawa state for the local economy, community and environment. The findings of the study

show that apart fromyt being a money spinner, this public transport mode has been making other
modest contribution to the state‟s economy. The study also shows that this transport is a latent

contributor to environmental degradation in the state for it might have degraded the environment

in excess of $6.98 million between 2006 and 2008. Richard (2014) conducted a study on public

enlightenment programme among motorcycle riders on the use of crash helmet in Akure

Metropolis of Ondo State, Nigeria. This study was concluded in May 2013 using a structured

questionnaire and adopted a sample survey in 5 selected populous locations in Akure to select

140 motorcycle riders. It was found that the majority (80%) of the respondents have been

enlightened before the study was conducted. Out of about fortythree percent of the enlightened

respondents that had crash after the campaign, twenty-seven percent of them were helmeted.

Though the coverage of the public enlightenment programme among motorcycle riders was

impressive, the message content needs to be worked up as it did not translate to high level of

compliance on crash helmet usage. One of the main objectives of developing public transport

system is to improve the level of service in terms of comfort, safety, and frequency in service as

well as providing a reasonable and affordable fare for the public. It is on this ground that the

Nasarawa State government in year 2011 introduced the KEKE TA‟AL across the major towns

and cities; such as Lafia, Keffi and Karu local government area of the State.
Related Studies

Job satisfaction is a vital concept in achieving the quality and efficiency of any job. The

three-wheel drivers play an important role in uplifting the economic capability of their families

while providing an essential service to the communities satisfying a considerable portion of

transportation demand in Sri Lanka. However, the threewheel drivers are less appreciated by the

society and fail to possess a credit due to lack of trust, unsafe driving, illegitimate deals,

misalliance talking pattern and behaviors. Without a better understanding of job satisfaction of

three-wheel drivers, a good service is scarcely hoped by this occupation and still a proper

attention has not been paid by scholars. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of

individual and household factors on the job satisfaction of three-wheel drivers. The study was

conducted in the Ratnapura District. This study used multi-stage sampling procedure and the

sample size was 200 three-wheel drivers. Logistic Regression analysis was employed to analysis

data. In addition, descriptive statistics, ANOVA, Pearson's correlation, t-test and chi-square test

were applied. The descriptive statistics found that the males (100%) are dominating in this

occupation. From the sample, 79% live in the rural sector and 72% are married. The logistic

regression model found that the three individual factors, age, educational level, income and two

household factors, family size and other income source had a significant impact on job
satisfaction. The odds ratio between income and three-wheel drivers' job satisfaction is greater

than 1 showing a positive impact. The percentage of being satisfied for three-wheel drivers who

passed A/L (41%) is less than those who learned up to grade 5 (92%). The study suggests

promoting another income source in avoiding the sole dependency on the occupation of three-

wheel driving to increase their job satisfaction (Rathnayake, 2022).

Job satisfaction of three-wheel drivers were characterized with respect to gender, living

sector, marital status, educational level, use of alcohol, family size, other income sources,

housing ownership, income and age. The sample includes 200 respondents and they all were

found to be males showing that the three-wheel driving is a male dominating occupation.

Considering the job satisfaction of three-wheel drivers, 44.5% have satisfied with their job while

55.5% have not satisfied (Rathnayake, 2022).

Rathnayake (2022) added that the majority of the three-wheel drivers (79%) live in the

rural sector. For both the group of urban and rural sector, percentage of satisfaction (45%,43%)

is lower than the percentage of dissatisfaction (55%, 57%). Most of the three-wheel drivers in the

sample (72%) were married while 28% were the unmarried. Job satisfaction among married

drivers is 38% and it is lesser than for unmarried (61%). Considering the educational level, the

lowest percentage of satisfaction (33%) was recorded for the A/L passed group while it is highest

for the group up to grade five (56%). The percentage with satisfaction was lower (46%, 46%,

43%, 33%) than the percentage with dissatisfaction (54%, 54%, 57%, 67%) for all the

educational groups except the group up to grade five. The majority of the three-wheel drivers

(73%) have been addicted for alcohol usage. Considering the family size, the highest percentage

(55%) of the sample had family size of 4-5. The lowest percentage (39%) with satisfaction was

recorded for the families with the number of members is ≥6. Considering the other income
sources, 91% of the sample was engaging in any kind of other income source. Only 9% of three-

wheel drivers in the sample had no any other income source and the lowest satisfaction (28%) is

found for this group. From the sample, only 44% had an own house built by themselves.

