Dernie T. Olguera . Mechelle R. Mangmang . James Jade P.

Lasquites . Jorge P. Cabelin Jr.

Lecture Notes in

Soil Survey, Classification

and Land-Use

Department of Agriculture
College of Agriculture and Related Sciences
 Lecture Notes in Soil Survey, Classification
and Land Use
Dernie T. Olguera, Mechelle R. Mangmang, James Jade P. Lasquites,
,Jorge P. Cabelin, Jr.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the University of Southeastern
Philippines concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city
or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.

University of Southeastern Philippines Tagum-Mabini Campus

Philippines, 2017
 Preface

To improve and strengthen the academe in the Philippines, lecture materials for
students need to be provided. The material that will be given to the hungry mind of the
students and anyone who are agriculture and environmental science enthusiast should cope
with the challenge pose by the modern world and go along with the revolution in the
academic arena.

Thus, it is the aim of this lecture material to provide the fundamental needs of the
young aspirants to unravel the mysteries in the complex world of soils. This text is moulded
with the aim of simplifying the terminologies and context in the field of soil survey,
classification and land use to suite with the academic background and easily understood by
the young readers for them to realize and contemplate the essentiality of this field for societal
development and environment stewardship.
Had it been that there may be still some various typographical errors, complex
principles and difficult context that may give struggles to the readers, the authors
recommend to use substantial references and other fundamental materials that will guide
and supplement them to better understand the context in question. This material is under
improvement as time may challenge its foundation and essential framework. Hence, the
reader’s suggestions and recommendations are significantly welcome.

To you who are reading this material, enjoy the experience and relinquish the thirst
of learning in the field of soil survey, classification and land-use.

The Authors
Brief History of Soil Survey in the facilities and available technology during those
Philippines periods, the reconnaissance type of soil survey
was used. The reconnaissance soil survey in
1903 - Soil survey was conducted by American the country strictly followed the USDA system
spearheaded by Clarence W. Dorsey The first which was primarily based on the soil profile
attempt to conduct soil survey in the country observations. Laboratory analyses at that time
was done in the province of Batangas were mainly for soil fertility assessment. The
sometime in 1903 by Mr. Clarence Wilbur profile observations recorded the key
Dorsey, an American soil scientist, whose “Soil characteristics of the soil series, the key
conditions in the Philippines” was among pedological unit used in mapping the soils of
those widely held .This book was the first the province
officially recorded attempt to provide soil
science a role in the development of
agriculture in the Philippines. It was not until
1921 that the Division of Soils and Fertilizers From After the War until the 1950s
was organized under the Bureau of Science. Soil survey work was briefly interrupted by
Even then, most of the studies were confined to World War II. It was not until after the war in
the chemistry of soils and fertilizer 1945 that the Soil Survey Division was
requirements of sugarcane areas. The most reorganized. Unlike its pre-war activities, the
eminent of the Division heads was Dr. Angel S. focus of the activities during this time was
Arguelles (1888–1952) who became chief of conservation survey. The outputs served as the
the division in 1923 (Philippine Heroes 2001). fundamental basis for laying the principles
He pioneered the study of “The Soils of the needed to undertake soil conservation work. In
Islands of Luzon” which appeared in the 1948, the Soil Survey Division was again
Philippine Journal of Science in 1914. He was reorganized into the Division of Soil Survey
promoted as assistant director of the Bureau of and Conservation with four sections to carry
Science, and later became the first Filipino out its functions. In June 5, 1951, the Congress
director of this Bureau as the Philippines was of the Republic of the Philippines enacted
then an American colony. It was not only the Republic Act No. 622 organizing the Bureau of
Bureau of Soils that eventually emerged from Soil Conservation consisting of five divisions.
this pre-war Bureau of Science, but also the Dr. Marcos M. Alicante was named as the first
Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Fisheries Director. It is this date that the Bureau
celebrates as its founding anniversary.

From the 1930s until the Outbreak of World The first Bureau director was an experienced
War II soil surveyor having conducted the soil survey
of Bulacan in 1936, Batangas in 1938,
The actual inventory of soils in the country Pampanga in 1939, Pangasinan and Tarlac in
started in 1934 when the Soil Survey 1940, and Nueva Ecija in 1941 (sample soil
Committee was organized by the Secretary of survey team at work during the 1950’s.
Agriculture and Commerce. In 1936, the
Bureau of Science reorganized the Division of
Soils and Fertilizers into the Division of Soil Soil Surveys in the 1960s
Survey. In 1939, the National Assembly
enacted Commonwealth Act 416 mandating Two directors served the Bureau during this
agronomical soil survey to the Division of Soil decade—Ricardo T. Marfori (1960–1965) and
Survey, expanding the division to five sections. Atanacio A. Simon (1966–1971). Director
This inventory was carried out in each and Marfori wrote a book “The Fertilizer
every province. Because of limited laboratory Requirements of Rice in the Philippines” in
1969 and has published papers in the Journal imposed upon the country, gloom dawned on
of the Philippine Soil Science Society. He was the Bureau in September 24, 1972 when
considered a leading authority on the fertility President Ferdinand E. Marcos issued
of tropical soils. Director Simon was a soil Presidential Decree No. 1 reorganizing the
surveyor and was involved in several soil Executive Branch, splitting the Department of
survey and classification projects such as those Agriculture and Natural Resources into two
of Batanes and Samar prior to being at the departments and merging the Bureau of Soils
helm of the Bureau. In 1964, the Bureau was with the Bureau of Plant Industry. Vigorous
renamed Bureau of Soils. Regional offices and and active representations were made, with no
provincial soils districts were created to bring less than the Mr. Godofredo N. Alcasid, not yet
the services closer to the farming communities director at this time of merging, advocating for
and the Bureau became a major planning, the retention of the Bureau of Soils as a distinct
policy making, consultative, and advisory agency from the Bureau of Plant Industry. He
agency of the Department of Agriculture and was supported by the Soil Science Society of
Natural Resources. The reconnaissance soil the Philippines. The gloom was replaced by joy
surveys of the 75 provinces of the Philippines in March 1973 when the two merged bureaus
were completed sometime in the mid-1960s. were again separated. In 1972, from the
In the entire survey activities, a total of 348 soil meager laboratory data and based mainly on
series were mapped and identified. The soil morphological descriptions, Mariano and
resources were further classified according to Valmidiano prepared a schematic soil map of
land use capabilities for agriculture, forestry, the Philippines at 1:1,600,000 scale using soil
recreation, pasture, and wildlife refuge. There great groups to compose the map units. At
is lack of pedological descriptions and about the same period, an FAO/UNDPassisted
laboratory analyses of the representative soil survey and classification project was
pedons which made these early efforts rather conducted using the Seventh Approximation to
difficult to link with the USDA Soil Taxonomy classify the soils. The application of the
system of classification that the Bureau later USDA/SCS Soil Taxonomy to agriculture
on adopted. Nevertheless, being the only started in 1975 with the benchmark soils
document for the Philippine soils, these project which conducted tests on agro-
studies are the most important source of soil technology transfer based on soil
information in the province and the only classification. The sites for experimentation
credible soil maps for use in the various were chosen to represent the distribution of
agricultural development planning and two different soil families. However, there
studies. Reconnaissance provincial soil survey were inaccuracies in the initial classification,
activities continued during this decade which demonstrated the low level of
understanding of Soil Taxonomy even among
specialists. Nevertheless, this project showed
Soil Surveys in the 1970s the predictability of crop responses to
management of similar soils. The decade of the
Juan A. Mariano served as the Bureau director 1970s was characterized by semidetailed soil
in the first half of the 1970s, from 1971 to surveys in contrast to the reconnaissance soil
1976. Godofredo N. Alcasid, Jr. succeeded him surveys of the previous decades. Geomorphic
and was the longest director serving the mapping and soil classification were carried
Bureau for 20 years, from 1976 until his out at 1:50,000 scale and classified as soil
retirement in 1996. Both directors had their series, great groups or subgroups. A number of
roots in soil survey. Like his predecessors, soil series identified in past soil surveys were
Director Mariano has conducted several field subdivided and new soil series were
soil surveys and authored various provincial established as intergrades or extragrades of
soil survey reports prior to being assigned at the former large map units. A detailed soil
the helm of the Bureau such as the soil surveys survey at 1:10,000 scale was carried out for
of Davao, and Ilocos Sur. With Martial Law irrigation development projects in 1975
through 1979 with assistance from the Food and other water resources management
and Agriculture Organization (FAO). This technologies to alleviate the impact of
marked a major milestone in the soil survey in prolonged drought on standing crops. The
the Philippines as the major lowland soil series expanded mandate included artificial
were defined, properly documented, and rainmaking or conduct of cloud seeding sorties
adequately correlated. This also marked the over areas suffering from seasonal drought.
first major attempt to use equivalent USDA Soil Under this reorganization, BSWM ceased to be
Taxonomy classification for each of the soil a line bureau and became a staff bureau of the
series. Subsequently, Soil Taxonomy was Department of Agriculture. Its regional offices
adopted as the official soil classification system and provincial districts were integrated with
in the Philippines. The surveys were confined other agricultural functions of the Department
to the alluvial, flooded lands. This project of Agriculture for a cohesive and coordinated
covered four irrigation projects with a total delivery of services to the farmer clientele. Soil
area of about 152,000 ha. A total of 59 new soil survey remained a solo mandate at the
series were identified. They are mostly found national level and the provincial soil district
in Central Luzon. offices eventually lost touch with the central
office for the technical capability to conduct
Soil Surveys in the 1980s soil mapping. Despite continuing efforts of the
The 1980s and the 1990s were the decades of USDA and the Department of Science and
semi-detailed soil surveys with map scale of Technology (DOST) through the Philippine
1:50,000. About 20 provinces with 5,496,690 Council for Agriculture, Forestry, and Natural
ha were surveyed. But as we approached the Resources Research and Development
middle of the 1980 decade, soil series (PCARRD) to equip local soil practitioners with
classification could not be sustained because of the principles and fundamentals of Soil
lack of funds to support the required routine Taxonomy system of classification through
soil sample analyses. It became an exacting series of workshops that extended up to the
task to control and correlate the soil series 1990s, soil mapping in the country was
identified in the field. The last province practically nil except those semi-detailed
surveyed, classified, and reported to soil series provincial soil map updating conducted by the
level was Tarlac in 1986. In subsequent soil Soil Survey Division. In October 1988, the
surveys, the soils were classified according to Republic of the Philippines through the
USDA Soil Taxonomy with soils classified at Department of Agriculture entered into an
family level. The Bureau’s history mirrored the agreement with the Government of Japan
tumult that rocked the nation in the mid-1980s through the Japan International Cooperation
as President Corazon C. Aquino. Agency (JICA) for the establishment of the Soils
Research and Development Center (SRDC).
The Bureau’s history mirrored the tumult that The groundbreaking ceremony for the Center’s
rocked the nation in the mid-1980s as construction was made in 1989. In January
President Corazon C. Aquino was swept into 1990, BSWM moved from Sunvesco Bldg., in
the presidency by the People Power Taft Avenue where the technical and
Revolution. On January 30, 1987, President administrative staff were then holding office,
Aquino reorganized the Bureau of Soils into and from Court of Appeals Building in Maria
the Bureau of Soils and Water Management Orosa St., Ermita, Manila where the
(BSWM) through Executive Order 116. The laboratories were, to its new home, the SRDC
Bureau retained its function of soil resources in Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City
survey, agricultural land resources evaluation,
conservation, and research but its mandate
was broadened to include the development Soil Surveys in the 1990s
and management of water resources through
construction of small water impounding At the national level, Republic Act 7160 known
systems, the promotion of shallow tube wells, as the Local Government Code of the
Philippines was enacted in 1991 by the development program for the Philippines. The
Philippine legislature, empowering local JICA presence at BSWM also ushered a
governments through a system of computer-assisted map digitization and spatial
decentralization with effective mechanisms to analyses through the establishment of
allocate powers, responsibilities, and Geographic Information System (GIS) and
resources from the central office to the local Remote Sensing laboratories. These are very
government. The devolution process stripped important developments in the advancement
BSWM of its remaining hold on the regional of soil science in the country. During the
and provincial soils offices, laboratories, staff, second phase of the technical cooperation,
and on the farmer clientele as well, which BSWM started to move from mainframe
before the devolution were under the computing to desktop networking. The Local
jurisdiction of the regional offices of the Area Network was established advancing the
Department of Agriculture. Only the regional state of soil and water spatial and tabular data
soils laboratory remained with the sharing within the various technical divisions.
Department of Agriculture. Budget remained a In 1996, Director Godofredo N. Alcasid retired
major constraint to effectively carry out this and he was succeeded by Director Rogelio N.
devolution process. The Laboratory Services Conception. Director Concepcion has also his
Division asserted its supervisory capacity to roots in soil survey and was initially assigned
look into the status of equipment and quality of in one of the soils district offices in Mindanao.
analyses of former satellite soils laboratories; But the mid-1990s also marked the end to
but even then, most of the soils laboratories continuing updating of provincial soil maps at
have degenerated to qualitative soil analyses semi-detailed level (1:50,000 scale). While the
as its only service to the farmers. Worst, soils demand for soil resources inventory as input
laboratories in other provinces were to development planning was increasing, the
converted to other offices by the local government-appropriated budget for soil
government and its staff performed other survey remained constant making it
functions. By this time, only the Soil Survey impossible to complete the provincial soil map
Division in the central office was capable of updating with the escalating costs of
conducting soil resources mapping in the practically everything. As a primary data
country. There was no understudy for retiring producer, the Soil Survey Division could not
soil survey and classification experts to compete with the other primary data
continue soil resources inventory work at the generators such as those relating to census and
regional and provincial level. Soil survey statistics for budgetary increments
function was not devolved for the simple commensurate to the increases in the cost of
reason there were no capable soil surveyors to living. In 1998, the Philippine legislature
conduct soil mapping activities and no local enacted Republic Act 8435, the Agriculture and
government funds were allocated for this Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA). A major
purpose. The Local Government Code made feature of this law is the delineation of
BSWM as the de-facto sole nationally Strategic Agriculture and Fisheries
mandated authority on soil survey and Development Zones (SAFDZ), the prime of the
classification. The 1990s was the decade of the prime agricultural lands. The so-called prime
BSWM’s two 5-year technical cooperation agricultural areas consist of the Network of
project with the JICA. The laboratory facilities Protected Areas for Agriculture and Agro-
of the JICA-funded SRDC made it possible to Industrial Development (NPAAAD). The Soil
have more advanced analytical studies for soil Survey Division took this opportunity to
mineralogy, soil biology, soil chemistry, and reinvent itself and focus its soil survey
soil physics. These certainly improved the activities from provincial to municipality level
capability of BSWM to provide soil analytical through cofinancing scheme with the
data to different users and provide sponsoring Local Government Unit (LGU). The
opportunities to participate effectively in the law requires SAFDZ to be integrated into the
formulation of sustainable agricultural municipality’s Comprehensive Land Use Plan
(CLUP). Soil resources inventory is an essential itself to be retained because it is older even
input to development planning, and a must as than BSWM. The paradigm shift from
part of agricultural resources inventory. This government to governance emphasized the
becomes the soil survey thrust as the new critical role of clients who are at the receiving
millennium dawns. A Memorandum of end of public services. If Soil Survey Division is
Agreement (MOA) with the proponent LGU producing soil maps, how many purchase the
defines the role of each. The first decade of the soil maps every year? A tangible and
new millennium continues with the municipal- measurable indicator of the soil map being
level updating of soil resources. used by clients has to be established and could
spell the difference between being retained
and being abolished. The government
Prospects and Challenges for Soil Survey in bureaucracy is now concerned with results
the Second Decade of the New Millennium rather than with processes and procedures.
We cannot just say soil maps are essential
As we enter into the second decade of the new planning tools because if only 150 people
millennium, Rationalization of the BSWM purchase those maps in a year, we might as
remains but a dream on paper. Six years had well transfer that function to another agency
passed with several retirements of with a resource mapping mandate also for
irreplaceable technical staff and there were no efficiency of service. The Soil Survey Division
new hiring’s to serve as their understudy and needs to reorient and reinvent itself to the
fill up their vacated positions. As the Bureau needs of clients or customers than to its
awaits its fate in the Rationalization Plan, it is concern which is production of soil maps if it
depleted of its soil survey experts who can were to survive as an organization producing
describe soils, identify soil series in the field, primary data. It must expand its product
and delineate soils in the map. With its key output other than soil maps. The BSWM
officials retired and no understudy for the rationalization proposal is to expand the Soil
remaining competent soil surveyors, BSWM Survey Division to include developments in
awaits for the approval and implementation of Soil Geography. Soil maps will just be one of its
its Rationalization Plan, how many years major outputs under the Pedology, Genesis,
waiting yet, we have no idea. By this time, the and Soil Classification Section. The Division
Soil Survey Division conducts soil fertility will have to expand the scope of its researches
mapping and scattered special soil and activities to be able to relate its soil
investigations and soil mapping for selected mapping activities to other areas of concern
LGU clients who need soil maps as part of their such as sustainability of agricultural
CLUP required by the national government. production, food security, land carrying
For several years now, there is no major capacity, soil aggradation, and degradation.
provincial soil survey updating and mapping The Division needs to look into the application
project similar in magnitude and scope to of environmental sociology and economic
those of the early 1990s and the previous theory to validate soil and water resources as
decades. But despite this deplorable natural capital for optimization of ecosystem
circumstance, we remain optimistic about the services. It has to concern itself with current
future of soil survey in the Philippines. issues of climate change, land degradation, and
Rationalization of government offices brings carbon sequestration. The Cartographic
about a comprehensive review of the Bureau’s Operations Division is proposed to be merged
mandates, missions, objectives, functions, with the Integrated Soil Resources Information
programs, projects, activities, systems, and Service (ISRIS) to become the Geomatics and
procedures. Functional and operational Soil Information Technology Division. The
adjustments to improve service delivery and move is toward digital cartography. While
productivity threaten the very existence of Soil waiting for this merger, our vision is to come
Survey Division under the Results-Based up with our first set of outputs—updating of
Management approach. It cannot just assert
our soils map with satellite imageries or ortho- information to meet the needs of global
image map as base map environment and human wellbeing. Soil survey
and classification has to metamorphose from a
reductionist agricultural development
The Future of Soil Survey in the Philippines planning tool perspective into a holistic and
integrated approach to understand the
The original reconnaissance soil surveys may complex and dynamic ecological and
have been conducted in the decades following socioeconomic interactions, if it were to
World War II, updated through semi-detailed remain relevant. The future of soil survey and
soil surveys in the 1980s and 1990s, or not at classification in the Philippines should
all. But soils follow geological timescale, and in consider relating soil mapping units to
that sense, nonrenewable at human timescale. biogeochemical cycling and agricultural
In fact, the value of these spatial data even productivity, land degradation, climate change
increases through the years, especially if we and carbon sequestration, biodiversity, waste
consider the rate of urbanization. Many of our management, changing demographic patterns,
soil series have become “extinct”, buried by and a host of other topics that interlink our
urban and industrial development and land knowledge of soils with that of the
use changes. Several more have changed atmosphere, the biosphere, the lithosphere,
already their physical and chemical properties and the hydrosphere. The soil is the foundation
because of decades of human activities. As the of the nation’s wealth. Soil survey and
Soil Survey Division’s soil mapping activities classification remains the basis for rational
are the only source of soil information in the resource utilization, and the key to sustainable
country, the application of GIS and Remote development. The Soil Survey Division of the
Sensing improves data reliability for BSWM is poised to meet the emerging
predicting soil distribution especially in areas demands for the soil science discipline in the
we were not able to update due to budgetary, twenty-first century.
landscape, accessibility, or peace and order
constraints. By using these sophisticated
technological tools, we make our “scientific
guesses” more scientific. Updating soil maps
include not only the review of the soil mapping
unit boundaries and the tabular data therein,
but also reissuing the map itself in view of
changes in political boundaries with the
splitting of provinces and the creation of new
municipalities and provinces after the original
surveys were completed.