Education level is another individual factor which showed a significant relationship with

three-wheel drivers’ job satisfaction. Odds ratio of satisfaction for the educational level up to

grade 5 reference to those who passed A/L is 7.633. It indicates that the odds of being satisfied is

approximately 8 times higher for those who learnt up to five than those who passed A/L. The

model predicts the probability of being satisfied for three-wheel drivers who learnt up to grade

five 0.92 compared to those who passed A/L. The model predicts that 92% of three-wheel

drivers who learnt up to grade five are satisfied with their job. Odds ratio of satisfaction for the

educational level grade 5-O/L and passed O/L reference to those who passed A/L is 2.842 and

2.510 respectively. It indicates that the odds of being satisfied is approximately 3 times higher

for the both groups of grades 5-O/L and passed O/L than those who passed A/L. Further it shows

that the probability of being satisfied for three-wheel drivers who learnt in grades between 5-O/L

is 0.82 compared to those who passed A/L and 82% of them are satisfied with their job.

Similarly, 80%, 64% and 41% of three-wheel drivers who learnt in grades pass O/L, up to A/L

and passed A/L are satisfied respectively with their job. Finally, it can be concluded that

percentage of satisfaction is lowest among the A/L passed.

Rathnayake (2022) revealed that three-wheel driving is entirely a male dominating occupation.

The percentage of three-wheel drivers satisfied with their job is lower (44.5%) than those who

are not satisfied (55%). The majority of the threewheel drivers (79%) have come from the rural

sector and 72% in the sample are married. The majority of three-wheel drivers (45%) have been

educated up to A/L. It was clear that use of alcohol was dominating among most (72%) of the
three-wheel drivers. The highest, 55% of the three-wheel drivers have belonged to families with

3 or 4 members. Considering the other income sources, only 9% have not engaged with any other

job while the majority (37%) has employed in a job in the mining sector in addition to the three-

wheel driving. Only 44% of the sample have an owned house built by themselves while 56% of

them lived in the houses built by others.

The concept of job satisfaction has been comprehended in different ways. All the feelings

of an individual about his or her job is reflected by job satisfaction. According to Spector (1997),

job satisfaction is defined as the extent of peoples’ like for their job. A combination of

physiological, psychological and environmental circumstances is the job satisfaction (Sen, 2008).

Job satisfaction of any kind of workers leads to increasing the quality and effectiveness of the

service they provide. Satisfied people enjoy with their job and consider it as an essential part of

their lives. They succeed in mollifying the requirement of the service receivers. Many

researchers have conducted their studies on job satisfaction as a frequent variable in

organizational and institutional behavior researches. Without an organizational inclusion, three-

wheel drivers provide an important service to the communities in the transportation system

through an unregulated form in Sri Lanka. The three-wheel or trishaw transport service

commenced in 1978 (Samarakoon et al. 2018). According to Kumarage et al. (2010)

transportation through three-wheel can be identified as informal public transport. Three-wheel

drivers operate in a semi-informal industry (Kirkorowicz, 2012). At present, it has become a

popular and improvised mode of public transport in most of the urban and rural areas in Sri

Lanka being a vital component in transportation system. It satisfies a considerable portion of

transportation demand. Three-wheel taxi driving is one of the key occupations in informal, non-

agricultural sector and in 2018, around 6% of the total employed were three-wheel drivers (De
Silva and Arunatilake, 2020). Many people belonging to the low-income group joined into this

occupation and a large number of road users patronized the service. The mechanisms with

several tools exist to monitor the transportation industry in theory in Sri Lanka but practically,

lack of enforcing them is common. As a result, three-wheel drivers operate under legally

authorized background but poorly regulated. Most importantly a fixed price scale is not seen for

three-wheel fares. A negotiation between drivers and passengers for fares based on locally

accepted norm is followed by some drivers. The main income source of most of the families of

three-wheel drivers is hiring their three-wheels. It is common phenomena that the three-wheel

drivers’ income is not stable and its fluctuation downward badly affects smooth flow of their

livelihood due to many reasons. With these circumstances, from recent times, a large number of

illegitimate deals, social disorders and many other serious issues have been revealed from