The future of soil survey and classification in

the Philippines is basically revisiting the
established soil series for more detailed soil
concept definition, updating of the
physicochemical characterization, and more
importantly, the harmonization of these
national soil resources spatial and tabular data
with that of the global system. But as we refine
our soil maps to meet international soil survey
and classification standards, and as we strive
to meet the demand for high-resolution, site-
specific soil attribute data, the greater
challenge for us is to transfer these
Chapter I. Soil Survey Principles, program or project. It is the fact that multi-
Organization and Interpretation disciplinary studies are essential for they
provide a professional basis for land use
decisions at various planning levels. A well
A. Introduction planned land evaluation survey provides a
B. Soil Survey Principles and wide range of land uses compatible with the
Strategies environment and the socio-economic need of
C. Users and Applications of Soil the people. Henceforth, a survey can in some
Survey instances, reorient politically designed
D. Uses of Soil Survey development plans and make them conform to
E. Applications of Soil Survey the actual needs and priorities of the project
F. Principles of Soil Survey beneficiaries.
G. Limitations of Soil Survey
H. Soil Survey Organization and This agenda is fundamentals in the Philippines,
Planning the fact that it is a small country with land
I. Kinds of Soil Survey areas dominated by rolling to very steep
J. Uses of the Kinds of Soil Survey terrain. Because of its limited land resources,
K. Soil Survey and Soil Map even the more fragile lands are utilized for
L. Types of Maps and Legends crop production, especially for subsistence
M. Soil Map Unit farming. Unless we learn how to properly
N. Type of Map Units manage our land, we will continuously be
O. Planning of Soil Survey and losing more of our arable land to degradation,
Sequence of Operations and this will exacerbate further our problem
P. Sequence of Survey Operations with food supply. Henceforth, a
Q. Field Survey comprehensive land evaluation is a tool that
R. Characteristics of Mapping Units will guide us to determine the appropriate
S. Presentation of Results strategies in managing the Philippine land
T. Outline for a Soil Survey Report resources. This will facilitate our land planners
and policy makers to conform their decisions
on the societal needs and the needs of for
Introduction environmental management and awareness.
This will also paved a way to give importance
Land is unique compared to most other natural our soil resources as it is the fundamental
resources. It is the repository of life in the component of the landscape where knowledge
terrestrial ecosystem and the driver of on soils is basic to sound land-use planning and
biomass productivity in the agricultural land management.
society. These makes the land a technical unit
of integration for resource inventories and Soil Survey Principles and Strategies
evaluation studies due to the huge
fundamentals it serve in the biotic community. Soil Survey
Thus, it serve as the unifying element of any
multi-faceted land development scheme and a Soil survey is an inventory of the soil
crucial environmental element that integrates resources of an area. It involves (1) description
decisions of multi-disciplinary team. It also of the soil characteristics in a given area, (2)
provides a common forum for pedologists, classifies the soils according to a standard
conservationists, land use planners, system of classification, (3) plots the boundaries
climatologists, sociologists, economists, and of the soils on a map, and (4) makes predictions
other relevant sectors. about the behavior of soils. The different uses of
the soils and how the response of management
The magnitude and type of sectoral disciplines affects them are considered. The information
involved in land resource studies are basically collected in a soil survey helps in the
dictated by the range of development issues development of land use plans and evaluates
(e.g. political, sociological and economic, etc.) and predicts the effects of land use on the
that come into play in development plans and environment. A complete soil survey consists
the data gaps and requirements in a given of:
 Henceforth, the requirements of the users are
1. determining fundamental to be met and they must be embodied in the
characteristics of soil, concept of soil survey – the choice of mapping
2. classifying the soil into defined units, units, scale of mapping unit, intensity of survey
and and kind of report. These suggests that a soil
3. locating and plotting their boundaries surveyor have to consider the purpose or the
on maps and/or predicting their ultimate goal of the soil survey endeavour.
suitability for various uses. Thus, he/she may opt to adopt one of the
strategies: (1) general purpose survey,
Soil surveys allow the measurement and provide the basis of interpretations for many
observations of soil behaviour and properties different purposes, some of which may not yet be
at one location to be used in making soil known and involves the production of a
interpretation at other locations. pedological map which shows the distribution of
The practical purpose of soil survey is to soil units defined primarily according to their
enable more numerous, more accurate and morphology, and the acquisition of field and
more useful predictions to be make for specific laboratory data on other physical, chemical and
purposes than could have been made biological characteristics of these land units;
otherwise [i.e., in the absence of location- and (2) special purpose soil surveys, which
specific information about soils]. To achieve are carried out where the purpose is known and
this purpose, it is necessary to: specific, and the most useful in areas where a
good deal is already known; for instance,
• determine the pattern of the soil expansion of plantation for specific commodity
cover; such as banana or pineapple.
• divide this pattern into relatively
homogeneous units; The limitation of the general purpose surveys
• map the distribution of these units, so is that they cannot serve all purposes equally
enabling the soil properties over any well. The logic of this applies conversely to a
area to be predicted; and special purpose classification i.e. the more
• characterize the mapped units in such closely tailored that a survey is to one specific
a way that useful statements can be purpose, the less likely it is to be of value for
made about their land use potential other purpose.
and response to changes in
management. Users of Soil Surveys

In soil survey, a soil scientists does not only Soil survey reports and its accompanying map
identifies the soil and plot their boundaries but can be of great important to:
also observes the steepness, length and shape of
slopes, the size of streams and general patterns 1. Agricultural Technician
of drainage, the kinds of native plants or crops, This group under the Department of
the kinds of underlying rock or softer materials, Agriculture is considered as the
and many more facts about the soil. Meanwhile, principal users of soil surveys aside
a soil survey for partly research, partial from the farmers for their task is
application of known concepts and relatively carrying experience from one farm to
the art of designing soil map units, placing soil another and introducing new
boundaries on maps and explaining the soils to techniques derived from research.
potentials users.
2. Farmers
Strategies in Soil Survey Arable farming is the kind of land use
to which soil survey is most frequently
If the initial mapping is carried out in enough directed, thus, it is expected that main
detail, with sufficient characterization of each users would be the farmers.
mapping unit, the basic soil map can be
interpreted for many purposes without then 3. Researchers
need to resurvey for each new management Agricultural researchers should
problem that arises”, Young (1981). always be related to the climate and
 soils under which they are conducted. international organizations such as
This applies both to either applied USAID, OXFAM, AUSAID, Red Cross
research like crop response to International, United Nations, and etc.
fertilizers and crop variety trials or to require soil surveys and have become
other kinds of field experimentation a standard part of development
such as disease resistance of crops. program/projects.
Moreover, environmental scientists
and researchers is currently 7. Engineers
developing nowadays due to the A large body of evidence now exists
expanding concerns in environmental demonstrating that engineering
related problems. Soil being a parcel parameters like shear and
of the environment is the center of compressive strength, plasticity,
inquiry for its potential in mitigating shrink-swell characteristics,
climo-edaphic dilemma such as corrosivity to steel and concrete are
climate change, carbon sequestration, significantly related to soil types,
land degradation, and etc. hence, the use of soil survey by
engineers is rapidly expanding. The
4. Foresters focus of engineers is concentrated in
Forestry is a major use of rural land, the soil physical features that are the
often under governmental rather than core concept of soil physics and
private management. It is essential mechanics.
that once a forest reserve has been
acquired, it is desirable to have a soil 8. Private Investors
survey as the basis for layout, planting Private investors such as banks and
and management. other credit agencies uses soil survey
data where new land is being taken
5. Planning Agencies (e.g. Local into production, or a different
Government Unit’s, LGU’s) enterprise is being considered, a soil
Planners are concerned with survey should always be considered
decisions over changes between for a sound decision making. Private
major kinds of land use e.g. pasture to companies that deal agro-related
forestry or arable to urban. For major enterprise such as Del Monte, Sumifru,
changes in land use, an environmental Dole Phil’s and the likes, utilizes soil
impact analyses/assessment (EIA) survey results for expansion and
which must include an appraisal of fertility monitoring purposes.
soils and their likely response to
proposed changes
Uses of Soil Survey
Note: Farmers, agriculturists,
environmental scientists, and The driving force behind most soil surveys is to
foresters operate within the provide interpretations or predictions for
context of a limited range of users, variety of land uses. Some common uses of soil
whereas planners are concerned survey are:
with broad range of clients.
1. Land Use Planning
6. Non-Government Organizations This is the setting of policies or
(NGO’s) making plans that influence the use of
The element of risks is greatest where land. The use of the land is influenced
large investment is contemplated in by environmental and other
an area about which little is known parameters. Information about some
and where there is little background of these parameters is provided by
of the kind of land use proposed. Thus, soil surveys and is analysed to
agencies responsible for rural produce interpretations providing
development program like the World suitabilities or limitations for
Bank, FAO-UNESCO, and national and agriculture, forestry, wildlife,
 recreation, or urban areas. The bases for essential but expensive
predictive capacity of a soil survey is detailed site investigating as well as a
an important attribute use in the possible guide to location of sand,
planning process. gravel, and other construction
materials.
2. Land Management
This is the actual manipulation of the 3. Special Purposes (e.g. Urban and
land for a particular use as the Regional Planning and Waste
designing of an irrigation system, Disposal)
development of cultivation and The value of the land under
cropping patterns. alternative land uses must be assessed
and response of the soils to proposed
3. Land Appraisal changes in use need to be predicted if
This is the process of assessing the a major kind of land use is
economic value of a parcel of land. Soil contemplated. This condition has
surveys are the basic tool used for increased the need for soil survey,
appraising land. although the soil is one of the many
factors that needs to be considered.
4. Other Uses
Soil surveys can be used to locate Principles of Soil Survey
sources of gravel, sand, or topsoil.
They are often used to derive The following are a number of general
generalized maps of features such as considerations related to soil survey and their
landforms or surface geologic applications, directed partly at those who
materials. commission or make use of such surveys and
partly at those who execute them.
Applications of Soil Survey
1. A soil survey must have a purpose
Three broad categories of soil survey or aim.
application can be distinguished as follows: The purpose or aim may be limited or
broad ranging as such it can provide a
1. Planning and Management for relatively stable database that will last
Agro-Forestry Related Purposes for specified period of time and be
Soil survey forms a bridge between usable for a variety of purposes, e.g.
experimental and applied science in some purposes are yet to be realized.
relation to agriculture and forestry for
it enables the results of scientific 2. A soil map must show soils.
inquiry (research) and experience of A soil map contains mapping units
land use to be transferred to that are based in substantial parcel on
particular locations. It also helps in soil profiles or map based on classes
deciding the optimum cropping such as soil landform associations.
system and management of soils and Moreover, a soil map is directed
identifies soils that will respond to towards showing the distribution of
new crop technique. soils.

2. Engineering Purposes 3. Land resources do not consists of

Engineers evaluate the land at greater soils alone.
depths, however, data from soil The potentials of the land for crop
survey that are usually obtained from production depend on climo-edaphic
depths at 2 m depth is still conditions. This suggests that a soil
considerable value in the planning of surveyors need to have an
engineering works. It enables hazards appreciation of their specialization
and problem areas like swelling clays and interacts with other kinds of
and peat to be located and avoided at environmental information.
an early stage, provides a sampling
 4. The soil map and report are different land uses have different land
complimentary. use requirements.
The output of the soil survey includes 3. Grade land uniquely from “best” to
both map and a report, neither is more “poorest” quality.
important than the other for they are Not only are soil and other land
mutually indispensable. Since the requirements are specific to each use,
amount of information that can be but what is better for one use may be
printed in the map is limited, it must poorer for the other.
be amplified by data given on the
report. However, the report is more 4. Produce by soil survey alone can’t
than just an amplified legend. accurately estimates crop yields.
Broad estimates of ranges of crop
5. A soil survey is not the sole basis for yields and other levels of production,
decision on land use and can and should be obtained in the
management, it is only an aid. course of soil surveys for project
It should be emphasized that feasibility studies and in kinds of
decisions on land management are productive use. Young (1981) warned
invariably influenced by economic that such estimates have substantial
considerations, social and range of error of the order of ± 33%,
institutional factors, often by existing for it is highly dependent on the levels
legal land rights and sometimes by on inputs and standards of
political constraints and not only on management.
the soils.
5. Soil survey cannot predict
Limitations of Soil Survey consequence of certain land use.
Soil survey and land evaluation
The usefulness of a soil survey depends on two studies can only provide information
things, (1) the accuracy with which soil of a nature which suggests that if such
properties are mapped, and (2) the relevance of a course of action is taken, certain
these properties to the purpose in hand. Despite consequences will follow.
of its accuracy, however, it should be
appreciated by all who commission soil
surveys that everything cannot be achieved Study Guide Questions
through it.
1. How is soil survey applied to a
The following are the things that soil survey development project, e.g. agriculture?
are limited to do: 2. To produce a soil map, what
data/information are needed?
1. Map soils to a high accuracy with 3. How is soil survey used by land use
little effort. planners and or by foresters?
Soil survey is a slow business and the 4. Why is it difficult to map soils with
information obtained depends on the high accuracy with little effort?
effort expended. Modest levels of 5. Why is soil survey an aid in planning
predictive accuracy may be obtained and not the sole basis for decision-
relatively cheaply, but there are making?
thresholds of accuracy that can only
be crossed by intensive and time-
consuming survey and analysis.

2. Produce one soil map legend that

meets the needs of all users.
No single soil classification can be
derived that will meet all the varied
needs of different kinds of land use for
Soil Survey Organization and Planning Soil survey are field investigations of soils and
their landscape relationships. These
Before the details of organizing and planning a relationship may be delineated on maps
soil survey, it is imperative to know initially the showing the distribution of different kinds of
kinds of soil survey being done and or used so soil and landscape properties from which
we can satisfy the need for soil information interpretations may be made for a variety of
about works and plans for many kinds of land purposes. Soil surveys, as with other surveys,
use, e.g. geographic areas in preparing regional can be conducted at various levels of detail and
or district land use plans, resource conservation reliability as shown in the figure and
plans for farms and ranches, plans for elaborated in the given table. There is a need to
reclamation projects, plans for forestry express, in defined terms, the reliability of
management, preliminary plans for forestry maps to avoid confusion as to the applicability
management, preliminary plans for engineering of given map information for the proposed
projects and etc. purpose.

Kinds of Soil Survey

Uses of the Kinds of Soil Survey
Soil surveys can be designed to meet the need
of users who require the precise information The following table shows the general
about soil resources of an area a few hectares relationship between orders of soil survey and
or less in size, or for users who need a broad the use to be made of the soil map. The
perspective of the soil resources of areas correlation between orders and use is not as
thousands of hectares in size. sharp as indicated since ranges in scales and
minimum sized delineations overlap with
Soil survey differ mainly in (a) the kinds of orders.
mapping units; (b) kinds of soil taxa used to As an example, 3rd order soil surveys
identify components of mapping unit; (c) kinds can be used for general planning for areas as
and intensity of field procedures; and (d) large as a province or for more specialized
minimum size of delineated areas. planning of range, resources on single large
ranch.
(Table 1 presents the criteria for identifying
kinds of soil survey.)

1st Order Detailed Soil

Survey
Increasing
level of
difficulty and
extent of the
coverage of
the areas to
be mapped.
However, it
decreases the
accuracy of
the soil
survey.

5th Order

General/Broad Soil
Survey
 Table 1. Key for Identifying Kinds of Soil Surveys

Appropriate
Minimum
Typical scales for
Level of Field size Kind of map
components of field
data needed procedures delineation units
map units mapping and
(hectares)
publications
1st order - Very The soils in each delineation are identified by
Phases of soil
intensive transecting or traversing. Soil boundaries are Mostly consociations,
series, 0.6 1:15,840
(i.e., Experimental plots observed throughout their length. Remotely 1 or less some complexes,
miscellaneous or larger
or individual building sensed data are used as an aid in boundary miscellaneous areas.
areas.
sites.) delineation.
Phases of soil
Consociations,
The soils in each delineation are identifies by series,
2nd order - Intensive complexes; few
field observations and by remotely sensed miscellaneous 1:12,000 to
(e.g. general agriculture, 0.6 to 4 associations and
data. Boundaries are verified at closely spaced areas, few named 1:31,680
urban planning.) undifferentiated
intervals. at a level above the
groups.
series.
Mostly
Phases of soil
associations or
Soil boundaries plotted by observation and series
3rd order - Extensive complexes,
interpretation of remotely sensed data. Soil or taxa above the 1:20,000 to
(i.e., range or community 1.6 to 16 some
boundaries are verified by traversing series; or 1:63,360
planning.) consociations
representative areas and by some transects. miscellaneous
and undifferentiated
areas
groups.

4th order - Extensive

(e.g., general soil Phases of soil Mostly associations;
Soil boundaries plotted by interpretation of
information for broad series or taxa some complexes,
remotely sensed data. Boundaries are verified 1:63,360 to
statements concerning 16 to 252 above the series or consociations and
by traversing representative areas and by 1:250,000
land-use potential and miscellaneous undifferentiated
some transects.
general land areas. groups.
management.)

5th order - Very The soil patterns and composition of map units
Phases of levels Associations; some 1:250,000 to
extensive are determined by mapping representative
252 to above the series, consociations and 1:1,000,000
(e.g., regional planning, ideas and like areas by interpretation of
4,000 miscellaneous undifferentiated or
selections of areas for remotely sensed data. Soils verified by
areas. groups. smaller
more intensive study.) occasional onsite investigation or by traversing
Table 2. Kind of soil survey and their appropriate uses.

Kind of Soil Examples of Types of Common Name

Typical Objectives
Survey Uses Planning of the Survey
Very intensive planning that
require appraisal of soil resource of
Very Detailed – very small areas. The map units are
Experimental
1st Order very intensive Very Detailed very refined and can provide soils
plots for houses
planning data for such uses as defining
experimental plots or predicting
characteristics of septic fields.
Information for many purposes
Farming,
down to the level of local planning
ranching,
for groups of farms, stream
woodland Detailed
2nd Order Detailed catchments, small parks or
management, Planning
irrigation management. It will not
urban
likely be used for specific site
development
selection.
Extensive
Information for a limited number of
ranching or Reconnaissanc
uses to the level of farming areas,
woodland e - General
3rd Order Reconnaissance country planning, major stream
management, specialized
catchments, large parks or
watershed planning
irrigation districts.
management
Large
watersheds, large
resource
conservation and
development
areas, large Broad Information for relatively few
Broad
4th Order regional council Reconnaissanc purposes to the level of large
Reconnaissance
of government’s e agricultural areas or regional plans.
areas, country or
multi-country
planning
districts, state
planning districts
Information for few general
Multi-state or General very
5th Order Exploratory purposes for broad regional or
nations broad planning
provincial plans.
Soil Survey and Soil Map Types of Maps and Legends

The ultimate goal of soil survey is to delineate Different kinds of maps as a function of the
land units into maps. Henceforth, it is density and precision of detail contained in
necessary to know different types of maps. The their information
following are as follows:
• Reconnaissance Maps
• Soil Map These are based on observations and
It shows the geographical distribution results obtained from traverses
of various soils. The definition does conducted throughout the study
not include maps of single soil factors region and on known elements of
such as texture, soil color, or slop, factors of formation, as well as
though these may be derived from the relationships which have been
former. They would be called soil established during the course of the
texture maps or soil zone maps. investigation between the observed
soils and those diverse factors....in
• Soil Survey Map particular, at the end of the study of
It is a soil map made from information the toposequences formed over the
collected by field procedures. principal parent rocks of the area.

• Interpretation Map • Semi-Detailed Maps

It is a map compiled for a particular Such surveys are carried out using
purpose from information contained traditional procedures, but the
in the soils map (e.g. suitability form precision of observation, at least
vegetable production). theoretically, corresponds to one
observation per cm2 of the map.
• Single Factor Map
It is a map depicting any one feature • Detailed Maps
derived from the soil map. These maps are the result of very
Interpretive and single factor maps precise, detailed studies. The level of
may collectively be called derivative precision necessary for this category
maps or extractive maps. is minimally four observations for
each cm2 of the map.
• Generalized Soil Map
It is a map developed from more Different kinds of maps as a function of
detailed published soils information. scale

• Schematic Map Classification on this basis has different

It is essentially an interpretive “best potential possibilities and significance for the
guess” map based on a combination of use of these documents.
supplementary information such as
air photo. • Small Scale Maps
Maps at the scale of 1:1,000,000 or
• Exploratory Soil Map smaller permit general
It differs only slightly from a interpretations. As such they are of
schematic map and contains about the great didactic value since they permit
same level of information but is based the performance of interesting
on some actual field observations. geographical studies of soils in either
diverse regions or on several
continents, and allow useful
extrapolations about the
consequences of land use, in
particular agronomic use.
 • Medium Scale Maps based on a soils map established
Scales of 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 are on an identical or larger scale.
correlated with maps designed for
regional planning. These in effect Soil Map Units
serve as a base for prospective work.
A soil map unit is a collection of areas defined
• Large Scale Maps and named the same in terms of their soil
At scales larger than 1:50,000, the soil components (e.g., series) or miscellaneous
map permits practical applications for areas or both. Soil map units are the basic unit
local development planning and area of a soil map. Each map unit has a unique
development. Soil series, and even symbol (numbers or letters) on the soil map.
phases of those characterized by “Mono-taxa” units are dominated by a single
different erosion intensities or soil type. “Multi-taxa” units include two or
internal drainage conditions, are more main soil types.
distinguished on the legends of these
maps.

Different kinds of maps as a function of

their objectives

• Pedological Maps
Theoretically, for pedological
maps, the kinds of maps and Soil Delineations
legends follow the rules of the Each individual area of soil on a map is a
delineation.
precision and level of information.
Soil delineation boundaries are drawn
The legend is linked as narrowly as wherever there is a significant change in the
possible to a soil classification type of soil. Soil delineations typically relate to
system. the underlying landform (e.g., floodplain,
backslope, and terrace)
• Regional Planning Maps
In the last several years, it has become Type of Map Units
increasingly more apparent that
representation of the milieu at a • Consociation
medium scale (1: 100,000 or It is a soil mapping unit consists of an
1:200,000) is insufficient as a basis area dominated by a set of a single
for regional planning. The global taxon
characterization of the evolution of
diverse soil types, their distribution, • Association
and even their relationships with It is a soil mapping unit in which two
various factors will not suffice for a or more defined soil taxonomic units
general description of the milieu for occur together in an individual
expressing the general possibility of characteristics pattern over a
its use. geographic region; the individual soils
can be separated but are not because
• Maps of Agronomic Application of the objectives of the survey.
As has been previously stated,
maps of agronomic applications • Complex
can be very different, both in their It is a soil mapping unit used in
detail and scale, but they must be detailed soil surveys where two or
 more defined taxonomic units that are Planning of Soil Survey and Sequence of
so intimately intermixed Operations
geographically that it is undesirable or
impractical because of the scale being Overall planning and the organization of the
used to separate them. various contributing activities are critical
components of any soil survey. Mistakes made
• Undifferentiated at the planning stage cannot easily rectified, no
It is a mapping unit with two or more matter how well the field survey and other
soils mapped together even though activities are carried out.
they do not occur in a regular pattern
because of the some overriding The following will serve as a checklist for
factor(s). Either or both soils may survey planning:
occur in any given mapped.
1. Identification and definition of
Other significant terms used in soil survey objectives
a. Location, extent and
• Soil Series boundary of survey area
It is the basic unit of soil taxonomy b. Problems to be solved
and consisting of soils which are c. Time and finance available
essentially alike in all major profile
characteristics, although the texture 2. Appraisal of Bio-physical and Social
of the A horizon may vary somewhat. Environment
a. Climate
• Soil Type b. Geology and quaternary
It is formerly a subdivision of soil history
series based on differences in the c. Topography
texture of A horizon. d. Aerial Photographs (AP) and
other remote sensing data
• Soil Variant e. Previous soil or resource
It is a soil whose properties are surveys
believed to be sufficiently different
from other known soils to justify a 3. Survey Design
new series name but comprising such a. Publication scale
a limited geographic area that b. Field mapping scale
creation of a new series is not justified. c. Observation intensity,
location and depth
• Soil Phase d. Role of remote sensing
It is a subdivision of a soil series or e. Additional field studies
other unit of classification having f. Role of automatic data
characteristics that affect the use and handling
management of the soil but which do g. Laboratory requirements
not vary sufficiently to differentiate it
as a separate series. 4. Soil Classification and Map Legend
a. US Soil Taxonomy
• Landscape b. FAO – UNESCO Soil Map of the
It refers to all the natural features World
such as fields, hills, forests, water, etc., c. Others national and or local
which distinguished one part of the soil classification and map
earth surface from another part. legend
Moreover, it is a three dimensional
section of the Earth that contains 5. Interpretation, land evaluation
specific pattern of flora, fauna, soils, activities
and etc. a. Field studies
b. Interpretative legend
 6. Check the Availability and 2. Main Survey
Sustainability of AP and Topographic This is to establish distribution of land
Base Commissions Special units.
Photography as Required
3. Sampling
7. Survey Schedule This is to sample soils of major
a. Staff mobilization mapped areas for characterization
b. Field research
c. Preliminary API 4. Consolidation
d. Field tests and laboratory This serves as a “filling-in” for areas of
analyses complex soil or difficult boundaries,
e. Interpretative activities testing of mapped areas, revisions of
f. Survey field checks API, incorporation of soil analytical
g. Draft report results and final classifications.
h. Submission
5. Reporting
8. Staffing This is the product of final report and
a. Project leader accompanying maps and diagrams.
b. Professional staff
c. Support staff
Study Guide Questions
9. Mobilization Arrangements and
Logistics 1. Why is it important that the soil map
a. Survey field base shall compliment the report and if
b. Accommodation necessary, the soil map may exist
c. Travel alone independent of the report?
d. Transport for field and 2. How are land units established in
equipment planning a survey?
e. Equipment and materials 3. What are the important things to be
f. Laboratory facilities known during the initial
10. Publication of Results reconnaissance survey?
a. Form of publication 4. Assuming that you are going to survey
b. Method of printing a 1000 ha area for agricultural
c. Number of copies development project, how are you
going to establish the land units for
Sequence of Survey Operations the survey work? Construct a schedule
of activities using standards especially
A number of activities related to soil survey labor man-days?
have already been discussed, however, the 5. What are the data required to be
following general plan is recommended most collected to study the social
soil and land survey at whatever level: environment?

1. Initial Reconnaissance
This involves the identification of the
major problems, establish methods of
working and to familiarize the team
with the area and form a consensus on
priorities, special features, etc. in the
light of the survey purpose. It should
include preliminary identification of
major soil/land form/vegetation
relationships, and the study of all
relevant existing data.
Field Survey most useful and
representative sites.
The three phases of field soil survey are
research (preliminary and reconnaissance), b. Field Observation Data
mapping and interpretation. The table below presents the
data to be recorded at three
1. Research Phase levels of details, namely: (1)
The tasks of research phase is to representative profile, (2)
establish the following: intermediate level, (3) and soil
a. Which soil properties are type identification.
important for the purposes
of survey;
b. The field relationship
between the soil properties
and surface features;
c. The soil classes to be
mapped and the mapping
legend; and
d. How potential land
productivity and
recommended management
practices are related to
practicable mapping units?

2. Mapping Phase
A soil survey attempts to delineate
areas that behave differently or will
respond differentially to some
specified management. The mapping
unit serve as a basis for predicting soil
behaviour. The mapping units used at
different kinds of soil surveys that has
already been discussed are the
following:

a. Selection of Observation
Sites
There are two techniques
available for the soil
surveyor, namely: (1) grid
survey and (2) free survey.
Grid survey refers to survey
techniques that conducts
regularly spaced
observations to produce
rectangular grid over the
survey area. Meanwhile, free
survey involves the
surveyor’s use of his
judgement of the objectives of
the survey and all the
available air photos and
ground evidences to locate
profile observations at the
Table 3. Data to be recorded during field
observation.

Kinds of Information Representative Intermediate Soil Type

Profile Level Identification
1. Identification and Location
a. Profile Number x x x
b. Author x x x
c. Date x x x
d. Location; Grid references x x x
e. Map sheet x x x
f. Air photo number x x x
2. Site Information
a. Land form of surrounding area x
b. Slope angle and shape x x
c. Position on slope x x
d. Micro-topography x
e. Elevation x (x)
f. Surface stones/rock outcrops x (x)
g. Evidence of erosion x x (x)
h. Hydrology of area x
i. Natural drainage x x
j. Depth to groundwater table x x
k. Vegetation of area; physiognomic
x
type
l. Dominant species x
m. Plant association, indicator
x (x)
species
n. Land use of area, percent
cultivated of site, including history
x
of climate, added subsequently by
analysis of records
3. Soil Profile Information
a. Parent material x (x)
b. Lithology and degree of
x x
weathering
c. Horizon depths x x x
d. Color mottling x x x
e. Texture X x x
f. Structure/Consistence x (x)
g. Pedological features: cutans,
x x
nodules, cementations, pans
h. Pores, roots and feature of
x (x)
biological origin (e.g. krotovinas)
i. Content of rock and mineral
x (x) (x)
fragments
j. Nature boundary x (x)
4. Field Test
a. Soil reaction (Soil pH) x x
b. Salinity (EC) (x) (x)
c. Infiltration capacity (x)
d. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (x)
e. Sampling for laboratory
x (x)
characterization
Legend: x – always recorded (x) – optional, according to the requirements of the survey
Representative Profile Descriptions genetic relationships within
Characterize each taxonomic unit are the landscape;
taken from pits 1-2 m depths being vi. Records of present land use,
necessary or highly weathered soils. management practices and
The soil profile morphology is problems, available data on
recorded in the full standard form and performance (crop yield, tree
samples are collected for laboratory growth, etc.);
characterization. vii. Relevant laboratory data,
added as they become
Descriptions at Intermediate Level available; and
Maybe taken from pits or chance viii. The surveyor’s estimate of
exposures such as roadside cuttings, land use potential, desirable
ditches or stream sections. Usually land improvements and
this records and profile morphology in management practices, and
less than full detail, the selection being other information related to
in accordance with the purpose of the the purpose of survey.
survey.
3. The Interpretation Phase
Soil Type Identification A soil survey produces a range of
The least detailed description are soil information required for each
type identifications, taken from auger interpretations land applications,
borings or small inspection pits. Only including land use potential, management
the depth, color, texture and structure practices and avoidance of hazards, plus
of the various horizons and soil data needed as a basis for economic or
assessment of natural drainage are other evaluation. A surveyor then relates
recorded. land potentials and management
recommendations. To accomplish this,
Characteristics of Mapping Units two activities must be done namely:

As the survey proceeds, soil unit a. Crop Yield Estimates

sheets are prepared for each mapping Crop yield vary with management
unit and should contain the following practices whether in the year
information: concerned and soil type, therefore, it
is essential to collect data and present
i. The type locality, grid results in terms of inputs and
reference, map sheet, air management to include specific
photo pair; details of crop varieties, fertilizer
ii. The environmental factors treatment, planting dates, etc. In
(landform, vegetation, etc.) developing countries like the
associated with the unit Philippines, it is convenient to
together with those indicator assemble data in terms of three levels
features by which it can of inputs: low, intermediate, and high.
sometimes be recognized;
iii. A detailed description of the Crop yield estimates can be obtained
profile at the type of locality; in the following ways:
and
iv. The range of properties i. By comparison with data
within the taxonomic unit to from experimental sites on
which the representative identified soil types both
profile belongs; within the survey sites and on
v. Where the mapping unit similar soils and climate
differs from the taxonomic outside it;
unit, the range of properties ii. By field experiments
and associated soils and their conducted within the survey
geomorphological or other
 sites specifically for this reference. Which of the series is
purpose; dominantly used for rice production?
iii. From farm records, 3. What are the important activities to be
marketing board record, farm done during the research phase or
systems studies, reconnaissance phase?
demonstration plots or other 4. What should be the focus of the
data as may be found; and interpretation phase of the soil survey
iv. By comparison of the known work?
or supposed requirements of 5. How are soil mapping units
the crop with the physical and established? What are the criteria
chemical properties of the used?
soil.
Presentation of Results
b. Soil Responses to Specified
Management Presentation of output is not a postscript to a
Since soil surveys are frequently survey but one of the most critical parts,
carried where changes in land use or second only to the initial planning. In the latter,
management practices are sufficient time and resources must be allocated
contemplated, it is important that at the planning stage for the production of the
predictions on how the various soils maps and reports. The aim of the report shall
will response to the proposed changes be:
be included in the interpretation
phase. In making such estimates of soil 1. To tell the potential user what
response two approaches may be information is there;
followed, (1) Reasoning based on the 2. To emphasize the practical
observed soil properties, knowledge of importance of that information; and
the proposed changes and physical and 3. To help each kind of user find the
chemical deduction in terms of information they needs and enable
processes, and (2) Comparison with them to understand it.
soils already under the proposed use.
Assessment of hazards is a part of this A typical arrangement of a report are as
study of soil response like drawing up follows:
erosion hazard and or hazard rating
up to various potential arable soils. a. How to Use this Soil Survey
A guide printed inside the front cover
Land Evaluation and Classification explaining how to locate the soils of an
area of interest in the map and where
It should be emphasized that in any soil survey, to find different kinds of information
soil classification and land evaluation forms a about them in the report.
part and should be made provisionally in the
field at least for full and intermediate profile b. General Soil Map for Land Use Planning
sites. This may consists of assignment to a A brief introductory description of
capability class or estimates of suitability for soils and the landscape in which they
arable, forestry, or other specified uses. are found, readable by the non-
specialists.
Study Guide Questions
c. Use and Management of the Soils
1. How are the various soil series Sections on interpretation, land use
response with the different potential and management of crops,
management practices employed by pasture, woodlands, engineering uses,
farmers? recreation, and wildlife habitat
2. List down the various soil series found inclusive of interpretative tables,
in your locality. Consult/refer to the about half the text.
soil map of the province for quick
d. Description of the Soils
 Series by series, mostly pedological to the reader, where readings
data but each ending with a paragraph should be informative.
on limitations, land capability and
management, rather shorted about d. Background and Aim of the
the text. Study
A short account of the
e. Formation and Classification of the circumstances which led to
Soils the survey being carried out
Short and only semi-technical in and its intended purposes.
nature.
e. The Environment or
f. General Nature of the Site Introduction of the Area
Broad physical environment, printed • Location – Give all the
first in some surveys. names of the place in the
report.
• Physical Environment –
Outline for a Soil Survey Report Brief descriptions of
climate, geology,
The following serves as an outline for soil geomorphology,
survey report: hydrology and
vegetation, not in
1. Summary comprehensive detail but
This part be written in plain language sufficient to support the
avoiding technical jargon for it is description and
usually the. Only part read by senior interpretation of the
personal who need to know how the data.
findings of the survey affect their • Agriculture and/or
planning but who do not have the time Present Land Use – This
to study the details of the report. should be more detail
than the physical
2. Main Report environment.
This explains the methods, findings, • Economic and Social
and interpretations of the survey for a Background – This
broad leadership that cannot have discusses the
specialist knowledge of soil science. background to the
management levels
a. How to use this report assumed in the
Explain to farmers, planners recommendations.
and other site on the maps,
how to find the soils present 3. Methods of Survey
from the map legends and This portion includes information on
where in the text and tables base maps and air photographs,
to find information of density and types of field soil
different kinds. observations, laboratory analyses,
and other types of survey carried out
b. Abstract or incorporated. Any techniques
This enables the potential especially developed or adapted to
user to judge whether the overcome problems encountered in
survey is of interest to him, to the survey should be stated briefly
be effective, it should be short with details reported in an appendix.
less than 250 words.
4. Soils
c. Table of Contents This include the following:
This outlines the structure of
the report and acts as a guide a. Introduction
 This section explains the layout c. Land preparation (primary
of the chapter, describes in non- land levelling with respect to
technical terms, the soil topography, infertile sub-
classification employed and how soils and crop tillage);
the soil types have been grouped d. Erosion control
into mapping units, and to state (recommended cropping and
how this chapter is related to the cultivation techniques,
interpretative chapters which contour cultivation, strip
follow. cropping, shelter built and
mechanical control); and
b. Legend e. Drainage and irrigation
This section must include a table (design and methods of
of approximate equivalence operation taking into account
between the soil types surface topography, land
distinguished in the survey, the grading, infiltration, deep
national classification of the percolation, surface and
country and the FAO ground water hydrology,
classification or the US Soil water supply and quality,
Taxonomy. installation and running
costs).
c. Soil Mapping Unit
Each soil mapping unit should be 7. Closing Sections
described how to recognize each
including their position in the a. References
landscape. Take note that b. Glossary of Technical Terms
technical terms must be defined c. Units of Measurements
and explained in glossary.
8. Technical Appendices
5. Land Evaluation/Soil Survey Information that is too technical to be
Interpretation useful to non-specialist readers or
This portion should include the data that are primarily for reference
following: are best reported in appendices like
detailed description of individual
units and profile descriptions, range of
variations, impurities, analytical data
a. Introduction and classification, survey and
b. Land capability/Land suitability laboratory methods, and
classification interpretative data.
c. Land capability/Land suitability
units 9. Maps
d. Economic and Soil analysis Users have two main requirements of
maps, namely:
6. Soil and Land Management Unit a. To locate their area of
In a multi-disciplinary study, interest (farm, field, etc.); and
management recommendations on b. To see overall distribution of
any of the following topics must be soils
included:
Knowing the distribution of soils is
a. Choice of crops, crop variety, best achieved by the use of good
and tree species; colors. Other ways to distinguish
b. Soil fertility (recommended mapping units are by symbols,
application and type of monochrome tones and patterns,
fertilizer, specific nutrient color and some combinations, use of
and toxicity problems, design numerical or mnemonic symbols.
and citing of field trials);
 Maps are often used without agricultural land evaluation in the tropics and
reference to their accompanying subtropics. London: Longman Group Ltd.
report, thus, field legend should be
on the map sheet. The legend must be
informative relating each unit to its
position in the landscape and explain
its most significant characteristics.

Study Guide Questions

1. In the section soil and land

management unit, what is the basis in
the selection of crops to be grown?
What specific procedures shall be
followed to arrive at the
correct/appropriate crop?
2. How is the physical environment
described in the section introduction?
What are the various parameters
observed or described?
3. What are the different maps included
in the soil survey report? Among the
maps, which is the most important
and should not be omitted?
4. What are the different laboratory data
needed to be presented in a soil
survey report?

References

Aubert, G. 1985. Soil Survey: Different Types

and Categories. Department of Agronomy,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 14853.

Coen, G.M. 1987. Soil Survey Handbook.

Volume 1. Technical Bulletin 1987-9E. Land
Resource Research Centre Contribution
Number 85-30. Land Resource Research
Centre, Research Branch, Agriculture Canada,
Room 1141, KW Neatby Building, Ottawa,
Ontario

Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations (FAO). 2017. FAO Soils Portals:
Soil Survey. Retrieved:
http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-
survey/en/ on January 31, 2017.

Kent D. and A. Young. 1981. Soil Survey and

Land Evaluation. London. George Allen and
Unwin Publishers Ltd.

Landon, J.R. (ed). 1984. Booker Soil Tropical

Manual. A handbook for soil survey and
Chapter II. The Description and Objectives
Classification of Soil
a. To let students be familiar with the
mechanics and procedures for the
A. Introduction description of soil profile; and
B. Description of Individual Soil b. To let students experience how soils
C. Soil Profile Description are classified into various group or
D. Classification of Soils categories.

Description of Individual Soil Profile

Introduction
The purposes of soil description are (1) to
Scientists particularly those involved in soils provide information which will enable readers
strive to recognize and understand the truths to obtain an understanding of the
about soils in nature. Further, they also want to characteristics of a soil, and (2) to compare the
communicate their perceptions and characteristics with those of other soils of which
understanding of soils to others. To accomplish they have description or personal knowledge.
this, a method of organizing and
communicating such knowledge and In preparing a description, a surveyor should
perceptions about the attributes of soils must assume that his reader will have no knowledge
be available. It is in this context that soil of either the soil or its locality and should
classification was developed. We should provide a much detail as possible on both
understand, however, that the only absolute subjects.
truths about soils are to be found only in the
soils themselves in nature. Detailed description of the soil is vital for
evaluating its origin and ecological functions as
We observed and measure the attributes of soil well as its suitability for agriculture and other
in the field and in samples, we bring into the land uses. Soil description is also needed for
laboratory as accurately as we can, but our soil classification. To enhance communication
observations and measurements are only and avoid confusion among users of soil
approximations of the truths that exist in information, soil scientists have developed
nature. We note, that the soil in any given spot standard procedures for describing soils. The
of a size such that we can observed and most widely used are those published by FAO
measure soil attributes has a set of properties and USDA. These procedures are closely
which, in the aggregate, we can use to describe related so the students can use any of the
the soil. Although the set of properties vary two.Order of Presentation
from place to place in nature, some are much
alike and much different from others. To make The following section is largely based on the
the job easier, we think about all those which FAO Guidelines of Soil Description (2006) and
are alike as one kind of soil and we give their Jahn et al. (2003).
classes names so we can communicate about
them. These taxa or classes are not truths in I. Site Information
and of themselves but they are the best Site information refers to the data on the
approximations of what are perceive as truths. bio-physical characteristics of the site
where the soil to be examined is located
The following discussions will bring about soil including the name of the person doing
description and classification guides and the soil examination and the date of
standards so we could properly identify and examination.
classify soils according the categories set up by
the United States Soil Taxonomy and the World a. Profile Number
Reference Base, a systems regarded as a It is necessary to assign a profile
common language for agro-technology number to each soil examined to
transfer and unifying the various soil allow easy and simple retrieval of
classification scheme across the entire Earth profile descriptions from
landscape. computerized data storage systems.
 during the time when the
b. Author(s) temperature is ≥5°C. The present as
The person who performs the well as the weather conditions days
description needs to be properly or weeks before the soil description
acknowledged in future uses of the should also be noted.
soil data and he or she holds
responsibility for the quality of the Present weather conditions
data.
Sunny/clear; Partly cloudy;
c. Date of description Overcast; Rain; Sleet Snow
The date of description is given as
yymmdd (6 digits). Past weather conditions

d. Location • No rain during the last

This should include the distance (in month
meters or kilometers) and direction • No rain during the last
to the site from permanent features week
which are recognizable in the field • No rain during the last 24
and on the topographic map. hours
• Small rain during the last
e. Elevation 24 hours
The elevation (in meters) of the site • Stronger rain since some
relative to sea level should be days or rainstorm during
obtained from detailed contour or the last 24 hours
topographic maps or by altimeter • Extremely rainy time or
readings. At present determination snow melting
of elevation by a Global Positioning
System (GPS) unit is inaccurate and
unacceptable.

f. Map sheet number and Coordinates

The number of the topographic map
sheet, preferably at 1: 25 000 or 1:
50 000 scale, on which the soil
observation occurs should be given.
The latitude and longitude of the
site (in degrees, minutes, seconds
and decimal seconds) can be
derived directly from topographic
maps or a Global Positioning System
(GPS) unit.

g. Atmospheric climate and weather

conditions
Atmospheric climate is indicated by
the monthly mean temperature (in
°C) and the monthly mean
precipitation (in mm) taken from
the nearest meteorological station.

If available, the length of the

growing period defined as the
period with moist conditions
(excess of precipitation over
potential evapotranspiration)
 h. Soil climate Slope form
It is important to indicate the soil The slope form refers to the general shape
moisture regime and the soil of the slope in both the vertical and
temperature regime. For horizontal directions. The following slope
definitions, see the section on soil form classes are distinguished:
classification.
• straight
Soil temperature regime • concave
• convex
Pergelic • terraced
Cryic • complex (irregular)
Frigid Isofrigid
Mesic Isomesic
Thermic Isothermic • CR = Crest (summit)
Hyperthermic Isohyperthemic • UP = Upper slope (shoulder)
• MS = Middle slope (backslope)
Soil moisture regime • LS = Lower slope (footslope)
• TS = Toeslope
Aquic; Peraquic; Aridic; Udic;
• BO = Bottom (flat)
Perudic; Ustic; Xeric and Torric
Slope form
The slope form refers to the general shape of
the slope in both the vertical and horizontal
i. Landform and topography (relief)
directions. The following slope form classes
Landform is any physical feature on
are distinguished:
the earth’s surface that has been
• Straight
formed by natural processes and
has a distinct shape. Topography • Concave
refers to the configuration of the • Convex
land surface described in four • Terraced
categories: • Complex (Irregular)

• the major landform, which Slope gradient and orientation

refers to the morphology of Slope gradient refers to the slope of the land
the whole landscape immediately surrounding the site. It is
• the position of the site measured using a clinometer aimed in the
within the landscape, direction of the steepest slope. It can also be
• the slope form and estimated from contour maps.
• the slope angle. • Flat 0 - 0.2 %
• Level 0.2 - 0.5 %
Major landform • Nearly level 0.5 - 1.0 %
Landforms are described foremost • Very gently sloping 1.0 - 2 %
by their morphology and not by • Gently sloping 2 - 5 %
their genetic origin, or processes • Sloping 5 - 10 %
responsible for their shape. • Strongly sloping 10 - 15 %
• Moderately steep 15 - 30 %
• Steep 30 - 60 %
Slope position • Very steep >60 %
This is also called the physiographic
or landscape position. Slope The orientation which a slope is facing is coded
position controls water movement with N for north, E for east, S for south and W
thus, it greatly influences soil for west. SSW e.g. means south south-west.
formation and soil properties.
j. Land use and vegetation • Hunting and fishing

Land use Nature Protection

This is the present agricultural and non- Nature and game preservation
agricultural land uses. • Reserves
• Parks
Settlement, industry • Wildlife management
• Residential use Degradation control
• Industrial use • Without interference
• Transport • With interference
• Recreational use
• Excavations Not used and not managed

Crop Agriculture Additional codes may be used to further specify

Annual field cropping the land utilization type. For example:
• Shifting cultivation
• Fallow system cultivation Rainfed arable cultivation
• Ley system cultivation • Traditional
• Rainfed arable cultivation • Improved traditional
• Wet rice cultivation • Mechanized traditional
• Irrigated cultivation • Commercial
Perennial field cropping • Unspecified
• Non-irrigated cultivation
• Irrigated cultivation For arable land use, the dominant crops which
are grown should be mentioned, and as much
Tree and shrub cropping information as possible given on soil
• Non-irrigated tree crop management, use of fertilizers, duration of
cultivation fallow period, rotation systems and yields.
• Irrigated tree crop cultivation
• Non-irrigated shrub crop Crops
cultivation Crops are plants that are cultivated for their
• Irrigated shrub crop cultivation economic value.