everywhere in the country linked with three-wheel transport mode. Further, the threewheel

drivers are less appreciated by the society and fail to possess a credit due to lack of trust, unsafe

driving, misalliance talking pattern and behaviors. Even though, three-wheels have become a

popular transport mode of public transport system in Sri Lanka for decades, a very few is known

about their job satisfaction. Without a better understanding of job satisfaction of three-wheel

drivers, it is scarcely hoped a proper service by this widespread occupation. Job satisfaction

among three-wheel drivers is an important factor to succeed a cost effective, optimal, efficient

and environmentally friendly transport services for their passengers. Drivers’ ability to work

with less satisfaction may increasingly limit the Sri Lankan road users to access to this

Rathnayake (2022) 21 important mode of informal public transport. Job satisfaction of three-

wheel drivers has not still received proper attention from scholars and research studies on their

job satisfaction are rare even though they made a gigantic contribution to the transportation
system. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of individual and household

factors on the job satisfaction of three-wheel drivers in the Rathnapura District, Sri Lanka.

The key element that connects the transport sector with the overall economy is mobility.

Interestingly, mobility is one of the cardinal features of economic activity as it underlines the

basic need of economic agents moving from one location to another - a need shared by critical

factors in the production, consumption and distribution spheres of the economy. Generally, in

modern economy, providing mobility is an industry that offers services to customers, employs

people, pays wages and salaries, invests capital and generates income. At the macroeconomic

level, transportation and its component element of mobility is connected to a level of output,

employment and income within a national economy. At the microeconomic level, transportation

is linked to producer, consumer and production costs (Umaru, 2013). Tricycle remains to be a

sound alternative for those who cannot access a more convenient ride to their destination. More

so, it also provides additional income and employment for those who do not have a formal job.

Tricycle transportation in Nigeria was introduced in some major cities in the country and had

even became alternative mode of transportation in urban cities of the nation where other modes

of transportation like cars are found inaccessible due to poor terrain or even a complete absence

of motorable roads (Cervero, 2000).

Another benefit of the commercial tricycle business which was not appreciated by most

people was the fact that since the riders followed people door to door, the simple exercise of

walking from one's gate to the nearest bus stop was no longer undertaken and of course it was

convenient (Cervero, 2000; Chepchieng et al, 2012). The type of motorized vehicle people

acquire often comes down to household economics without much consideration given to social

costs. In terms of affordability, in India, for example, the retail price of a two-wheeler ranges
from $450 for an entry level moped or scooterette to $1,325 for a premium class motorcycle

(Iyer & Badami, 2007). In most cases the advantages of a tricycle include transport service, job

creation, income generation and equity. It is a fast, safer and efficient mode of transportation.

Transportation is the pivot of the socio-economic development of nations. It is equitable in a

sense that it can provide access and cheap alternative mode of transportation for passengers. This

mode of transportation in terms of security wise, safety and risky is assured. One of the

important distinguishing features of this mode of transportation is the level of flexibility of its

operation, such that it has the ability of maneuvering on stalled traffic as well as travel on

unpaved/rough roads. The flexible nature of operation offers wide range of opportunities; it is a

source of additional income for government and private sectors workers who may take to it after

closing from their official working hours as a driver or as an investment. Meanwhile, it is an

important source of empowerment for the reserve army of unemployed youth on the streets and a

cushion to reduce youth restiveness. One of the main objectives of developing public transport

system is to improve the level of service in terms of comfort, safety, and frequency in service as

well as providing a reasonable and affordable fare for the public. As the Commercial tricycle

business is, riders and operators are confronted with several challenges. Critics of the

commercial tricycle business maintain that the expansion of the business has increased the

number of road accidents in the country. This has led to the loss of lives and in many cases

permanent disabilities to victims. Another challenge confronting the Commercial tricycle riders

or operators is the high cost of setting up the business. A prospective businessman willing to go

into Commercial motocycle/tricycle business would need between N600, 000 and N700, 000 to

start the business (Garba, 2016). This includes the cost of purchasing a tricycle (depending on

the brand), the cost of registering or licensing it and registration with the riders‟ or owners,
association. Given the high cost of buying a tricycle, it is often difficult for new comers to raise

sufficient fund to start commercial tricycle business. Commercial tricycle riders are also reported

to constitute nuisance of the highways since many of the riders do not obey traffic rules. As the

size and population of a city grow, the demand for passenger‟s transportation gets more complex

and difficult to satisfy. People begin to spend unnecessarily longer time in their bid to catch a

vehicle to their destinations. Businesses suffer, school children get to school late, workers get to

work late, and so many activities are paralyzed. In the end, this affect the general economic

condition of the people in Nasarawa state and the nation`s gross domestic product at large. It is

against this background that both individuals and governments have made concerted effort to

address the needs of commuters in our towns and cities. Nasarawa state government established

mass transit outfits as a conscious effort to complement the service of the private transporters.

Yet much is left to be desired in the provision of transport services. The situation came to a point

that people started investing on private automobile as a way to seeking for a solution to the

problem of transportation. To adequately put the tricycle business in its proper place in the

economic history of Nigeria, it has become necessary to evaluate the contribution of CTB to the

economy. It is on this ground that the Nasarawa State government in year 2011 introduced the

KEKE TA‟AL across the major towns and cities; such as Lafia, Keffi and Karu local

government area of the State.

The analysis of the survey data revealed three major findings. One, CTB is a highly

lucrative venture. As a matter of fact, the study showed that total revenue of about N1.4 billion

was reported for 2017. When N698, 743.5 was deducted from the total revenue an operating

profit of N715, 330.99 reportedly generated, representing a more than 100 per cent return on

investment and indicating that the business is indeed a lucrative one. Two, the sample generating
about 400 and the entire population of operators (4,116) to create 29050728 jobs in the city, all

things being equal, the CTB has the potential to generate jobs significantly and reduce the level

of unemployment in Nasarawa State and Nigeria as a whole. Three, the individual CTB operator

in Nasarawa State claimed to have paid on the average N22, 935.86 in 2017 alone and about N6,

903,695.00 by the 349 operators in the same year. Further analysis however shows that an

individual operator has the potential of pay N532, 964.51 taxes to authorities in the state, and the

population of registered operators of 4,116 in Nasarawa State to pay about N219 million taxes to

authorities. High incidence of unemployment and dwindling state revenue are two of the macro-

economic problems facing policy makers both at the federal and state levels of government in

contemporary Nigeria. This explains why the policy focus of most state governments, Nasarawa

State included has been to diversify state revenue (income generation) base and promote

economic activities with the high potential to create jobs for the teeming unemployed youth. The

findings of this study have demonstrated that commercial tricycle business (CTB) is one of such

activities. (Umaru, et.al. 2018).

Synthesis of the State of the Art

The study of Cueto, et. al (2007) stated that tricycle is considered as the important mode

of transportation around the world. The study also explained that there are two kinds of

utilization of transportation namely the public and private transportation. It is relevant to the

present study because it tackles about the mode of transportation which became the source of

income or patterns of income and expenditures of the drivers which is also the focus of the study.

The study of Shimazaki et. al. (2009) explained that in any other countries people

preferred to use paratransit which is considered as inexpensive and convenient public

transportation. It is relevant to the present study because if explains the commuters and drivers
relationship which is also the point of the present study which is to identify the income and

expenditures pattern among tricycle drivers.

The Survey conducted in 1984 explained that tricycle became commonly seen on the

roads but this has a limitation since pedicabs and tricycle are banned on the major road but this

only applicable for some places in the Bangkok, India. Some commuters preferred riding on the

bus or jeepney due to the speed differences. It is relevant to the present study because it also

explained the importance of tricycle as source of income of the drivers but with limitations on

the roads and with preference among the commuters.

The study of Cerio (2017), and Hodder, 2000; Guss & Tuason, 2008; Ortega, 2002),

Blanton, 2015, Evans, 2001; Coz, Flores, & Louiehern, 2015 and Regiodr, Napalang, & Vergel,

2009) stated that jeepney is considered as the king of road and many commuters preferred this

kind of transportation. Jeepney is the symbolism of Filipino’s artistry, ingenuiety, resiliency and

entrepreneurship that’s why this is the most popular mode of public transportation especially in

te metropolitan arterial road in the Phlippines. It is relevant to the present study because jeepney

is also a mode of transportation and so do the tricycle which became both the source of income.