Animal Husbandry Barley

Extensive grazing Beans
• Nomadism Cassava
• Semi-nomadism Coconut
• Ranching Coffee
Cashew
Intensive Grazing
Cocoa
• Animal production
Cowpea
• Dairying
Cotton
Fruit trees
Forestry
Groundnut
Natural forest and woodland
Maize
• Selective felling
Millet Oil palm
• Clear felling Peas
Plantation forestry Potato
Rice (flooded)
Mixed farming Rice
• Agro-forestry Rubber
• Agro-pastoralism Rice (upland)
Soyabean
Extraction and collection Sugar cane
• Exploitation of natural vegetation
Sunflower • Evergreen woodland
Sorghum • Semi-deciduous woodland
Sweet potato • Deciduous woodland
Tobacco
Tea Xeromorphic woodland
Vegetables
Wheat Shrub
Yams • Evergreen shrub
• Semi-deciduous shrub
Human influence • Deciduous shrub
Examples of human influences are: • Xeromorphic shrub
No influence
Bunding
Not known
Burning
Vegetation slightly disturbed
Terracing
Vegetation moderately disturbed
Ploughing
Vegetation strongly disturbed
Plaggen
Vegetation disturbed
Raised beds
Sprinkler irrigation
Sand additions
Furrow irrigation
Mineral additions (unspecified)
Flood irrigation
Pollution
Border irrigation
Clearing
Irrigation (unspecified)
Surface compaction
Artificial drainage
Borrow pit
Application of fertilizers

Vegetation
There is no universal system for the
description of the natural or semi-natural
vegetation. The vegetation can be described
using a local, regional or international system.

Closed Forest
Continuous tree layer, crowns overlapping,
large number of tree and shrub species in
distinct layers
• Evergreen forest
• Semi-deciduous forest
• Deciduous forest
• Xeromorphic forest

Woodland
Continuous tree layer, crowns usually not
touching, understorey may be present.
Table 4. Determination of the major landform
based on the slope gradient and relief
intensity.

Relief Intensity
1st Level 2nd Level Gradient (%)
(m km-1)
Plain <10 <50
Plateau <10 <50
Level land
Depression <10 <50
Valley floor <10 <50
medium-gradient mountain 15-30 150-300
medium-gradient hill 10-30 100-150
Sloping land medium-gradient, escarpment zone 10-30 50-100
medium-gradient valley 10-30 100-150
dissected plain 10-30 50-100
high-gradient mountain >30 >300
high-gradient hill >30 150-130
Steep land
high-gradient escarpment zone >30 150-130
high gradient valleys >30 >150

Slope positions in undulating and mountainous terrain (redrawn from Schoeneberger et al.1998).
 ilmenite, magnetite,
Dwarf Shrub ironstone,
• Evergreen dwarf shrub serpentine
• Semi-deciduous dwarf shrub e. Pyroclastic
• Deciduous dwarf shrub Type: Tuff, tuffite,
volcanic scoria,
Xeromorphic dwarf shrub breccia, volcanic
• Tundra ash, ignimbrite

Herbaceous 2. Metamorphic Rock

• Tall grassland Group:
• Medium grassland a. Acid Metamorphic
• Short grassland Type: Quartzite, gneiss,
• Forb migmatite, slate,
phyllite (pelitic
In addition, other characteristics of the rocks)
vegetation, such as height of trees or canopy b. Basic Metamorphic
cover, may be recorded. Type: Slate, phyllite
(pelitic rocks),
k. Parent material green schist, gneiss
This is the geologic material (rock or rich in Fe-Mg
organic deposit) usually below the solum minerals,
from which the soil developed. There are metamorphic
basically two groups of parent material on limestone
which the soil has formed: 1) 3. Sedimentary Rock (Consolidated)
unconsolidated materials (mostly Group:
sediments), and 2) weathered materials a. Clastic Sediment
overlying the hard rock from which they Type: Conglomerate,
have been derived. There are transitional breccia, sandstone,
cases, such as materials which have been greywacke, arkose,
transported by water called alluvium silt-, mud-,
(fluvial if transported by stream) or by claystone, shale,
gravity called colluvium. There are also ironstone
restored natural soil materials or b. Carbonatic, Organic
sediments as well as technogenic Type: Limestone, other
materials. carbonate rock, marl
Hierarchy of lithology and other mixtures,
coals, bitumen and
Major Class related rocks
1. Igneous Rock c. Evaporites
Group: Type: Anhydrite,
a. Acid Igneous gypsum,halite
Type: Granite, grano-diorite, Sedimentary Rock (Unconsolidated)
quartz-diorite, Group:
rhyolite a. Fluvial
b. Intermediate Igneous Type: Sand and gravel,
Type: Andesite, trachyte, clay, silt and loam
phonolite, diorite- b. Lacustrine
syenite Type: Sand, silt and clay
c. Basic Igneous c. Marine, Estuarine
Type: Gabbro, basalt, dolerite Type: Sand, clay and silt
d. Ultrabasic Igneous d. Colluvial
Type: Peridotite, Type: Slope deposits, lahar
pyroxenite, e. Eolian
Type: Loess, sand
 f. Glacial materials, or restriction of
Type: Moraine, glacio- flooding by dikes
fluvial sand, glacio- • Holocene (100-10,000 years)
fluvial gravel anthropogeomorphic: man- made
g. Kryogenic relief modifications, like
Type: Periglacial rock terracing of forming hills or walls
debris, periglacial by early civilizations or during
solifluction layer Middle Age or earlier, or
h. Organic restriction of flooding by dikes
Type: Rainwater-fed moor • Holocene (100-10,000 years)
peat, groundwater- natural: with erosional loss or
fed bog peat deposition of materials like on
i. Anthropogenic/Technogenic tidal flats, of coastal dunes, in
Type: Redeposited natural river valleys, landslides or desert
material, industrial areas,
deposit • Late Pleistocene, ice covered,
j. Unspecified Deposits commonly the recent soil
Type: Clay, loam and silt, formation on fresh materials
sand, gravelly sand, • Late Pleistocene, periglacial,
grave, broken rock commonly the recent soil
formation on preweathered
materials
l. Age of the land surface • Late Pleistocene; without
The age of land surface greatly influences periglacial influence
soil formation. This is the reason why old • Older Pleistocene, ice covered,
and highly weathered soils (Ultisols, commonly the recent soil
Oxisols) are usually found on old land formation on younger over older
surfaces. and preweathered materials
• Older Pleistocene, with periglacial
• Very young (1-10 years) influence, commonly the recent
anthropogeomorphic: with soil formation on younger over
complete disturbance of natural older and preweathered
surfaces (and soils) like in urban, materials
industrial and mining areas with • Older Pleistocene without
very early soil development from periglacial influence
fresh natural or technogenic or • Tertiary land surfaces, commonly
mixed materials. high planes, terraces or
• Very young (1-10 years) natural: peneplains, except incised
with erosional loss or deposition valleys, frequent occurrence of
of materials like on tidal flats, of paleosoils
coastal dunes, in river valleys, • Older land surfaces, commonly
landslides or desert areas high planes, terraces or
• Young (10-100 years) natural: peneplains, except incised
with erosional loss or deposition valleys, frequent occurrence of
of materials like on tidal flats, of paleosoils
coastal dunes, river valleys,
landslides, or desert areas,
• Young (10-100 years) Soil Profile Description
anthropogeomorphic: with
complete disturbance of any Soil description includes a description of the 1)
natural surfaces (and soils) like soil surface characteristics, and the 2)
in urban, industrial and mining individual soil horizons in the profile. This is
areas with early soil best done using a recently dug pit large enough
development from fresh natural to allow sufficient examination and description
or technogenic or mixed
of the different horizons. Old exposures such as
road cuts and ditches may be used but only c. Erosion
after scraping a sufficiently thick surface to To describe soil erosion, emphasis
expose a fresh soil material. First the surface should be given to accelerated or
characteristics are recorded. The soil human-induced erosion. It is not
description is then done horizon by horizon always easy to distinguish between
starting with the topmost horizon. natural and accelerated erosion, as
they are often closely related.
1. Soil surface characteristics
Main categories of erosion
a. Rock Outcrops No evidence of erosion
Rock outcrops can limit the use of Water erosion or deposition
modern, mechanized, agricultural • Sheet erosion
equipment. This can be described • Rill erosion
using the table below: • Gully erosion
• Tunnel erosion
Surface cover • Deposition by water
• None 0% Wind (eolian) erosion or deposition
• Very few 0–2% • Wind deposition
• Few 2–5% • Wind erosion and deposition
• Common 5 – 15 % • Shifting sands
• Many 15 – 40 % • Salt deposition
• Abundant 40 – 80 % Water and wind erosion
• Dominant >80 % Mass movement (landslides and
similar phenomena)
Distance between rock outcrops Not known
• >50 m
• 20 – 50 m Area affected
• 5 – 20 m The total area affected by erosion and
• 2–5m deposition is estimated following the
• <2 m classes below:
• 0%
b. Surface coarse fragments • 0–5%
Surface coarse fragments should be • 5 – 10 %
described using the table below: • 10 – 25 %
• 25 – 50 %
Surface cover • > 50 %

• None 0% Degree
• Very few 0–2% • Slight: Some evidence of
• Few 2–5% damage to surface horizons.
• Common 5 – 15 % Original biotic functions
• Many 15 – 40 % largely intact.
• Abundant 40 – 80 % • Moderate: Clear evidence of
• Dominant >80 % removal of surface horizons.
Original biotic functions
Size classes partly destroyed.
Indicating the greatest dimension • Severe: Surface horizons
• Fine gravel 0.2– 0.6 cm completely removed and
• Medium gravel 0.6– 2.0 cm subsurface horizons exposed.
• Coarse gravel 2 – 6 cm Original biotic functions
• Stones 6 – 20 cm largely destroyed.
• Boulders 20 – 60 cm • Extreme: Substantial removal
• Large boulders 60 –200 cm of deeper subsurface
 horizons (badlands). Original
biotic functions fully
destroyed.

d. Surface sealing
Surface sealing refers to crusts which
develop at the soil surface after the topsoil
dries out.

Thickness
• None
• Thin <2 mm
• Medium 2 – 5 mm
• Thick 5 – 20 mm
• Very thick >20 mm

Consistency
• Slightly hard
• Hard
• Very hard
• Extremely hard
Young soil Mature soil
e. Surface cracks
Surface cracks develop in shrink-swell Typical master horizons of a young and
clay-rich soils after they dry out. It indicate mature soils.
the dominance of expanding type of clay
particularly montmorillonite. Master Horizon and layers

Width • H - Dominated by organic material

• Fine < 1 cm formed from accumulations of
• Medium 1 – 2 cm undecomposed or partially
• Wide 2 – 5 cm decomposed organic material at the
• Very wide 5 – 10 cm soil surface, which may be
• Extremely wide > 10 cm underwater.
• O - Dominated by organic material
Distance between rocks consisting of undecomposed or
• Very closely spaced <0.2 m partially decomposed litter, such as
• Closely spaced 0.2 – 0.5 m leaves, needles, twigs, moss and
• Moderately widely spaced 0.5 – 2 lichens that have accumulated on the
m surface of mineral or organic soils.
• Widely spaced 2–5m • A - Horizon of humus accumulation at
• Very widely spaced >5 m the surface or below an O horizon in
which all or much of the original rock
2. Soil Horizon Characteristics structure has been obliterated.
It is necessary to identify the horizons • E - Horizon in which the main feature
before proceeding with the detailed is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum
description. The figure below illustrates or some combination of these.
the typical master horizons of a young and • B - horizons formed below a A, E, H or
a mature soil. O horizon and in which the dominant
features are the obliteration of all or
much of the original rock structure
with one or a combination of the
following: illuvial concentration of
silicate clay, iron, aluminum, humus,
 carbonates, gypsum or silica; evidence soil. In certain cases, they reflect past
of removal of carbonates, residual anthropogenic impacts on the
concentration of sesquioxides and landscape. Horizon boundaries are
formation of structure. described in terms of depth, distinctness
• C - Little affected by pedogenetic and topography.
processes and lack properties of H, O,
A, E or B horizons. Depth
• R - hard bedrock underlying the soil The depth of the upper and lower
boundaries of each horizon is given in
Subordinate characteristics within master centimeters, measured from the surface
horizons of the soil downwards.

a - Highly decomposed organic material

b - Buried genetic horizon
c - Concentrations1 or nodules
d - Dense layer (physically root Distinctness and topography
restrictive) The distinctness of the boundary refers
e - Moderately decomposed organic to thickness of the zone within which the
material horizon boundary can be located
f - Frozen soil without being within one or the other
g - Stagnic horizons2 adjoining horizons. The topography of
h - Accumulation of organic matter in the boundary indicates the smoothness
mineral horizons of depth variation of the boundary.
i - Slightly decomposed organic material
j - Jarosite accumulation Distinctness
k - Accumulation of pedogenic • Abrupt 0 - 2 cm
carbonates • Clear 2 - 5 cm
l - Capillary fringe mottling • Gradual 5 - 15 cm
m - Strong cementation (pedogenic, • Diffuse > 15 cm
massive)
n - Pedogenetic accumulation of Topography
exchangeable sodium • Smooth Nearly plane surface
o - Residual accumulation of • Wavy Pockets less deep
sesquioxides than wide
p - Plowing or other human disturbance • Irregular Pockets more deep
q - Accumulation of pedogenetic silica than wide
r - Strong reduction3 • Broken Discontinuous
t - Illuvial accumulation of silicate clay
u - Urban and other human-made b. Soil texture
materials Soil texture refers to the proportion of the
v - Occurrence of plinthite various particle size classes (or soil
w - Development of color or structure separates, or fractions) in a given soil
x - Fragipan characteristics volume described by soil texture classes.
y - Pedogenetic accumulation gypsum
z - Pedogenetic accumulation of salts Field estimation of textural classes
more soluble than gypsum The texture class can be estimated in the
field by easy field tests and feeling the
(Note: In the USDA method, concentration1 is constituents of the soil. For this, the soil
called concretions, g indicates strong gleying 2, sample must be in a moist to weak wet
and r indicates weathered or soft bedrock3) state. Gravel and other constituents >2
mm must be removed.
a. Horizon boundary
Horizon boundaries provide The constituents have the following feel:
information on the dominant soil
forming processes that have formed the
 • Clay: makes fingers dirty, is ripped surface after squeezing
cohesive (sticky), is formable, has between fingers and
a high plasticity and has a shiny Very grainy and not sticky – sandy
surface after squeezing between loam (clay rich) (< 10-25 % clay)
fingers. Has moderate sand grains – loam
• Silt: makes fingers dirty, is (8-27 % clay)
nonsticky, only weak formable, Not grainy but distinctly floury
has a rough and ripped surface and somewhat sticky – silt loam
after squeezing between fingers (clay rich) (10-27 % clay)
and feels very floury (like talcum 2.3. has a rough and moderate shiny
powder). surface after squeezing between
• Sand: cannot be formed, makes fingers and is sticky and grainy to
fingers not dirty and feels very very grainy – sandy clay loam (20-
grainy. 35 % clay)
3. Possible to roll a wire smaller than 3
Key to the soil texture classes (adapted from mm (less than ½ Ø of a pencil) and to
Schlichting et al., 1995) form the wire to a ring of about 2-3 cm
Ø, cohesive, sticky, gnash between
1. Not possible to roll a wire of about 7 teeth, has a moderate shiny surface
mm Ø (about Ø of a pencil) after squeezing between fingers
1.1. not dirty, not floury, no fine 3.1. very grainy – sandy clay (35-55 %
material in the finger rills – sand clay)
(< 5 % clay) 3.2. grains can be seen and felt – clay
If grain sizes are mixed – unsorted loam (25-40 % clay)
sand (< 5 % clay) 3.3. no grains to see and to feel, low
If most grains are very coarse plasticity – silty clay loam (25-40
(>0.6 mm) – coarse sand (< 5 % % clay)
clay) 3.4. no grains to see and to feel, high
If most grains are of medium size plasticity – silty clay (40-60 %
(0.2-0.6 mm) – medium sand (<5 clay)
% clay) 4. Has a shiny surface after squeezing
If most grains are of fine size (<0.2 between fingers and a high plasticity
mm) but still grainy – fine sand (< 4.1. some grains to see or to feel,
5 % clay) gnashes between teeth – clay (40-
If most grains are of very fine size 60 % clay)
(<0.12 mm), tending to be floury – 4.2. no grains to see or to feel, does not
very fine sand (<5 % clay) gnash between teeth – heavy clay
1.2. not floury, grainy, scarcely fine (> 60 % clay)
material in the finger rills, weakly
shapeable, adheres slightly to the c. Rock fragments
fingers – loamy sand (< 12 % clay) The presence of rock fragments influences
1.3. as 1.2 but moderately floury, - the nutrient status, water movement, use
sandy loam (clay poor) (< 10 % and management of the soil. It also reflects
clay) the origin and stage of development of the
2. Possible to roll a wire of about 7 to 3 soil.
mm Ø (about ½ Ø of a pencil) but
breaks if trying to form a ring, Abundance (by volume), for estimation see
moderate cohesive, adheres to the the preceding figure.
fingers. • None 0%
2.1. very floury and not cohesive • Very few 0-2%
Some grains to feel – silt loam • Few 2-5%
(clay poor) (< 10 % clay) • Common 5 - 15 %
No grains to feel – silt (<12 % clay) • Many 15 - 40 %
2.2. moderately cohesive, adheres to • Abundant 40 - 80 %
the fingers, has a rough and
 • Dominant >80 % • Fresh or slightly weathered:
fragments show little or no signs
of weathering
• Weathered: partial weathering is
indicated by discoloration and
loss of crystal form in the outer
parts of the fragments while the
centers remain relatively fresh
and the fragments have lost little
of their original strength.
• Strongly weathered: all but the
most resistant minerals are
weathered, strongly discolored
and altered throughout the
fragments, which tend to
disintegrate under only
moderate pressure.
Charts for estimating proportions of coarse fragments and
d. Soil color
mottles
Soil color reflects the composition as
well as the past and present oxidation-
Size of rock fragments reduction conditions of the soil. It is
generally due to coatings of very fine
Rock Particle Size particles of humified organic matter
• Fine gravel 0.2-0.6 cm (dark), iron oxides (yellow, brown,
• Medium gravel 0.6- 2 cm orange, red), manganese oxides (black)
• Coarse gravel 2 - 6 cm and others, or it may be due to the color
• Stones 6 - 20 cm of the parent rock.
• Boulders 20 - 60 cm The color of the soil matrix of each
• Large boulders >60 cm horizon should be recorded in the moist
condition (or both dry and moist
condition, if possible) using the
notations for hue, value and chroma as
given in the Munsell Soil Color Charts
(Munsell, 1975).
Combined size classes and codes can be
constructed as follows:
• Fine and medium gravel
• Medium and coarse gravel
• coarse gravel and stones
• Stones and boulders
• Boulders and large boulders

Shape of rock fragments

The general shape or roundness may be
described using the following terms:
• Flat
• Subrounded
• Angular
• Rounded
One page of the Munsell Soil Color Chart
State of weathering of rock fragments showing the relation of hue, value and chroma
The state of weathering of the coarse
fragments is described as follows: • Hue is the dominant spectral color
(red, yellow, green, blue, violet).
 • Value is the lightness or darkness Size of mottles
of color ranging from 1 (dark) to 8 • Very fine <2 mm
(light). • Fine 2 - 6 mm
• Chroma is the purity or strength • Medium 6 - 20 mm
of color ranging from 1 (pale) to 8 • Coarse >20 mm
(bright).
Contrast of mottles
If there is no dominant soil matrix color, The color contrast between mottles and soil
the horizon is described as mottled and matrix can be described as follows:
two or more colors are given. In addition • Faint: The mottles are evident only on
to the colour notations, the standard close examination. Soil colors in both
Munsell color names may be given. the matrix and mottles have closely
related hues, chromas and values.
e. Mottling • Distinct: Although not striking, the
Mottles are spots or blotches of different mottles are readily seen. The hue,
colors or shades of color interspersed with chroma or value of the matrix are
the dominant color of the soil. They easily distinguished from those of the
indicate that the soil has been subject to mottles. They may vary by as much as
alternate wetting (reducing) and dry 2.5 units of hue or several units in
(oxidizing) conditions. chroma or value.
• Prominent: The mottles are
conspicuous and mottling is one of the
outstanding features of the horizon.
Hue chroma and value alone or in
combination are at least several units
apart.

f. Redoximorphic properties
Redoximorphic (or reductimorphic)
properties of the soil matrix reflect
permanently wet or at least reduced
conditions. They are expressed by neutral
(white to black: Munsell N1 to N) or bluish
Color of mottles to greenish colors (Munsell 2.5Y, 5Y, 5G,
It is usually sufficient to describe the color of 5B). The color pattern will often change by
the mottles in general terms, corresponding aeration in minutes to days, due to
with the Munsell Soil Color Chart. oxidation processes.