The study of Antonio (1982; Mercado, 1944; Nofuente, 1983; Rodell, 2002; Pascua, 2009

and Shimazaki & Rahman (2009) explained that jeepney became the most used transportation for

faster transportation and it is about 10% of the total labor force in Manila was involved in the

jeepney services as the source of income. It is relevant to the present study because jeepney

realtes also to the income patterns and expenditures of the tricycle drivers since jeepney is also

generating an income.
 The study of (Okamura, Kaneko, Nakamura, & Wang, 2013; Otsuka, Kikuchi, &

Hayami, 1986 and Blanton, 2015; Menez, 1988; Guss & Tuason, 2008; Rodell, 2002,

Menez ,1988) stated that jeepney as part of the culture is considered as unique for having a

various characteristics. It is relevant to the present study because it is related for being the mode

of transportation as well as to the tricycles.

The study of (Syed, 2013; Lema, 2007 and Chiu, 2008) explained that jeepney became

popular worldwide but there jeepney drivers are having a problems or factors affecting their

services. It is relevant to the present study because there are factors also affecting the income

patterns and expenditures of the tricycle drivers.

The study of Hui et al., (2013) explained about the job satisfaction. This indicates that job

satisfaction is related to motivation. It is relevant to the present study because job satisfaction is

attain when the driver has generated an income which became his/her motivation as this

continues positively.

The study of Oladipupo (2008) revealed that tricycles are popular mode of public

transportation due to its accessibility, availability and affordability and convenience. Although

this mode of transportation usually found on the smaller lanes but this is an impressive job,

creating more jobs than any other alternative mode of transportation. It is relevant to the present

study because it pinpoint about the income f tricycles as one of the most popular mode or job in

the roads.

The study of Yakubu (2012), Dike (2012), Chepchieng et. al., (2012), Steven and John

(1922), Hezron (2016), Ilo (2003), Fasakin (2002), Onifade, Aduradola & Amao (2012), Yun

usa, Lawal, Idris and garba (2014)m, Abdussalam and Wahab (2014) explained about the
different cals or names of tricycles from different counrtries. It is relevant to the present study

because even it has different calls or names from different countries still it is a mode of

transportation which goal is to generate income and that’s the other point of the recent study.

Rathnayake (2022) stated that age, educational level and income has a significant effect

on the job satisfaction of the three-wheel drivers. According to Rathnayake majority of the three-

wheel drivers live in the rural sector. And also, he added that male is dominating the three-wheel

transportation as occupation. It is relevant to the recent study because it also realtes to the

income generated after giving service to the commuters.

Spector (1997) defined job satisfaction as extent of people’s like for their job or a

combination of physiological, psychological and environmental circumstances. Also, it defined

as any kind of workers leas to increasing the quality and effectiveness of the service they provide

is also the sense of job satisfaction among three-wheel drivers. It is relevant to the present study

because it deepened the underlying feelings on the service-provider which is the tricycle drivers.

The study of Cervero (2000) explained that tricycle became the sound alternative job for

those who do not have a formal job and became alternative mode of transportation in urban cities

of the nation where the other modes of transportation like cars are found inaccessible due to poor

terrain or even complete absence of motorable roads. It is relevant to the present study because it

is the alternative job present in the locale of the study and those drivers are somehow patronizing

this job as their sound alternative for generating an income.

The study of Umaru et. al., (2018) explained that revenue generated by a tricycle driver

and has diverse income depending on the efforts and season or conditions. It is relevant to the

recent study because it obviously concerns in income generation.

From the review of related literature and study, several gaps are identified. First, it was

ascertained that no study was conducted yet in determining Income and Expenditures Pattern

among Tricycle Drivers in Virac, Catanduans. Second, the sampling procedure that has used in

present study is simple random sampling which will undergo drawlots in selecting the

respondents. These are the gaps bridged by the present study.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework consist the independent and dependent variables. Independent

variables include the Tricycle Drivers of Virac, Catanduanes. Dependent variables include the

Income levels earned by tricycle drivers and the level of household expenditures of tricycle

drivers.

CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLES

1.PROFILE OF VIRAC

TRICLE DRIVERS IN 1. WHAT INCOME LEVELS

A. AGE DRIVERS?

B. GENDER 2. WHAT IS THE LEVEL OF

HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES
C. EDUCATIONAL
OF TRICYCLE DRIVERS?
ATTAINMENT