Abundance of mottles Redoximorphic color pattern and

• None 0 % occurrence of Fe compounds:
• Very few 0 - 2 %
• Few 2 - 5 % • Color: Greyish green, light blue;
Munsell color: 5GY-5B2-3/1-3;
• Common 5 - 15 %
Formula: FeII/FeIII; Mineral: Fe-
• Many 15 - 40 %
mix-compounds (blue green rust)
• Abundant >40 %
• Color: White, after oxidation
brown; Munsell color: N7-8 →
When the abundance of mottles does not allow
10YR4/5; Formula: FeCO3;
the distinction of a single predominant matrix
Mineral: siderite
or groundmass color, the predominant colors
• Color: White, after oxidation blue;
should be determined and entered as soil
matrix colors. Refer to Figure above for mottles Munsell color: N7-8 → 5B;
abundance determination. Formula: Fe3(PO4) ・ 8 H2O;
Mineral: vivianite
 • Color: Bluish black (w. 10% HCl Gypsum (CaSO4・2H2O) may be found in
H2S- smell); Munsell color: 5- the form of residues of gypsiric parent
10B1-2/1-3; Formula: FeS (or material or newly formed materials. The
Fe3F4); Mineral: Fe- sulphides latter include pseudomycelia, coarse-
• Color: White, after oxidation sized crystals (individualized, as nests,
white; Munsell color: N8 → N8; beards or coatings, or as elongated
Mineral: Complete loss of Fe groupings of fibrous crystals) or loose to
compounds compact powdery accumulations. The
latter form gives the gypsic horizon a
g. Carbonates massive structure and a sandy texture.
Carbonates in soils are either residues of
the parent material or the result of a new Where more readily soluble salts are
formation (secondary carbonates). The absent, gypsum can be estimated in the
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content is field by measuring the electrical
indicated by effervescence resulting conductivity (EC in dS m-1) of soil
from the production of carbon dioxide suspensions.
gas when drops of 10 % HCl is added to
the soil. Classes for the reaction of • Gypsum content: 0 %; Class:
carbonates in the soil matrix are defined Non-gypsiric; EC Values: EC =
as follows:
<1.8 dS m-1 in 10g soil/25 ml
H2O, EC = <0.18 dS m-1 in 10g
• CaCO3 Content: 0 %; Class: Non- soil/250 ml H2O
calcareous; Reaction: No
• Gypsum content: 0 - 5 %; Class:
detectable visible or audible Slightly gypsiric; EC Values: EC =
effervescence.
<1.8 dS m-1 in 10g soil/250 ml
• CaCO3 Content: 0 - 2 %; Class: H2O
Slightly calcareous; Reaction: • Gypsum content: 5 -15 % Class:
Audible effervescence but not Moderately gypsiric; EC Values:
visible EC = >1.8 dS m-1 in 10g soil/250
• CaCO3 Content: 2 -10 %; Class: ml H2O higher amounts may be
Moderately calcareous; differentiated by abundance of
Reaction: Visible effervescence H2O-soluble pseudomycelia/
• CaCO3 Content: 10 -25 %; Class: crystals and soil color
Strongly calcareous; Reaction: • Gypsum content: 15 -60 %
Strong visible effervescence. Class: Strongly gypsiric; EC
Bubbles form a low foam. Values: EC = >1.8 dS m-1 in 10g
• CaCO3 Content: >25 %; Class: soil/250 ml H2O higher amounts
Extremely calcareous; Reaction: may be differentiated by
Extremely strong reaction. Thick abundance of H2O-soluble
foam forms quickly. pseudomycelia/ crystals and soil
color
Note that the reaction to acid depends • Gypsum content: >60 % Class:
upon soil texture and is usually more Extremely gypsiric; EC Values:
vigorous in sandy material than in fine- EC = >1.8 dS m-1 in 10g soil/250
textured material with the same ml H2O higher amounts may be
carbonate content. Other materials, such differentiated by abundance of
as roots, may also give an audible H2O-soluble pseudomycelia/
reaction. Dolomite reacts commonly less crystals and soil color
vigorous than calcite. Secondary
carbonates should be tested separately:
they normally react much more i. Readily soluble salts
intensive with HCl. Certain soils like coastal or desert soils
can be enriched with water soluble salts
h. Gypsum or salts more soluble than gypsum. The
 salt content of the soil can be estimated peds) that results from pedogenic
from an electrical conductivity (EC in dS processes. It is preferable to describe
m-1 = mS cm-1) measurement on a the structure when the soil is dry or
saturated soil paste or a more dilute slightly moist. To best describe soil
suspension of soil in water. structure, a large lump of the soil should
Conventionally EC is measured in the be taken from the profile, from various
laboratory in the saturation extract parts of the horizon if necessary, rather
(ECSE) and most classification values as than observing the soil structure from
well as data about salt sensitivity of the profile face alone.
crops refer to ECSE. Soil structure is described in terms of
• Not salty (<0.75, ECSE, dS m-1 at grade, size and type of aggregates. When
25 oC) a soil horizon contains aggregates of
• Slightly salty (0.75 – 2, ECSE, dS more than one grade, size or type, the
m-1 at 25 oC) different kinds of aggregates should be
• Moderately salty (2 - 4, ECSE, dS described separately and their
m-1 at 25 oC) relationship indicated.
• Strongly salty (4 – 8, ECSE, dS m-
1 at 25 oC) Grade
• Very strongly salty (8-15, ECSE, • Weak: Aggregates are barely
dS m-1 at 25 oC) observable in place and there is
• Extremely salty (> 15, ECSE, dS only a weak arrangement of
m-1 at 25 oC) natural surfaces of weakness.
When gently disturbed, the soil
j. Field soil pH material breaks into a mixture
In the field, pH is either estimated using of few entire aggregates, many
indicator papers or measured with a broken aggregates, and much
portable pH meter in a soil suspension material without aggregate
(1 part soil and 2.5 part H20, 1 M KCl or faces.
0.1M CaCl2 solution). After shaking the • Moderate: Aggregates are
solution and waiting for 15 minutes the observable in place and there is
pH value can be read. For the a distinct arrangement of
measurement use a transparent 50 ml natural surfaces of weakness.
plastic cup with marks for 8 cm3 soil (~ When disturbed, the soil
10 g) and 25 ml water. material breaks into a mixture
of many entire aggregates,
• Very strongly alkaline: > 9.0 pH some broken aggregates, and
value little material without
• Strongly alkaline: 8.5-9.0 pH aggregates faces.
value • Strong: Aggregates are clearly
• Moderately alkaline: 7.9-8.4 pH observable in place and there is
value a prominent arrangement of
• Mildly alkaline: 7.4-7.8 pH value natural surfaces of weakness.
• Neutral: 6.6-7.3 pH value When disturbed, the soil
material separates mainly into
• Slightly acid: 6.1-6.5 pH value
entire aggregates.
• Medium acid: 5.6-6.0 pH value
• Strongly acid: 5.1-5.5 pH value
The following classes may be used for
• Very strongly acid: 4.5-5.0 pH
description of the structure:
value
• Extremely acid: < 4.5 pH value
• Very weak
• Weak
k. Soil structure
• Moderate
Soil structure refers to the natural
• Strong
organization of soil particles into
discrete soil units (called aggregates or • Very strong
 pseudomorphs of weathered
Combined classes may be constructed as minerals retaining their positions
follows: relative to each other and to
• Weak to moderate unweathered minerals in saprolite
• Moderate to strong from consolidated rocks.
• Crumbs, lumps and clods are mainly
Size created by artificial disturbance as

Class Platy Prismatic Blocky Granular

Combined classes may be constructed as Very fine <1 < 10 <5 <1
follows:
• Fine and very fine Fine 1-2 10 - 20 5 - 10 1-2
• Fine and medium Medium 2-5 20 - 50 10 - 20 2-5
• Medium to very coarse Coarse 5 - 10 50 - 100 20 - 50 5 – 10
• Coarse and very coarse
Very > 10 > 100 > 50 > 10
• Fine to coarse coarse
• Medium and coarse
for example by tillage.
Type
If a second structure is present, its
• Granular: Spheroids or relation to the first structure is
polyhedrons, having curved or
described. The first and second
irregular surfaces which are not
structures may both be present (for
casts of the faces of surrounding example columnar and prismatic
aggregates. structures). The primary structure may
• Blocky: Blocks or polyhedrons, break down into a secondary structure
nearly equidimensional, having flat (for example prismatic breaking to
or slightly rounded surfaces which angular blocky). The first structure
are casts of the faces of the may merge into the second structure
surrounding aggregates. (for example platy merging into
Subdivision is recommended into prismatic).
angular blocky, with faces
intersecting at relatively sharp
angles, and subangular blocky faces l. Consistence
intersecting at rounded angles. Consistence refers to the degree of
• Prismatic: the dimensions are cohesion or adhesion of the soil mass. It
limited in the horizontal and includes such soil properties as
extended along the vertical plane; friability, plasticity, stickiness and
vertical faces well defined; having resistance to compression. It is greatly
flat or slightly rounded surfaces dependent on the amount and type of
which are casts of the faces of the clay, organic matter and moisture
surrounding aggregates. Faces content of the soil.
normally intersect at relatively
sharp angles. Prismatic structures Consistence when dry
with rounded caps are This is determined by breaking an air-
distinguished as Columnar. dried mass of soil between thumb and
• Platy: Flat with vertical dimensions forefinger or in the hand.
limited; generally oriented on a • Loose: Non-coherent
horizontal plane and usually • Soft: Soil mass is very weakly
overlapping. coherent and fragile; breaks to
powder or individual grains
Other terms to describe structure: under very slight pressure
• Rock structure: Rock structure • Slightly hard: Weakly resistant
includes fine stratification in to pressure; easily broken
unconsolidated sediment, and between thumb and forefinger.
 • Hard: Moderately resistant to of soil material when it is pressed
pressure; can be broken in the between thumb and finger.
hands; not breakable between • Non sticky: after release of
thumb and forefinger. pressure, practically no soil
• Very hard: Very resistant to material adheres to thumb
pressure; can be broken in the and finger.
hands only with difficulty. • Slightly sticky: after pressure,
• Extremely hard: Extremely soil material adheres to both
resistant to pressure; cannot be thumb and finger but comes
broken in the hands. off one or the other rather
• Additional description: cleanly. It is not appreciably
o Soft to slightly hard stretched when the digits are
o Slightly hard to hard separated.
o Hard to very hard • Sticky: after pressure, soil
material adheres to both
Consistence when moist thumb and finger and tends
This is determined by attempting to to stretch somewhat and pull
crush a mass of moist or slightly moist apart rather than pulling free
soil material. This is the usual condition from either digit.
in the field except in poorly drained soils • Very sticky: after pressure,
or immediately after a heavy rain. soil material adheres strongly
• Loose: Non-coherent to both thumb and finger and
• Very friable: Soil material is decidedly stretched when
crushes under very gentle they are separated.
pressure, but coheres when • Additional description:
pressed together. o Slightly sticky to
• Friable: Soil material crushes sticky
easily under gentle to moderate o Sticky to very sticky
pressure between thumb and
forefinger, and coheres when Plasticity is the ability of soil material
pressed together. to change shape continuously under
• Firm: Soil material crushes the influence of an applied stress and
under moderate pressure to retain the compressed shape after
between thumb and forefinger, removal of stress. Determined by
but resistance is distinctly rolling the soil in the hands until a
noticeable. wire about 3 mm in diameter has been
• Very firm: Soil material crushes formed.
under strong pressures; barely • Non plastic: No wire is
crushable between thumb and formable
forefinger. • Slightly plastic: Wire
• Extremely firm: Soil material formable but immediately
crushes only under very strong breaks if bent into a ring; soil
pressure; cannot be crushed mass deformed by very slight
between thumb and forefinger. force
• Additional description: • Plastic: Wire formable but
o Very friable to friable breaks if bent into a ring;
o Friable to firm slight to moderate force
o Firm to very firm required for deformation of
Consistence when wet: maximum the soil mass.
stickiness and maximum plasticity

Stickiness is the quality of adhesion

of the soil material to other objects
determined by noting the adherence
 • Very plastic: Wire formable
and can be bent into a ring; m. Soil moisture
moderately strong to very The soil moisture condition of the soil in
strong force required for the field can be estimated by the simple
deformation of the soil mass. procedure of Schlichting et al. (1995):

Rubbing (in
Crushing Forming (to a ball) Moistening Moisture pF*
the hand)
Not possible, seems
Dusty or hard Getting very dark Not lighter Very dry 5
to be warm
Not possible, seems
Makes no dust Getting dark Hard lighter Dry 4
to be warm
Getting slightly Obviously Slightly
Makes no dust Possible (not sand) 3
dark lighter moist
Finger moist and No of change of Obviously
Is sticky Moist 2
cool, weakly shiny color lighter
No of change of
Free water Drops of water Wet 1
color
Drops of water No of change of
Free water Very wet 0
without crashing color

*) pF (p = potential, F = free energy of water) is log hPa

n. Bulk density
Bulk density reflects the total soil porosity. Low bulk density values (generally below 1.3
g/cm3) generally indicate a porous soil condition while high values indicate a poor environment
for root growth, reduced aeration, and reduced water infiltration. In the field, bulk density can
be estimated based on the force required to push a knife into a soil horizon exposed at a (field
moist) pit wall (see table below).

Field estimation of bulk density for mineral soils (Schlichting et al., 1995)

Observation Structure Bulk density

(g cm-3)
Sandy, silty and loamy soils with low clay content
Many pores, moist materials drop easy out of the auger; granular <0.9
materials with vesicular pores, mineral soils with andic
properties.
Sample disintegrates at the instant of sampling, many single grain, 0.9-1.2
pores visible on the pit wall. granular
Sample disintegrates into numerous fragments after single grain, 1.2-1.4
application of weak pressure. subangular,
angular blocky
Knife can be pushed into the moist soil with weak subangular and 1.4-1.6
pressure, sample disintegrates into few fragments, which angular blocky,
may be further divided. prismatic, platy
Knife penetrates only 1-2 cm into the moist soil, some prismatic, 1.6-1.8
effort required, sample disintegrates into few fragments, platy,
which cannot be subdivided further. (angular
blocky)
Very large pressure necessary to force knife into the soil, prismatic, >1.8
no further disintegration of sample.
Loamy soils with high clay content, clayey soils
When dropped, sample disintegrates into numerous angular blocky 1.0-1.2
fragments, further disintegration of subfragments after
application of weak pressure.
When dropped, sample disintegrates into few fragments, angular blocky, 1.4-1.6
further disintegration of subfragments after application prismatic,
of mild pressure. platy,
columnar
Sample remains intact when dropped, no further coherent >1.6
disintegration after application of very large pressure. (prismatic,
columnar)
If organic matter content is >2%, bulk density has to be reduced by 0.03 g cm-3 for each %
increment of organic matter content.
 • Channels: Elongate voids of
o. Voids (Porosity) faunal or floral origin. Mostly of
Voids include all empty spaces in the tubular shape and continuous,
soil. They are related to the arrangement strongly varying in diameter.
of the primary soil constituents, rooting
patterns, burrowing of animals or any In most cases it is recommended that
other soil forming processes such as only the size and abundance of the
cracking, translocation, leaching, etc. channels, which are mostly continuous
The term void is about equivalent to the tubular pores, be described. For the
term pore, but the latter is often used in other types of voids the following size
a more restrictive way and does not, for and abundance classes should serve as a
instance, include fissures or planes. guide for the construction of suitable
Voids are described in terms of type, size classes for each category.
and abundance. In addition, continuity,
orientation or any other feature may Size
also be recorded. The diameter of the elongate or tubular
voids is described using the following
Porosity classes:
The porosity is an indication of the total • Very fine < 0.5 mm
volume of voids discernible with a 10x • Fine 0.5 - 2 mm
hand lens measured by area and • Medium 2 - 5 mm
recorded as the percentage of the • Coarse 5 - 20 mm
surface occupied by pores. • Very coarse 20 - 50 mm

Type Abundance
There is a large variety in the shape and The abundance of fine and very fine
origin of voids. It is impractical and elongate pores as one group and of
usually not necessary to describe all medium and coarse pores as another is
different kinds of voids recorded as the number per unit area of
comprehensively. Emphasis should be a square decimeter.
given to estimating the continuous and
elongate voids. The major types of voids Abundance < 2 mm > 2 mm
may be classified in a simplified way as None 0 0
follows: Very few 1-20 1-2
Few 20-50 2-5
• Interstitial: Predominantly
Common 50-200 5-20
irregular and interconnected,
Many >200 >20
and cannot be quantified in the
field. They are generally the
voids between sand grains and
rock fragments.
• Vesicles: Discontinuous
spherical or elliptical voids
(chambers) of sedimentary
origin or formed by compressed
air, for instance gas bubbles in
slaking crusts after heavy
rainfall.
• Vughs: Mostly irregular,
equidimensional voids of faunal
origin or resulting from tillage
or disturbance of other voids.
Discontinuous or
interconnected.
Charts for estimating size and abundance of pores and roots
p. Concentrations
In this section the most commonly Nature
occurring concentrations of soil The nature of cutans may be described as
materials are described, including follows:
secondary enrichments, cementations • Clay: Slickensides, non-
and reorientations. intersecting
• Clay and sesquioxides:
Cutanic features Slickensides, partly intersecting
Described in this section are clay or • Clay and humus (organic matter:
mixed-clay illuviation features and Slickensides, predomin.
surface-related reorientations such as Intersecting
slickensides and pressure faces, • Pressure faces: Shiny faces (as in
according to abundance, contrast, nitic properties)
nature, and location.
Location
Abundance The location of the cutans or clay
For surface-related cutanic features, the accumulation is indicated. For pressure
estimate is made according to how much faces and slickensides no location is given
of the best developed ped or aggregate since they are by definition located on
faces is covered. Corresponding criteria pedfaces.
should be applied when the cutanic • Pedfaces
feature is related to other surfaces • Vertical pedfaces
(voids, coarse fragments) or occurs as • Horizontal pedfaces
lamellae. • Coarse fragments
• None 0 % • Lamellae (clay bands)
• Very few 0 - 2 % • Voids
• Few 2 - 5 % • No specific location
• Common 5 - 15 %
• Dominant > 80 % q. Cementation and compaction
• Many 15 - 40 % The occurrence of cementation or
• Abundant 40 - 80 % compaction, in pans or otherwise, is
described according to its nature,
Contrast continuity, structure, agent and degree.
• Faint: Surface of cutan shows Compacted material has a firm or
only little contrast in colour, stronger consistence when moist and a
smoothness or any other close packing of particles. Cemented
property to the adjacent material does not slake after one hour of
surface. Fine sand grains are immersion in water.
readily apparent in the cutan.
Lamellae are less than 2 mm Continuity
thick • Broken: The layer is less than 50
• Distinct: Surface of cutan is % cemented or compacted, and
distinctly smoother or different in shows a rather irregular
colour than the adjacent surface. appearance.
Fine sand grains are enveloped in • Discontinuous: the layer is 50 -
the cutan but their outlines are 90 % cemented or compacted,
still visible. Lamellae are between an in general show a regular
2 and 5 mm thick. appearance.
• Prominent: Surface of cutan • Continuous: The layer is more
contrasts strongly in smoothness than 90 % cemented or
or colour with the adjacent compacted, and is only in places
surface. Outlines of fine sand interrupted by cracks or fissures.
grains are not visible. Lamellae
are more than 5 mm thick.
Structure hands but is discontinuous (less
The fabric, or structure, of the cemented or than 90 % of soil mass).
compacted layer may be described as • Cemented: Cemented mass cannot
follows: be broken in the hands and is
• None: The structure is massive continuous (more than 90 % of
without recognizable orientation. soil mass).
• Platy: The compacted or
cemented parts are plate-like and r. Mineral nodules
have a (sub) horizontal Mineral nodules cover a large variety of
orientation. secondary crystalline, microcrystalline
• Vesicular: The layer has large, and amorphous concentrations of non-
equidimensional voids which may organic substances. Gradual transitions
be filled with uncemented exist with mottles, some of which may
material. be considered as weak expressions of
• Pisolithic: The layer is largely nodules. The mineral nodules are
constructed from cemented described according to their kind,
spherical nodules. abundance, size, shape, hardness, nature
• Nodular: The layer is largely and colour.
constructed from cemented
nodules or concretions of Abundance (by volume)
irregular shape. • None 0 %
• Very few 0 - 2 %
Nature • Few 2 - 5 %
The nature of cementation or compaction • Common 2 - 15 %
is described according to the cementing • Many 15 - 40 %
agent or compacting activity, such as: • Abundant 40 - 80 %
• Carbonates • Dominant > 80 %
• Silica
• Carbonates-silica Kind
• Iron Mechanical • Crystal
• Iron-manganese (sesquioxides) • Concretion: A discrete body
• Iron-organic matter with a concentric internal
• Gypsum structure, generally cemented.
• Clay • Soft segregation (or soft
• Clay-sesquioxides accumulation): Differs from the
• Ploughing surrounding soil mass in colour
• Not known and composition but is not
easily separated as a discrete
Degree body.
• Non-cemented and non- • Nodule: Discrete body without
compacted: Neither cementation an internal organization.
nor compaction observed (slakes • Residual rock fragment:
in water). Discrete impregnated body still
• Compacted but non-cemented: showing rock structure.
Compacted mass is appreciably
harder or more brittle than other Size
comparable soil mass (slakes in • Very fine < 2 mm
water). • Fine 2 - 6 mm
• Weakly cemented: Cemented mass • Medium 6 - 20 mm
is brittle and hard, but can be • Coarse > 20 mm
broken in the hands.
• Moderately cemented: Cemented Shape
mass cannot be broken in the • Rounded (spherical)
• Elongate
 • Flat s. Roots
• Irregular The abundance of fine and very fine
• Angular roots may be recorded similarly as for
voids (, expressed in the number of roots
Hardness per square decimeter.
• Hard: Nodule cannot be broken
in the fingers. Size (diameter)
• Soft: Nodule can be broken • Very fine < 0.5 mm
between forefinger and thumb • Fine 0.5 - 2 mm
nail • Medium 2 - 5 mm
• Both hard and soft. • Coarse > 5 mm

Nature Abundance
The mineral nodules are described
according to their composition or Abundance < 2 mm > 2 mm
impregnating substance. Some examples None 0 0
are: Very few 1-20 1-2
• Carbonates (calcareous) Few 20-50 2-5
• Carbonates-silica Common 50-200 5-20
• Clay (argillaceous) Many >200 >20
• Clay-sesquioxides
• Gypsum (gypsiferous) t. Other biological features
• Salt (saline) Biological features such as krotovinas,
• Sulphur (sulphurous) termite burrows, insect nests, worm
• Silica (siliceous) casts or burrows of larger animals are
• Iron (ferruginous) described in terms of abundance and
• Iron-manganese (sesquioxides) kind. In addition, specific locations,
• Manganese (manganiferous) patterns, size, composition or any other
• Not known characteristic may be recorded.

Color Abundance
The following general color names are Abundance of biological activity is
usually sufficient to describe the color of recorded in the following general
the nodules (similar to mottles): descriptive terms:
• White • None
• Red • Few
• Reddish • Common
• Yellowish red • Many
• Brown
Kind
• Brownish
Examples of biological features are the
• Reddish brown
following:
• Yellowish brown
• Artefacts
• Yellow
• Burrows (unspecified)
• Reddish yellow
• Open large burrows
• Greenish
• Infilled large burrows
• Grey
• Charcoal
• Greyish
• Earthworm channels
• Blue
• Pedotubules
• Bluish-black
• Termite or ant channels and
• Black
nests
• Other insect activity
Guide Questions Classification of Soils

1. What are the various considerations I. Early Soil Classification Systems

in conducting soil description?
2. Discuss the importance of feel method The Russians developed the first soil
in determining the soil texture. classification system based on soil
3. What are the qualities of a researcher genesis. They grouped soils into zonal
to undertake a comprehensive soils (complete soils), intrazonal soils,
description of soils? and azonal soils (incomplete soils).
Zonal soils are the soils whose
properties reflected the kind of climate
and vegetation under which they
developed. They are distributed
according to zones or belts on the
surface of continents. Intrazonal soils
have characteristics dominated by local
factors that occurred in excess such as
wetness (hydromorphic), salts
(halomorphic), etc. These soils occur
under different climatic regimes
whenever the local factors predominate
over the general zonal factors. Azonal
soils are those whose properties were
essentially the properties of the parent
material, either because of youth, recent
deposition of soil parent material or due
to erosion. They are not distributed
according to any zone.

The earliest classification system in the

U.S. in 1899 categorized soils into soil
types. A few years later in 1903 the soil
types were grouped into soil series
(Smith, 1983). Soil series is a group of
soils having the same range in color, the
same character of subsoil, particularly
color and structure, same type of relief
and drainage, and a common or similar
origin. It carries the name of the town or
village where it was first observed and
mapped. Soil type is a soil which,
throughout the area of its occurrence,
has the same texture, color, structure,
character of subsoil, topography and
parent material. A soil series can be
differentiated into several soil types
based on the texture of the surface
horizon. In 1938, a new soil
classification was developed in the U.S.
based on the Russian genetic system.
The different soil series were grouped
into zonal, interzonal and azonal.

When the Americans conducted the

survey and mapping of Philippine soils
 in the early part of the 1900’s, they Organization (FAO) soil classification, the
employed the soil classification system U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
which grouped soils into soil series and Soil Taxonomy, and the World Reference
soil types. This is the reason why the old Base (WRB) were developed.
soil maps (a soil map shows the
distribution of soil types or other A. The USDA Soil Taxonomy
mapping units in a given area) of the Soil Taxonomy is a comprehensive
different islands or provinces in the soil classification system developed
Philippines show the distribution of soil by the Soil Survey Staff of the U.S.
series and soil types. A good example is Department of Agriculture in
San Manuel series which was first collaboration with several soil
mapped in the town of San Manuel in scientists from outside the U.S. The
Pangasinan, is shown by several soil development started in 1951 and
types under it like San Manuel sandy was completed (first published) in
loam, San Manuel silt loam, San Manuel 1975. Soil Taxonomy provides a
sandy clay loam. hierarchical grouping of soils based
on the concept of a precisely defined
II. Modern Soil Classification Systems and selected horizons to classify soil
profiles. One of the advantages of
In the modern soil classification system, this system is that it is based on
soils are classified as natural bodies on many soil properties and conditions
the basis of their profile characteristics that reflect not only the formation of
and not merely on their suitability for a the soil but also those crucial for
particular use. The soil properties are plant growth. Its main drawback
the result of soil forming processes as however is that it is complicated
affected by factors such as climate, and difficult to use especially for
topography and others. scientists with little knowledge of
the system.
The purposes of soil classification are:
• To organize our knowledge In this classification system, the
about soils to avoid chaos and pedon is the smallest sampling unit
confusion among soil users; that displays the range of properties
• To serve as a common language of a particular soil. It is thus the
to foster global communication basis for classifying the different
about soils among soil scientists categories.
and all people concerned with
the soil; Categories of Soil Taxonomy
• To assist in the retention of • Order 12
useful knowledge collected in • Suborder 63
the past and in other places; and • Great group 250
• To enable the best use and • Subgroup 1,400
management of the soil • Family 8,000
resource. • Series
19,000 (U.S. only)
Many countries have their own soil
classification systems. For instance, Ahrens and Arnold (2002)
Australia, Brazil, China, England, France, summarized the basis of the different
Germany, Japan, Russia, USA and many categories as follows:
others have their own soil classification
systems. To foster exchange of data and • Order is based on properties
ideas, scientists realized the need for an resulting from the major
internationally accepted classification processes and pathways of
system that incorporates many of the soil formation.
ideas of the various national systems.
Thus, the Food and Agriculture
 • Suborder is based on soil • Umbric horizon is the same as
properties that are major mollic except that it has low BS.
controls or that reflect such • Ochric horizon is thin, has light
controls on the current soil- color, low OM, hard and
forming processes. massive structure when dry.
• Great Group is based on • Melanic horizon is thick, black,
properties that constitute and high in OM (>6% organic C)
additional controls or reflect and short-range order minerals
such controls on the current (e.g. allophone and imogolite).
soil-forming processes. • Histic horizon is thick, has very
• Subgroup is based on high OM (>20%) and usually
properties resulting from saturated with water.
either: 1) a blending or • Folistic horizon is thick, has high
overlapping of sets of OM but is not usually saturated
processes that cause one kind with water.
of soil to develop from or • Anthropic horizon is human-
toward another kind of soil at modified mollic-like horizon
the great group, suborder or that is high in P.
order level, 2) sets of • Plaggen horizon is human-made
processes or conditions that sodlike horizon created by
have not been recognized as long-term manuring.
criteria at a higher category.
• Family is based on properties b. Subsurface diagnostic horizons
that reflect important Subsurface diagnostic horizons are
conditions affecting the generally found in the B horizon
behavior or the potential for although it may also include the lower
change of the soil. part of A or the upper part of C horizon.
The most common among them are:
Diagnostic horizons
• Albic horizon has light
To classify soils into the higher categories like (“bleached”) color imparted by
order, diagnostic soil horizons are used. the sand and silt grains after the
Diagnostic horizons are horizons having clay and iron oxide coatings
specific soil characteristics (based on well- have been removed by soil
defined criteria set for a particular diagnostic processes.
horizon) that are indicative of certain classes • Argillic horizon is characterized
of soils. by illuvial accumulation of
Those occurring on the surface are called silicate clay and thus
surface diagnostic horizons (or epipedons) and substantially higher clay than
those below the surface are subsurface the above horizon. It is usually
diagnostic horizons. associated with alfisols and
ultisols.
a. Surface diagnostic horizons • Natric horizon is like argillic
Surface diagnostic horizons can be the horizon but is high in sodium
entire A horizon or just a part of it or (exchangeable sodium
may include the entire A horizon and a percentage is equal to or
part of the B horizon. This means that greater than 15).
the boundary of the diagnostic horizon • Spodic horizon contains
may not coincide with the boundary of significant quantities of active
the genetic horizons A, E, B or C. materials composed of organic
matter and Al, with or without
• Mollic horizon is thick, dark- Fe that have precipitated in the
colored (>0.6% organic C), has subsoil. It is associated with
high base saturation (BS), and a spodosols.
strong structure.
 • Cambic horizon is characterized where winters are moist and cool and
by structure development and summers are warm and dry.
shows alteration due to
weathering. It is associated Soil Temperature Regime
with weakly to moderately
developed soils. Soil temperature is a critical factor affecting
• Agric horizon has OM and clay the growth of plants in cold regions. This is the
accumulation formed by long- reason why soil temperature regime is an
continued cultivation. important parameter in Soil Taxonomy. It is
• Oxic horizon is highly not however critical in the humid tropical
weathered diagnostic horizon regions like the Philippines where the soil
and contains a mixture of Fe & temperature remain in the range favorable for
Al oxides and silicate clays. It is the growth of plants.
associated with oxisols.
• Calcic horizon contains an MAST MSST-MWST> 5oC MSST-MWST<
accumulation of secondary 5o C
CaCO3. It is common in arid
areas. - 4 to -10oC Pergelic
• Kandic horizon has high 1 to - 4 Subgelic
accumulation of low-activity <8 Cryic and frigid Isofrigid
clays like kaolinite and 8 to 15 Mesic Isomesic
halloysite. It is associated with 15 to 22 Thermic Isothermic
ultisols and oxisols. >22 Hyperthermic Isohyperthermic

Soil Moisture Regime • MAST (Mean annual soil

This refers to the presence or absence of either temperature)- estimated by adding
water saturated condition or plant available 1oC to mean annual air temperature
water in the soil profile. for temperate areas and 2.5°C for
• Aquic (L. aqua- water) moisture humid tropical areas.
regime is saturated with water and • MSST (Mean summer soil
that is virtually free of dissolved temperature) at 50 cm depth
oxygen. • MWST (Mean winter soil
• Udic (L. udus – humid) moisture temperature) at 50 cm depth
regime has sufficient moisture year-
round. The soil is not dry for as long as General Characteristics of the Soil Orders
90 days (cumulative). A perudic
regime has all the characteristics of Organic soils
udic, plus the fact that precipitation • Histosols are the organic soils like peat
exceeds evapotranspiration in all or bog that form in poorly-drained
months. areas. They have organic matter
• Ustic (L. ustus- burnt, dry) moisture content of more than 20 percent.
regime characterizes sufficient
moisture during the growing season Mineral soils
only. The soil is dry for more than 90 • Entisols are soils with little or no
days (cumulative). profile development and no diagnostic
• Aridic and torric (L. aridus- dry; horizons. They are widespread in
torridus- hot and dry) moisture young alluvial plains particularly
regime is dry for at least half of the along rivers systems.
growing season. The soil is never • Andisols are the volcanic ash soils.
moist for as long as 90 days They are common in young volcanic
(cumulative); moisture limits growth landscapes.
of plants. • Gelisols are the soils in cold regions
• Xeric (Gr. xeros- dry) moisture regime with permafrost (i.e. permanently
is typical of Mediterranean climate frozen subsoil).
• Inceptisols are embryonic soils with
few diagnostic features but more
developed than the Entisols. They
show early development of a B
horizon.
• Aridisols are the soils in arid (dry)
regions. They are weakly developed
and usually contain high carbonate
content.
• Vertisols are the swelling and cracking
soils of lowland areas. They are poorly
developed soils.
• Mollisols are dark soils of grasslands
(have mollic epipedon). They have
high base saturation of more than
50%. They are the dominant soil order
in the subhumid to semi-arid
grassland regions of the world.
• Spodosols are acid, sandy soils usually
under pine forests in temperate areas.
They have spodic horizons below an
albic horizon.
• Alfisols are well-developed soils
usually of upland areas. They have
argillic, natric or kandic horizon and
have medium to high base saturation
(35% or more base saturation).
• Ultisols are well-developed soils with
low base status (acidic) of less than
35%. They are commonly found in
forest and upland areas in the warm
tropics. They have argillic or kandic
horizon and are dominated by
kaolinite clay minerals.
• Oxisols are the oldest and most highly
weathered soils in the humid tropics.
They have oxic horizon.
Soil order names and their formative elements and meaning (Soil Survey Staff, 1999)

Examples of suborder
Order Formative Element Meaning
names
Histosol Ist Gr. histos “tissue” Saprist, Folist
Entisol Ent Derived from recent Aquent, Fluvent
Inceptisol Ept L. inceptum “beginning” Aquept, Udept
Andisol And Jap. ando “black soil” Udand, Cryand
Gelisol El L. gelare “to freeze” Histel, Orthel
Vertisol Ert L. verto „to turn“ Aquert, Udert
Aridisol Id L. aridus “dry” Argid, Calcid
Mollisol Oll L. mollis “soft” Xeroll, Udoll
Spodosol Od Gr. spodos “wood ash” Cryod, Humod
Alfisol Alf Derived from Pedalfer Ustalf, Udalf
Ultisol Ult L. ultimus “last” Humult, Udult
Oxisol Ox F. oxide “oxide” Torrox, Udox

Formative elements used in suborder names (Soil Survey Staff 1999)

Formative Element Derivation and meaning

Alb L. albus “white”
Anthr Gr. Anthropos “human”
Aqu L. aqua “water”
Ar L. arare “to plow”
Arg L. argilla “white clay”
Calc L. calcis “lime”
Camb L. cambiare “to exchange”
Cry Gr. kryos “cold”
Dur L. duras “hard”
Fibr L. fibra “fiber”
Fluv L. fluvius “river”
Fol L. folia “leaf”
Gyps L. gypsum “gypsum”
Hem Gr. hemi “half”
Hist Gr. histos “tissue”
Hum L. humus “earth”
Orth Fr. orthos “true”
Per L. perennis “all year”
Psamm Gr. psammos “sand”
Rend Polish rendzina “limestone soil”
Sal L. sal “salt”
Sapr Gr. sapros “rotten”
Torr L. torridus “hot dry”
Turb L. turbidis “disturbed”
Ud L. udus “humid”
Ust L. ustus “burnt”
Vitr L. vitrum “glass”
Xer Gr. xerox “dry”
Example of a soil name down to the subgroup
level:
soil resources and interrelationships were
Typic Tropudult incorporated and the new classification
system was released during the 16th
Order: Ultisol: A mature or old soil that is World Congress of Soil Science in 1998 in
acidic & infertile France.
Suborder: Udult: The soil has a udic soil
moisture regime which means moisture is In the 2006 version of WRB, 32 reference
available for the plants throughout the year. soil groups (new name for the major soil
Great Group Tropudult: The soil is in a warm units in the 1988 FAO system) are
and humid climate. distinguished. Compared to the 1988 FAO
Subgroup: Typic Tropudult: It is the typical version, one major soil group was omitted
Tropudult (Greyzems) and five new ones were
introduced (Cryosols, Durisols, Umbrisols,
Stagnosols, and Technosols). Although a
B. The FAO soil classification system little more complicated than the original
1988 version, WRB is still easy to use and
The Food and Agriculture Organization thus it is now widely used in many
(FAO), the United Nations Educational, countries.
Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) in association with the The basis of differentiating classes at the
International Soil Science Society (ISSS) higher categorical level (e.g. reference soil
developed a world soil map with a scale of groups) are the primary pedogenetic or
1:5,000,000 covering all continents of the soil-forming processes that have produced
world. The legend accompanying this the dominant features of the soil. The soil
world map became what is known or object that is classified in WRB includes
worldwide as the FAO soil classification any material within two (2) meters from
system which was published in 1974. The the Earth’s surface that is in contact with
34 major soil units of this map legend have the atmosphere except living organisms,
been defined in terms of measurable and areas under continuous ice not covered by
observable soil properties. In light of new other material, and water bodies deeper
knowledge of soils particularly from than 2 meters. Included are bare rock,
developing countries, the 1988 Revised paved urban soils, soils of industrial areas,
Legend of the FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the cave soils as well as subaqueous soils. The
World was issued which distinguished 28 lateral dimension of the object being
soil groupings four more than the 24 of the classified should be large enough to
1974 original version (Spaargaren, 2002). represent the nature of any horizon and
The FAO soil classification system has variability that may be present. The
enjoyed worldwide acceptance because it minimum horizontal area may range from
is a simple system and is easy to use in the 1 to 10 m2 depending on the variability of
field even by scientists who are not the soil cover (IUSS Working Group WRB,
specialists in soil classification. 2006).

Rationalized Key to the WRB Reference Soil

C. The World Reference Base for Soil Groups
Resources (WRB)
1. Soils with thick organic layers;
The WRB was developed by the ISSS (now Histosols
International Union of Soil Sciences or 2. Soils with strong human influence
IUSS), FAO, and the International Soil • Soils with long and
Reference and Information Center (ISRIC) intensive agricultural use;
based on the 1988 Revised Legend of the Anthrosols
FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World. Latest • Soils containing many
knowledge relating to global artefacts; Technosols
3. Soils with limited rooting depth • Albeluvic tounging;
due to permafrost or stoniness Albeluvisols
• Ice-affected soils; Cryosols • Low base status, high-
• Shallow or extremely activity clay; Alisols
gravelly soils; Leptosols • Low-base status, low-
4. Soils influenced by water activity clay; Acrisols
• Alternating wet-dry • High-base status, high-
conditions, rich in clays; activity clay; Luvisols
Vertisols • High base status, low-
• Floodplains, tidal activity clay; Lixisols
marshes; Fluvisols
• Alkaline soils; Solonetz 10. Relatively young soils or soils
• Salt enrichment upon with little or no profile
evaporation; Solonchaks development
• Groundwater affected • With an acidic dark
soils; Gleysols topsoil; Umbrisols
5. Soils set by iron aluminum • Sandy soils; Arenosols
chemistry • Moderately developed
• Allophanes or Al-humus soils; Cambisols
complexes; Andosols • Soils with no significant
• Cheluviation and profile development;
chilluviation Podzols Regosols
• Accumulation of Fe
under hydromorphic Guide Questions
conditions; Plinthosols
• Low-activity clay, 1. What is the best system to be used
strongly structured; in classifying soils?
Nitisols 2. In soil classification, what are the
• Dominance of kaolinite fundamental considerations?
and sesquioxides; 3. What are the significant
Ferralsols similarities and differences for
6. Soils with stagnating water USDA Soil Taxonomy and IUSS
• Abrupt textural World Reference Base?
discontinuity; Planosols
• Structural or moderate References
textural discontinuity;
Stagnosols FAO, 2006. Guidelines for Soil Description (R
7. Accumulation of organic matter, Jahn, HP Blume, VB Asio, P. Schad). (4th ed).
high base status FAO, Rome.
• Typically mollic;
Chernozems Jahn R., H.P. Blume, and V.B. Asio. 2003.
• Transition to drier Students Guide for Soil Description, Soil
climate; Kastanozems Classification and Site Evaluation. University of
• Transition to more Halle, Germany.
humid climate;
Phaeozems IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006. World
8. Accumulation of less soluble salts Reference Base for soil resources 2006. World
or non-saline substances Soil Resource Reports No. 103. FAO, Rome.
• Gypsum; Gypsisols
Schlichting E, H.P. Blume and K Stahr. 1995.
• Silica; Durisols
Bodenkundliches Praktikum (2nd ed.).
• Calcium carbonate;
Blackwell Wissenschaft Verlag, Berlin.
Calcisols
9. Soils with a clay-enriched subsoil
Schoeneberger P.J., D.A. Wysocki, E.C. Benham, Chapter III. Interpretive Systems
and W.D. Broderson. 1998. Field Book for
Describing and Sampling Soils. Natural Introduction
Resources Conservation Service, USDA,
National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE The technical or interpretive systems group
soils according to their inferred properties, for
Spaargaren, O. 2002. Other systems of particular interpretations or uses. A soil or
classification. In: Handbook of Soil Science land maybe classified according to their
(M.E. Sumner, ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp: usefulness for growing crops, building houses,
E137-E173. disposing of wastes, or providing gravel,
topsoil or sand. In each case, we deduce from
Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil Taxonomy- A Basic the observed properties that a soil has
System of Soil Classification for Making and qualities good enough or poor enough for a
Interpreting Soil Surveys. 2nd ed. Agric. particular use.
Handbook No. 436. USDA-NRCS
Some examples of interpretive systems are the
non-parametric USDA Land Capability
Classification, the parametric Storie Index, the
Timber Site Index, and ratings for non-
agricultural uses of soils. Interpreted or
inferred properties, rather observed
properties, are classified.

Soil potential is a new rating system that rate

soils for specific local uses against a local
standard. It not only rates a soil but also
describes the limitation’s general nature.

Objectives

1. To remember some important soil

properties, learn about them, utilize
them and organized them into similar
groups;
2. List down some observed and inferred
properties;
3. To differentiate between a para-
metric system from that of a non-
parametric one; and
4. To relate soil potential with soil
limitations.
Land Capability Classification calculations, costs and prices are often
made in order to decide appropriate
Land Evaluation level of inputs.

Land evaluation is assessment of land 3. Economic Evaluation

performance when used for a specified This includes result given in terms of
purpose, involving the execution and profit and loss for each specified
interpretation of surveys and studies of land enterprise on each kind of land.
forms, soils, vegetation, climate, and other Specific money values are applied to
aspects of land to compare promising kinds of data from qualitative physical
land use in terms applicable to the objectives evaluation, thereby obtaining the cost
of the evaluation (FAO 1976). of inputs and values of production.
While terms such highly or
There are three sources of information that moderately suitable, etc. are still
land evaluation needs. These are land, land use employed. The boundaries between
and economics. Data on land are obtained by these classes are defined in economic
natural resource survey including soil survey. terms. It also sets out among the
Information on the ecological and technical results of environmental data as basis
requirements of different kinds of land use is for taking decisions. This is always
obtained from agronomy, forestry, and other required for project appraisal for most
relevant disciplines. The data drawn from planning decisions and for private
economic should concern broad features when investment.
results are required in purely physical terms.
However, if the results required in economic Other Types of Land Evaluation
terms, then, data on specific costs and prices
are needed. 1. Current Land Suitability (CLS)
This is a type of land evaluation which
Type of Land Evaluation refers to the value of the land in its
present condition, without major
1. Qualitative Evaluation improvements although it may
It is one which the suitability of land assume minor improvements as part
for alternative purposes is expressed of the specification of land utilization
in qualitative terms such as highly type (LUT).
suitable, moderately or marginally
suitable or not suitable for a specified 2. Potential Land Suitability (PLS)
use. Economic considerations are As oppose to the above type, this
necessary present as a background refers to the value of the land at some
but no calculations based on specific future data, if and when major land
costs and process. This is employed improvements have been carried out.
mainly in surveys at reconnaissance
scale or less as a preliminary to more Purposes of Land Evaluation
detailed investigations.
The fundamental purpose of land evaluation is
2. Quantitative Physical Evaluation to predict the consequences of chance. If a
It is one which provides quantitative farmer is growing rice already, he does not
estimates of the production or other need formal procedures of land evaluation, the
benefits to be expressed and expected, value of the land for these yields and returns. It
e.g. crop yields, beef or wool is therefore emphasized that land evaluation
production, rates of timber growth, becomes necessary where change is
recreational capacity. The inputs are contemplated like bringing into production
also specified in quantitative form, e.g. land formally under natural vegetation,
tons of fertilizers, man days of labor, establishing a recreational park, or it may be
pesticide treatments. Economics is introduction of a new technique such as
again present mainly as a background sprinkle irrigation, the introduction of
although some approximate mechanized farming.
 competition between alternative uses
Prediction is needed of the suitability of the for the same land area and pressures
land for different forms of production, the from the many interest groups
inputs and management practices needed, the concerned. A recurrent demand not
production of other benefits, and the only in developed countries but also to
consequences of such changes as the warning developing ones like the Philippines is
that certain land should not be cultivated for the conversion of agricultural land
owing to a severe hazard of soil erosion. to urban and industrial uses.

Purposes in less developed countries and b. Management

sparsely settled developed countries (Young Evaluation is appropriate whenever
1981) land improvement or a major change
in management practices is being
a. Resource Inventory considered. For selection of LUT’s and
The best way of indicating the for management purposes of some,
development possibilities of large economic justification should be made
areas which is relatively quick and i.e. comparing costs with benefits.
cheap is evaluation at a
reconnaissance scale. This will enable Principles of Land Evaluation
developers to see e.g. where the best
areas for large scale food crop Land evaluation is founded on the following
production are to be found. principles
Identification of alternative (FAO 1976):
development projects can follow.
1. Land suitability assessment and
b. Project Feasibility classification is only meaningful with
Since development projects have been respect to specific kinds of land use. The
identified, the next stage in a land itself and the proposed land use
feasibility study, carried out before are equally essential to suitability
the decision to invest is to be done. evaluation. It is incumbent upon
Land evaluation provides one of the development planners to have initially
main sources of data for such study. identified the proposed land use prior
The evaluation will actually refer to to the conduct of evaluation. Worst is
land utilization types described in that land use change is implemented
some degrees of detail. oftentimes without any suitability
evaluation at all.
c. Farm Planning
Every unit of management whether it 2. Evaluation requires a comparison of
be a private or government farm the inputs and the benefits based on the
communal and, a livestock ranch or proposed land uses. This means that
forest reserve, requires areas of land we consider the level of technology
to be allocated to different purposes. that accompanies the land uses under
For farm layout, land capability consideration. That would include
classification has stood the best of traditional approaches to farming,
time. For more specialized techniques low, medium, or high level of
or kinds of use will be needed. mechanization and technology
applications. Evaluators often
Purposes in closely settled developed countries overlooked that Filipino farmers have
(Young, 1981) differing levels of agricultural
competence and available capital that
a. Planning greatly influenced the adopted level of
Land evaluation provides one of the production technology since most of
most objective sets of data the available reference materials are
contributing towards planning written not specific to local
decisions. Against the background of conditions.
3. Evaluation involves comparison of Levels of Intensity and Approaches
more than a single kind of land use
according to the development Certain groups of activities are common to all
envisioned. Comparative analysis types of land evaluation. In all cases evaluation
would mean that at the end of the commences with initial consultations,
evaluation exercise, the overall concerned with the objectives of the evaluation,
suitability of one proposed land use assumptions and constraints, and the methods
could be equal, more, or less than that to be followed. Details of subsequent activities
of the other proposed for the area. and the sequence in which they are carried out,
vary with circumstances. These circumstances
include the level of intensity of the survey and
4. A multidisciplinary approach is which of two overall approaches is followed.
essential. Soil is only one aspect of the
evaluation. Climate and availability of Levels of Intensity
water resources is another important
production factor. Three levels of intensity may be distinguished:
reconnaissance, semi-detailed and detailed.
These are normally reflected in the scales of
5. Evaluation is made in terms relevant to
resulting maps.
the physical, economic, and social
context of the area concerned. Where
1. Reconnaissance surveys are concerned
labor cost is high and the youth prefer
with broad inventory of resources and
to migrate to the cities, low technology
development possibilities at regional
input may not be practical but
and national scales. Economic analysis
individual investment in farm
is only in very general terms, and land
mechanization may also prove to be
evaluation is qualitative. The results
quite expensive. Cooperative access to
contribute to national plans,
farm machineries maybe introduced if
permitting the selection of
this is not yet the practice.
development areas and priorities.
Assumptions vary as we conduct land
resources evaluation in different
2. Surveys at the semi-detailed, or
areas and these should be clearly
intermediate level are concerned with
specified.
more specific aims such as feasibility
studies of development projects. The
6. Suitability refers to the sustainable
work may include farm surveys;
land use and is assumed to have
economic analysis is considerably
considered the relevant land
more important, and land evaluation
degradation aspects. While agriculture
is usually quantitative. This level
is a form of land exploitation,
provides information for decisions on
sustainable resource management
the selection of projects, or whether a
practices are part of the technology
particular development or other
assumption; defined or reiterated in
change is to go ahead.
the tabular conclusion for the
evaluated mapping units. Usually, the
limitations of land use are stated and
the accompanying soil conservation
and management practices are
recommended.
 3. The detailed level covers surveys for
actual planning and design, or farm In the parallel approach the economic and
planning and advice, often carried out social analysis of the kinds of land use
after the decision to implement has proceeds simultaneously with the survey and
been made assessment of physical factors. The kinds of
use to which the evaluation refers are usually
Two-Stage and Parallel Approaches to Land modified in the course of the study. In the case
Evaluation of arable farming, for example, this
modification may include selection of crops
1. A two-stage approach in which the and rotations, estimates of the inputs of capital
first stage is mainly concerned with and labor, and determination of optimum farm
qualitative land evaluation, later size. Similarly, in forestry it may include, for
(although not necessarily) followed by example, selection of tree species, dates of
a second stage consisting of economic thinning and felling and required protective
and social analysis measures. This procedure is mostly favored for
• Parallel approach in which analysis of specific proposals in connection with
the relationships between land and development projects and at semi-detailed and
land use proceeds concurrently with detailed levels of intensity.
economic and social analysis.
The parallel approach is expected to give more
Two-Stage and Parallel Approach to Land precise results in a shorter period of time. It
Evaluation offers a better chance of concentrating survey
and data-collection activities on producing
information needed for the evaluation.

However, the two-stage approach appears

more straightforward, possessing a clear-cut
sequence of activities. The physical resource
surveys precede economic and social analysis,
without overlap, hence permitting a more
flexible timing of activities and of staff
recruitment. The two-stage approach is used
as a background in the subsequent text except
where otherwise stated.

Land

Land comprises the physical environment,

including climate, relief, soils, hydrology and
vegetation, to the extent that these influence
potential for land use. It includes the results of
past and present human activity, e.g.
reclamation from the sea, vegetation
clearance, and also adverse results, e.g. soil
salinization. Purely economic and social
characteristics, however, are not included in
the concept of land; these form part of the
economic and social context.

A land mapping unit is a mapped area of land

with specified characteristics. Land mapping
units are defined and mapped by natural
resource surveys, e.g. soil survey, forest
inventory. Their degree of homogeneity or of
internal variation varies with the scale and
intensity of the study. In some cases a single
land mapping unit may include two or more A land utilization type consists of a set of
distinct types of land, with different technical specifications in a given physical,
suitabilities, e.g. a river flood plain, mapped as economic and social setting. This may be the
a single unit but known to contain both well- current environment or a future Betting
drained alluvial areas and swampy modified by major land improvement e, e.g. an
depressions. irrigation and drainage scheme. Attributes of
land utilization types include data or
Land is thus a wider concept than soil or assumptions on:
terrain. Variation in soils, or soils and
landforms, is often the main cause of • Produce, including goods (e.g. crops,
differences between land mapping units livestock timber), cervices (e.g.
within a local area: it is for this reason that soil recreational facilities) or other
surveys are sometimes the main basis for benefits (e.g. wildlife conservation)
definition of land mapping units. However, the • Market orientation, including whether
fitness of soils for land use cannot be assessed towards subsistence or commercial
in isolation from other aspects of the production
environment, and hence it is land which is • Capital intensity
employed as the basis for suitability • Labour intensity
evaluation. • Power sources (e.g. man's labour,
draught animals machinery using
Land use fuels)
• Technical knowledge and attitudes of
Suitability evaluation involves relating land land users
mapping units to specified types of land use. • Technology employed (e.g.
The types of use considered are limited to implements and machinery,
those which appear to be relevant under fertilizers, livestock breeds, farm
general physical, economic and social transport, methods of timber felling)
conditions prevailing in an area. These kinds of • Infrastructure requirements (e.g.
land use serve as the subject of land evaluation. sawmills, tat factories, agricultural
They may consist of major kinds of land use or advisory services)
land utilization types. • Size and configuration of land
holdings, including whether
Major Kinds of Land Use and Land
consolidated or fragmented
Utilization Types
• Land tenure, the legal or customary
manner in which rights to land are
A major kind of land use is a major subdivision
held, by individuals or groups
of rural land use, such as rainfed agriculture,
• Income levels, expressed per capita,
irrigated agriculture, grassland, forestry, or
per unit of production (e.g. farm) or
recreation. Major kinds of land use are usually
per unit area.
considered in land evaluation studies of a
qualitative or reconnaissance nature.
Some examples of land utilization types are:
A land utilization type is a kind of land use
1. Rainfed annual cropping based on
described or defined in a degree of detail
groundnuts with subsistence maize,
greater than that of a major kind of land use. In
by smallholders with low capital
detailed or quantitative land evaluation
resources, using cattle drawn farm
studies, the kinds of land use considered will
implements, with high labor intensity,
usually consist of land utilization types. They
on freehold farms of 5-10 ha.
are described with as much detail and
2. Farming similar to (i) in respect of
precision as the purpose requires. Thus land
production, capital, labor, power and
utilization typos are not a categorical level in a
technology, but farms of 200-500 ha
classification of land use, but refer to any
operated on a communal basis.
defined use below the level of the major kind of
land use.
 3. Commercial wheat production on A land characteristic is an attribute of land that
large freehold farms, with high capital can be measured or estimated. Examples are
and low labor intensity, and a high slope angle, rainfall, soil texture, available
level of mechanization and inputs. water capacity, biomass of the vegetation, etc.
4. Extensive cattle ranching, with Land mapping units, as determined by
medium levels of capital and labor resource surveys, are normally described in
intensity, with land held and central terms of land characteristics.
services operated by a governmental
agency. A land quality is a complex attribute of land
5. Dipterocarp plantations operated by a which acts in a distinct manner in its influence
government Department of on the suitability of land for a specific kind of
Environment and Natural Resources, use. Land qualities may be expressed in a
with high capital intensity, low labor positive or negative way. Examples are
intensity, and advanced technology. moisture availability, erosion resistance,
6. A national park for recreation and flooding hazard, nutritive value of pastures,
tourism. accessibility. Where data are available,
aggregate land qualities may also be employed,
Multiple and Compound Land Use e.g. crop yields, mean annual increments of
timber species.
• A multiple land utilization
type consists of more than one kind of There are a very large number of land qualities,
use simultaneously undertaken on the but only those relevant to land use alternatives
same area of land, each use having its under consideration need be determined. A
own inputs, requirements and land quality is relevant to a given type of land
produce. An example is a timber use if it influences either the level of inputs
plantation used simultaneously as a required, or the magnitude of benefits
recreational area. obtained, or both.
• A compound land utilization
type consists of more than one kind of Land qualities can sometimes be estimated or
use undertaken on areas of land which measured directly, but are frequently
for purposes of evaluation are treated described by means of land characteristics.
as a single unit. The different kinds of Qualities or characteristics employed to
use may occur in time sequence (e.g. determine limits of land suitability classes or
as in crop rotation) or simultaneously subclasses are known as diagnostic criteria.
on different areas of land within the
same organizational unit. Mixed A diagnostic criterion is a variable which has an
farming involving both arable use and understood influence upon the output from, or
grazing is an example. the required inputs to, a specified use, and
which serves as a basis for assessing the
Land utilization types are defined for the suitability of a given area of land for that use.
purpose of land evaluation. Their description This variable may be a land quality, a land
need not comprise the full range of farm characteristic, or a function of several land
management practices, but only those related characteristics. For every diagnostic criterion
to land management and improvement. At there, will be a critical value or set of critical
detailed levels of evaluation, closely-defined values which are used to define suitability
land utilization types can be extended into class limits.
farming systems by adding other aspects of
farm management. Conversely, farming Examples of Land Qualities
systems that have already been studied and
described can be adopted as the basis for land A. Land qualities related to productivity
utilization types. from crops or other plant growth
• Crop yields (a resultant of
Land Characteristics, Land Qualities and many qualities listed below)
Diagnostic Criteria • Moisture availability
• Nutrient availability
 • Oxygen availability in the • Site factors affecting
root zone establishment of young trees
• Adequacy of foothold for • Pests and diseases
roots • Fire hazard
• Conditions for germination
• Workability of the land (ease D. Land qualities related to management
of cultivation) and inputs
• Salinity or alkalinity The qualities listed may refer to arable
• Soil toxicity use, animal production or forestry.
• Resistance to soil erosion • Terrain factors affecting
• Pests and diseases related to mechanization (trafficability)
the land • Terrain factors affecting
• Flooding hazard (including construction and
frequency, periods of maintenance of access roads
inundation) (accessibility
• Temperature regime • Size of potential management
• Radiation energy and units (e.g. forest blocks,
photoperiod farms, fields
• Climatic hazards affecting • Location in relation to
plant growth (including markets and to supplies of
wind, hail, frost) inputs
• Air humidity as affecting
plant growth The Scarcity Value of Land
• Drying periods for ripening
of crops. The value of a particular type of land may be
increased by its scarcity or the rarity of certain
B. Land qualities related to domestic of its qualities, within a given region or
animal productivity country. This is often the position with nature
• Productivity of grazing land reserves. In the extreme case, the presence of a
(a resultant of many qualities plant or animal species unique to one area may
listed under make that land virtually irreplaceable,
resulting in strict protection even against
• Climatic hardships affecting
highly profitable other uses. Situations whore
animals
land acquires added suitability for a particular
• Endemic pests and diseases
use by virtue of its scarcity can also arise with
• Nutritive value of grazing
productive forms of uses.
land
• Toxicity of grazing land
Requirements and Limitations
• Resistance to degradation of
vegetation Requirements of the land use refer to the set of
• Resistance to soil erosion land qualities that determine the production
under grazing conditions and management conditions of a kind of land
• Availability of drinking water. use.

C. Land qualities related to forest Limitations are land qualities, or their

productivity expression by means of diagnostic criteria,
which adversely affect a kind of land use.
The qualities listed may refer to
natural forests, forestry plantations,
or both. For example, the requirements for mechanized
• Mean annual increments of cultivation of wheat include high availability of
timber species (a resultant of oxygen in the root zone and absence of
many qualities listed under obstructions (boulders or rock outcrops);
• Types and quantities of waterlogging and the presence of boulders are
indigenous timber species
limitations. Thus limitations may be regarded statement of the adaptability of a given area for
as land qualities expressed in such a way as to a specific kind of land use; others see capability
show the extent to which the conditions of the as a classification of land primarily in relation
land fall short of the requirements for a given to degradation hazards, whilst some regard the
use. terms "suitability" and "capability" as
interchangeable.
Land Improvements Because of these varying interpretations,
coupled with the long-standing association of
Land improvements are activities which cause "capability" with the USDA system, the term
beneficial changes in the qualities of the land land suitability is used in this framework, and
itself. Land improvements should be no further reference to capability is made.
distinguished from improvements in land use,
i.e. changes in the use to which the land is put Land Suitability Classifications
or modifications to management practices
under a given use. Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of
land for a defined use. The land may be
Land improvements are classed as major or considered in its present condition or after
minor. improvements. The process of land suitability
• A major land improvement is a classification is the appraisal and grouping of
substantial and reasonably specific areas of land in terms of their
permanent improvement in the suitability for defined uses.
qualities of the land affecting a given
use. A large non-recurrent input is Structure of the Suitability Classification
required, usually taking the form of
capital expenditure on structure and The framework has the same structure, i.e.
equipment. Once accomplished, recognizes the same categories, in all of the
maintenance of the improvement kinds of interpretative classification (see
remains as a continuing cost, but the below). Each category retains its basic
land itself is more suitable for the use meaning within the context of the different
than formerly. Examples are large classifications and as applied to different kinds
irrigation schemes drainage of of land use. Pour categories of decreasing
swamps and reclamation of salinized generalization are recognized:
land.
• A minor land improvement is one Land
Reflecting kinds of
which either has relatively small Suitability
suitability
effects or is non-permanent or both, or Orders
which lies within the capacity of Land
Reflecting degrees of
individual farmers or other land users. Suitability
suitability within Orders
Stone clearance, eradication of Classes
persistent weeds and field drainage by Reflecting kinds of
ditches are examples. Land limitation, or main kinds
Suitability of improvement
Land Suitability and Land Capability Subclasses measures required,
within Classes
The term land capability is used in a number of Reflecting minor
Land
land classification systems notably that of the differences in required
Suitability
Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. management within
Units
Department of Agriculture. In the USDA Subclasses.
system, soil mapping units are grouped
primarily on the basis of their capability to
produce common cultivated crops and pasture
plants without deterioration over a long period
of time. Capability is viewed by some as the
inherent capacity of land to perform at a given
level for a general use, and suitability as a
 Land having no significant
Land Suitability Orders limitations to sustained
application of a given use, or
Land Suitability Orders indicate whether land Class S1
only minor limitations that will
is assessed as suitable or not suitable for the Highly
not significantly reduce
use under consideration. There are two orders Suitable:
productivity or benefits and will
represented in maps, tables, etc. by the not raise inputs above an
symbols S and N respectively. acceptable level.
Land having limitations which
Land on which sustained use of in aggregate are moderately
the kind under consideration is severe for sustained application
Order S expected to yield benefits which of a given use; the limitations
Suitable: justify the inputs, without will reduce productivity or
unacceptable risk of damage to Class S2
benefits and increase required
land resources. Moderately
inputs to the extent that the
Suitable:
overall advantage to be gained
Order N Land which has qualities that from the use, although still
Not appear to preclude sustained use attractive, will be appreciably
Suitable: of the kind under consideration. inferior to that expected on
Class S1 land.
Land may be classed as Not Suitable for a given Land having limitations which
use for a number of reasons. It may be that the in aggregate are severe for
proposed use is technically impracticable, such sustained application of a given
Class S3
as the irrigation of rocky steep land, or that it use and will so reduce
Marginally
would cause severe environmental productivity or benefits, or
Suitable:
degradation, such as the cultivation of steep increase required inputs, that
slopes. Frequently, however, the reason is this expenditure will be only
economic: that the value of the expected marginally justified.
benefits does not justify the expected costs of
the inputs that would be required. In a quantitative classification, both inputs and
benefits must be expressed in common
Land Suitability Classes measurable terms, normally economic. In
different circumstances different variables
Land suitability Classes reflect degrees of may express most clearly the degree of
suitability. The classes are numbered suitability, e.g. the range of expected net
consecutively, by Arabic numbers, in sequence income per unit area or per standard
of decreasing degrees of suitability within the management unit, or the net return per unit of
Order. Within the Order Suitable the number of irrigation water applied to different types of
classes is not specified. There might, for land for a given use.
example, be only two, S1 and S2. The number
of classes recognized should be kept to the Where additional refinement is necessary it is
minimum necessary to meet interpretative recommended that this should be achieved by
aims; five should probably be the most ever adding classes, e.g. S4, and not by subdividing
used. classes, since the latter procedure would
contradict the principle that degrees of
If three Classes are recognized within the suitability are represented by only one level of
Order Suitable, as can often be recommended, the classification structure, that of the
the following names and definitions may be suitability class. This necessarily change e the
appropriate in a qualitative classification: meanings of class numbers, e.g. if four classes
were employed for classifying land with
respect to arable use and only three with
respect to forestry, Marginally Suitable could
refer to S4 in the former case but S3 in the
latter.
An alternative practice has been adopted in limit of Class N1 is already defined by the lower
some countries. In order to give a constant limit of the most suitable class in Order S.
numbering to the lowest Suitable class, classes
have been subdivided as, e.g. S2.1, S2.2. This The boundary of Class N2, Permanently Not
practice is permitted within the Framework, Suitable, is normally physical and permanent.
although for the reason given in the preceding In contrast, the boundary between the two
paragraph it is not recommended. orders, Suitable and Not Suitable is likely to be
variable over time through changes in the
Suitability Class S1, Highly Suitable, may economic and social context.
sometimes not appear on a map of a limited
area, but could still be included in the Land Suitability Subclasses
classification if such land is known or believed
to occur in other areas relevant to the study. Land Suitability Subclasses reflect kinds of
limitations, e.g. moisture deficiency, erosion
Differences in degrees of suitability are hazard. Subclasses are indicated by lower-case
determined mainly by the relationship letters with mnemonic significance, e.g. S2m,
between benefits and inputs. The benefits may S2e, S3me. There are no subclasses in Class S1.
consist of goods, e.g. crops, livestock products
or timber, or services, e.g. recreational The number of Subclasses recognized and the
facilities. The inputs needed to obtain such limitations chosen to distinguish them will
benefits comprise such things as capital differ in classifications for different purposes.
investment, labor, fertilizers and power. Thus There are two guidelines:
an area of land might be classed as Highly
Suitable for rainfed agriculture, because the 1. The number of subclasses should be
value of crops produced substantially exceeds kept to a minimum that will
the costs of farming, but only Marginally satisfactorily distinguish lands within
Suitable for forestry, on grounds that the value a class likely to differ significantly in
of timber only slightly exceeds the costs of their management requirements or
obtaining it. potential for improvement due to
differing limitations.
Within the Order Not Suitable, there are 2. As few limitations as possible should
normally two Classes: be used in the symbol for any subclass.
One, rarely two, letters should
Land having limitations normally suffice. The dominant
which may be symbol (i.e. that which determines the
surmountable in time but class) should be used alone if possible.
which cannot be If two limitations are equally severe,
Class N1 corrected with existing both may be given.
Currently Not knowledge at currently
Suitable: acceptable cost; the Land within the Order Not Suitable may be
limitations are so severe divided into suitability subclasses according to
as to preclude successful kinds of limitation, e.g. N1m, N1me, N1m
sustained use of the land although this is not essential. As this land will
in the given manner. not be placed under management for the use
Land having limitations concerned it should not be subdivided into
which appear so severe suitability units.
Class N2
as to preclude any
Permanently
possibilities Of successful Land Suitability Units
Not Suitable:
sustained use of the land
in the given manner. Land suitability units are subdivisions of a
subclass. All the units within a subclass have
Quantitative definition of these classes is the same degree of suitability at the class level
normally unnecessary, since by definition both and similar kinds of limitations at the subclass
are uneconomic for the given use. The upper level. The units differ from each other in their
production characteristics or in minor aspects
of their management requirement e (often 3. The extent of the conditionally
definable as differences in detail of their suitable land is very small with
limitations). Their recognition permits respect to the total study area.
detailed interpretation at the farm planning
level. Suitability units are distinguished by If the first or second stipulation is not met, it
Arabic numbers following a hyphen, e.g. S2e-1, may still be useful to mention the possible
S2e-2. There is no limit to the number of units improvement or modification in an
recognized within a subclass. appropriate section of the text. If the third
stipulation is not met, then the area over which
the condition is relevant is sufficiently
Conditional Suitability extensive to warrant either a new land
utilization type or a potential suitability
The designation Conditionally Suitable may be classification, as appropriate.
added in certain instances to condense and
simplify presentation. This is necessary to As the area of land classed as Conditionally
cater for circumstances where small areas of Suitable is necessarily small, it will not
land, within the survey area, may be unsuitable normally be necessary to subdivide it at the
or poorly suitable for a particular use under unit level.
the management specified for that use, but
suitable given that certain conditions are It is important to note that the indication
fulfilled. "conditional" is not intended to be applied to
land for which the interpretation is uncertain,
The possible nature of the conditions is varied either in the sense that its suitability is
and might relate to modifications to the marginal or because factors relevant to
management practices or the input e of the suitability are not understood. Use of
defined land use (occasioned, for example, by "conditional" may seem convenient to the
localized phenomena of poor soil drainage, soil evaluator, but its excessive use would greatly
salinity); or to restrictions in the choice of complicate understanding by users and must
crops (limited, for example, to crops with an be avoided.
especially high market value, or resistant to
frost). In such instances, the indication Summary
"conditional" can avoid the need for additional The structure of the suitability classification,
classifications to account for local together with the symbols used, is summarized
modifications of land use or local major in Table 2. Depending on the purpose, scale
improvements. and intensity of the study, either the full range
of suitability orders, classes, subclasses and
Conditionally Suitable is a phase of the Order units may be distinguished, or the
Suitable. It is indicated by a lower case letter c classification may be restricted to the higher
between the order symbol and the class two or three categories.
number, e.g. Sc2. The conditionally suitable
phase, subdivided into classes if necessary, is
always placed at the bottom of the listing of S
classes. The phase indicates suitability after
the condition (e) have been met.

Employment of the Conditionally Suitable

phase should be avoided wherever possible. It
may only be employed if all of the following
stipulations are met:
1. Without the condition(s) satisfied, the
land is either not suitable or belongs
to the lowest suitable class.
2. Suitability with the condition(s)
satisfied is significantly higher
(usually at least two classes).
Structure of the Suitability Classification
 date more rapidly than qualitative ones as a
result of changes in relative costs and prices.

The Range of Classifications The distinction between qualitative and

quantitative classifications, and between
The Framework recognizes four main kinds of current and potential suitability, do not fully
suitability classification, according to whether describe the nature of a classification. Two
it is qualitative or quantitative, and refers to further considerations of importance are
current or potential suitability. treatment of the location factor and of
amortization of capital costs, but these by no
Each classification is an appraisal and means exhaust the range of possibilities. They
grouping of land units in terms of their are not distinguished as further specific types
suitability for a defined use.
of classification. A suitability classification
needs to be read in conjunction with the
Qualitative and Quantitative Classifications
statement of the data and assumptions on
A qualitative classification is one in which which it is based.
relative suitability is expressed in qualitative
Classifications of Current and Potential
terms only, without precise calculation of costs
Suitability
and returns.
Qualitative classifications are based mainly on
A classification of current suitability refers to
the physical productive potential of the land,
the suitability for a defined use of land in its
with economics only present as a background.
present condition, without major
They are commonly employed in
improvements. A current suitability
reconnaissance studies, aimed at a general
classification may refer to the present use of
appraisal of large areas.
the land, either with existing or improved
management practices, or to a different use.
A quantitative classification is one in which the
distinctions between classes are defined in
A classification of potential suitability refers to
common numerical terms, which permits
the suitability, for a defined use, of land units
objective comparison between classes relating
in their condition at some future date, after
to different kinds of land use.
specified major improvements have been
completed where necessary.
Common examples of potential suitability
classifications are found in studies for
proposed irrigation schemes. For a
classification to be one of potential suitability
it is not necessary that improvements shall be
Quantitative classifications normally involve
made to all parts of the land; the need for major
considerable use of economic criteria, i.e. costs
improvements may vary from one land unit to
and prices, applied both to inputs and
another and on some land units none may be
production. Specific development projects,
necessary.
including pre-investment studies for these,
usually require quantitative evaluation.
Results of Land Suitability Evaluation
Qualitative evaluations allow the intuitive
The results of an evaluation will usually
integration of many aspects of benefits, social
include the following types of information, the
and environmental as well as economic. This
extent to which each is included varying with
facility is to some extent lost in quantitative
the scale and intensity of the study
evaluations. The latter, however, provide the
data on which to base calculations of net
1. The context, physical, social and
benefits, or other economic parameters, from
economic, on which the evaluation is
different areas and different kinds of use.
Quantitative classifications may become out of
 based. This will include both data and
assumptions.
2. Description of land utilization types or
of major kinds of land use which are
relevant to the area. The more
intensive the study, the greater will be
the detail and precision with which
these are described.
3. Maps, tables and textual matter
showing degrees of suitability of land
mapping units for each of the kinds of
land use considered, together with the
diagnostic criteria. Evaluation is made
separately for each kind of use.
4. Management and improvement
specifications for each land utilization
type with respect to each land Potential Suitability for Irrigation
mapping unit for which it is suitable.
Again, as the survey becomes more
intensive, so the precision with which
such specifications are given
increases; thus in a semi-detailed
survey a need for drainage might be
specified, whilst in a detailed survey
the nature and costs of drainage
works would be given.
5. Economic and social analysis of the
consequences of the various kinds of
land use considered.
6. The basic data and maps from which
the evaluation was obtained. The
results, particularly the suitability
classification itself, are based upon
much information of value to
individual users. Such information
Current suitability for:
should be made available, either as an
appendix to the main report or as
Rainfed Cultivation of Annual Crops
background documentation.
7. Information on the reliability of the
suitability estimates. Such
information is directly relevant to
planning decisions. It will also aid any
subsequent work directed towards
improving the land suitability
classifications, by indicating
weaknesses in the data and aspects
which might repay further
investigation.

Land Mapping Units

Improved Pastures
 evaluation. At least in quantitative surveys,
however, the information on land utilization
types, their required inputs and management
specifications may be equally important.

Suitability evaluation does not necessarily

identify a single form of use as "best" on each
land unit. Suitability class limits are defined
separately for each use. It follows that
suitability classes for different uses cannot be
compared in a routine, automatic manner.
Thus a particular land mapping unit might be
classified as S1 for forestry and S3 for arable
farming, but this does not necessarily mean
that the former use will be selected. The
physically and economically viable
CURRENT SUITABILITY FOR: alternatives are presented, with information
Forestry Plantations on the consequences of each, as a basis for
planning decisions.

Land evaluation procedures

The main activities in a land evaluation are as

follows:
1. Initial consultations, concerned with
the objectives of the evaluation, and
the data and assumptions on which it
is to be based
2. Description of the kinds of land use to
be considered, and establishment of
their requirements
3. Description of land mapping units,
and derivation of land qualities
4. Comparison of kinds of land use with
the types of land present
5. Economic and social analysis
Tourism and Conservation 6. Land suitability classification
(qualitative or quantitative)
7. Presentation of the results of the
evaluation.

Initial consultations

Among matters to be decided at this stage are:

1. The objectives of the evaluation
2. The data and assumptions on which the
evaluation is to be based
3. The extent and boundaries of the area
to be evaluated
4. The kinds of land use which appear to
be relevant for consideration
5. Whether a two-stage or parallel
It has sometimes been thought that a land approach is to be followed
classification map is the main output from land
 6. The type of suitability classification to Schematic Representation of Activities in
be employed Land Evaluation
7. The intensity and scale of the required
survey
8. The phasing of activities in the
evaluation.

The general assumptions can be divided into

those referring to the physical, economic and
social context of the area, and those underlying
the evaluation process itself. In addition to
these general assumptions, there may be
assumptions specific to particular kinds of land
use (e.g. size of landholdings, minor land
improvements, techniques of farming); these
latter assumptions are given in the
descriptions of the respective uses.

Objectives

The first requirement is to establish the

objectives of the proposed development or
adjustment, constraints to change, other
assumptions, and thus the forms of land use
that must be considered. This requires
discussions between resource surveyors,
experts in land use technology (e.g.
agriculturalists, foresters), engineers,
economists, sociologists, planners, In order to avoid an excessive list, or pages of
government officials and representatives of obvious statements, this requirement can be
the local population likely to be affected. met by an initial description of the context of
the study area. This will include the following:
The Context of the Study Area • Location and accessibility
• Climatic zone
Some data and assumptions are so obvious • Relief
under the physical, economic, social and • Present state of land improvements
political conditions of a country or region that (e.g. reclamation, drainage)
they are not always specified. Examples are • Population and its rate of change
aridity in a desert region, and either a high or a • Level of living (e.g. gross domestic
low level of living. However, to assist in the product per capita)
transfer of information from one area to • Education
another, these assumptions should be • Basis of the present economy
recorded. • Economic infrastructure (e.g. roads,
urban services)
• Government subsidies
• Size of farms or other landholdings
• Land tenure system
• Political system.

Not only is it possible to infer some of the

obvious assumptions from such a description,
but also the significance of the suitability
classification is dependent on the physical,
economic and social context. Since economic
and social conditions are continuously • Basis for economic analysis (e.g.
changing, the classification will eventually amortization costs of capital works
become obsolete and this background have not, or have, been partly or
information will assist in judging the relevance wholly included; family labor by
of an evaluation sometime after it has been smallholders has, or has not, been
made. included in costs; discount rates used
in cost-benefit analysis).
Data and Assumptions underlying the
Evaluation Planning the Evaluation

Besides the general context, there are also Other matters discussed during the stage of
assumptions used as a basis for evaluation, initial consultations involve the nature and
which affect the interpretation and the spatial planning of subsequent activities in the
and temporal applicability of the results. Such evaluation.
assumptions should be listed as such. Some
examples, by no means covering the full range i. The extent and boundaries of land to be
of possibilities, are as follows: evaluated. These may have been
• Limits to information utilized (e.g. only specified prior to the commissioning
the soil conditions shown on a given of the evaluation, as for example in
map have been used) preparing a development plan for a
• The reliability and applicability of data particular administrative unit.
available from within or outside the Alternatively, the area may be
studied area (e.g. rainfall measured x determined following selection of
km away is applicable) relevant kinds of land use, on the basis
• Location is, or is not, taken into account that certain areas only appear to have
• Demography (e.g. present rates of potential for that use. In particular,
population increase will continue, or when surveys of a more intensive
will decrease) nature are being undertaken, maps
• Infrastructure and services (e.g. repair from previous surveys at
services, credit facilities, agricultural reconnaissance or other less intensive
extension services etc. will remain as scales will be used to select promising
at present, or will be improved) areas for specified kinds of land use.
• Level of inputs (e.g. recurrent inputs by ii. The kinds of land use which appear to
users of land will remain at present be relevant for consideration. These
levels, or will be increased) are selected on the basis of the
• Land tenure and other institutional objectives of the evaluation and the
conditions (e.g. continuance of private physical, economic and social
freehold, or customary communal background of the area. The objectives
tenure is assumed, or farmers will co- indicate whether a wide range of
operate within communal villages to kinds of land use are to be included, or
be set up) whether the study is directed towards
• Demand, markets and prices (e.g. one specific use. In most cases the
existing prices in the region have been physical background, e.g. features of
assumed, or, since no market for the climate found over the whole area
projected crop exists in the region, under consideration, will
world prices have been assumed; the substantially reduce the range of uses
effects of the expected large supply of of land which are relevant. There will
produce from the project on the also be constraints set by economic
market price have, or have not, been and social factors, e.g. levels of living
taken into account) or a requirement that a particular type
• Land improvements; where a of land tenure, individual or
classification of potential suitability is communal, be employed.
to be made, the extent and nature of iii. Whether a two-stage or parallel
the land improvements are described approach is to be followed. This
depends on the purposes, scale and
 intensity of the study and also on the of the subsequent activities and their
times when the specialists are relative phasing.
available.
iv. The type of suitability classification to The initial consultations are an essential part
be employed. Selection of a qualitative of any land evaluation study. Through a clear
or quantitative classification, and one understanding of the objectives and
of either current or potential assumptions it is possible to plan the
suitability, is made on the basis of the subsequent activities so that they are directed
objectives, scale and intensity of the towards producing information relevant to the
evaluation. Qualitative classifications purposes of the evaluation and, conversely, to
are normally employed on avoid activities, particularly time-consuming
reconnaissance surveys for general and costly field surveys, which will yield
planning purposes, quantitative for information of an inappropriate type or level of
more specific proposals. Where major intensity.
land improvements, such as drainage,
reclamation or irrigation schemes, are Some of the decisions made during the initial
contemplated, classifications of consultations may later be modified, by
potential suitability are necessary; in iteration, during the evaluation. Such decisions
such cases it may be desirable should therefore be left flexible. Where a
additionally to classify the land on the written agreement is involved e.g. between
basis of its current suitability, or order clients and consultants, provision should be
that benefits with and without the made for its subsequent modification, by
proposed development can be further discussion and agreement.
compared.
v. The scope, intensity and scale of the The following sections outline subsequent
required surveys. This is decided by activities in an evaluation, including surveys,
means of comparison between the analysis, classification and presentation of
data required, as determined by the results.
purposes of the evaluation, and that
which is already available. The nature
of the data required is greatly Kinds of land use and their requirements
influenced by the kinds of land use and limitations
being considered (e.g. soil survey for
agricultural use, ecological survey for Description of Kinds of Land Use
grazing of natural pastures). It is first
necessary to review the existing The identification and description of the type"
information e.g. topographic maps, air of land use which are to be considered is an
photograph cover, soil maps, river essential part of the evaluation procedure.
discharge data, population, Some restrictions to the range of uses relevant
production and other statistical data, for consideration will have been set by the
projections of demand. This is objectives and assumptions. Two situations
compared with the requirements for may be distinguished:
an evaluation of the given type and
intensity. Decisions made will include, 1. The kinds of land use are specified at
for example, whether new air the beginning of the evaluation
photograph coverage is required, procedure.
whether a soil survey is necessary and 2. The kinds of land use are broadly
if so at what scale and density of described at the beginning and subject
observation, and what economic data to modification and adjustment in
must be collected. accordance with the findings of the
vi. Phasing of the activities. Having made evaluation procedure.
initial decisions on the aspects
detailed above, it is then necessary to The first situation can arise in qualitative
estimate the time to be allotted to each surveys aimed at evaluation in terms of major
kinds of land use. It can also occur in studies
aimed at locating land for only one or for a major activity in the evaluation in terms of
limited number of land utilization types, e.g. time and manpower, perhaps equaling or
sites for irrigated fruit growing or for a forest exceeding that spent on the survey of basic
reserve; in such circumstances the kinds of resources.
land use to be considered are largely defined
by the objectives. Description of land mapping units and land
qualities
The second situation occurs, for example, in
land development projects which are likely to Most land evaluation studies require physical
include arable farming of several kinds, resource surveys, although occasionally there
livestock production and forestry. Initially the may be sufficient information already
land utilization types are described in general available. The surveys will frequently include a
terms, e.g. arable farming by smallholders. As soil or soil-landform survey, and sometimes
the evaluation proceeds, such details as crop such work as pasture resource or other
selection, recommended rotations, required ecological surveys, forest inventory, surveys of
soil conservation measures and optimum farm surface-water or groundwater resources, or
size are progressively determined, so that at road engineering studies. The objects of such
the end of the study the land utilization types surveys are to define and determine
are described in detail. boundaries of the land mapping units and to
In the first situation, the kinds of land use are determine their land qualities.
described prior to the land suitability
classification. In the second, they are modified The delineation of land mapping units will be
during the classification. In practice the based in part on land characteristics most
distinction is not sharp as some adjustment or readily mapped, frequently landforms, soils
reconsideration of uses may take place in the and vegetation. However, at the stage of
first situation. resource survey, the land qualities believed to
have significant effects on the types of land use
Identification of Requirements of the Use under consideration have already been
and Limitations provisionally identified; consequently, special
attention should be given to those qualities
After, or concurrently with the description of during field survey.
kinds of land use, their requirements are
determined. Each kind of land use needs Comparison of land use with land
different environmental conditions if it is to be
practiced on a sustained and economically The focal point in the evaluation procedure is
viable basis. that at which the various data are brought
together and compared, the comparison
The limitations for each type of land use are leading to the suitability classification. These
determined at the same time as the data are:
requirements. These requirements and
limitations indicate the types of data which are • The relevant kinds of land use and
required for evaluation, and thus condition the their requirements and limitations
nature of the surveys needed. • The land mapping units and their land
qualities
It should be noted that the description of kinds • The economic and social conditions.
of land use and the identification of their .
requirements and limitations are operations Matching of Land Use with Land
requiring studies in the field. These are likely
to include visits to sites where production data At an early stage in the evaluation a provisional
(e.g. crop yields, cattle carrying capacity, rates selection has been made of those kinds of land
of tree growth) are available, and comparison use which appear to be relevant in the light of
of these data with environmental conditions the objectives and the overall physical and
and methods of management. These sites need socio-economic conditions. Once systematic
not be confined to the area being evaluated. surveys and studies have accumulated further
Fieldwork of this nature may constitute a data the broad indications of the kinds of land
use and their requirements will need to be land quality. The optimum conditions include
reconciled with more precise information on level land, requiring no soil conservation
the land qualities. This process of mutual works. Using such land characteristics as slope
adaptation and adjustment of the description angle, soil permeability, structural stability
of land utilization types and the increasingly and rainfall intensity, a parameter
known land qualities is named matching. representative of erosion resistance is
calculated for each relevant land unit. In a
Matching represents the essence of the qualitative study, the erosion hazard might be
interpretative step following the resources divided into classes such as nil, slight,
surveys in the land evaluation procedure, and moderate and severe, and at least the last of
is based on the functional relationships that these classed as Not Suitable. In a quantitative
exist between the land qualities, the study the costs of construction and
possibilities for land improvement and the maintenance of soil conservation works for
requirements of the land use. In its simplest each degree of erosion hazard are calculated,
form matching is the confrontation of physical and the economic consequences of these costs,
requirements of specific crops (or grasses, trees, for the project and the farm, are assessed.
etc.) with the land conditions to give a
prediction of crop performance. Matching The process of matching is further discussed
becomes more complex when the production by Beek (1975).
factor is complemented by other performance
conditioning characteristics of the land Diagnostic Procedures
utilization type, including non-physical aspects
like labor intensity and capital intensity. Among procedures for estimating inputs and
Suppose, for example, that one of the land benefits are the following:
utilization types is growth of a perennial tree • Direct measurement, e.g. from a
crop such as oil palm. It is essential that soil number of trial sites located or to be
moisture should remain above wilting point established on different types of land
within some part of the rooting zone within the survey area or nearby
throughout the year and, in addition, yields are • Simulation methods using
depressed or made irregular by moisture mathematical models which establish
stress. Thus moisture availability is identified relationships between benefits (e.g.
as a relevant land quality for this land crop yields) and diagnostic criteria
utilization type. The moisture availability of • Empirical assessment based on
each land unit on which oil palm cultivation is assumed relationships between
being considered is determined from their benefits and diagnostic criteria.
land characteristics, such as rainfall regime,
rooting depth and available water capacity. The first procedure is to be preferred. It may
The crop yield under optimum moisture be possible to obtain information from
conditions, for specified standards of agricultural trials, unit farms, forestry trials, or
management, is estimated. The probable pilot development areas for different farming
depression in yields caused by specified systems already in existence. Where such sites
deficiencies in moisture is then assessed. In a do not exist, steps should be taken to establish
qualitative study some rather arbitrary them at an early stage. These trial sites are a
depression in yield, 50 percent for example, means of obtaining standards for the second
may be taken as the criterion separating land and third procedures. To obtain rapid results
Suitable and Not Suitable for this kind of use. crop cuttings may also be taken.
In a quantitative study the economic
consequences of yield reductions are To date, the second procedure has been used
calculated. relatively little, but it has a potential for the
future when more precise data on quantitative
A similar sequence is followed with respect to environment-land use relationships is
land qualities which affect inputs. Maize obtained.
cultivation, for example, is a form of land use
involving periods in which the soil surface is The third procedure is frequently carried out
bare. Erosion resistance is therefore a relevant by construction of a conversion table, in which
diagnostic criteria are related to different
classes of land suitability. The suitability rating Benefits are first assessed in physical terms,
of land depends on the degree to which the e.g. volume of production, estimated numbers
land qualities satisfy the land use of tourists. These are then, so far as practicable,
requirements. In the past, such conversion translated into economic terms, on the basis of
tables were frequently based on land stated assumptions about prices, etc.
characteristics; for example, land with a slope
angle over 5° could not fall into the highest one The evaluation of intangible benefits presents
or more land classes. The framework special problems. Land used for recreation or
recommends that conversion tables should protected as a nature reserve does not
relate suitability classes to limitations based necessarily produce directly measurable
on land qualities; for example, land with an benefits, and in particular it is difficult to
erosion hazard rated as "moderate" might be translate such benefits into economic terms. In
excluded from the two highest suitability place of a purely commercial approach, a
classes for arable use. Supplementary tables, political decision may be needed to set aside
relating diagnostic criteria to combinations of areas of land for aesthetic, health, educational
land characteristics, may be constructed. and conservational needs. This calls for
methods of rating land in terms of land
The first procedure, being based on quantified qualities which have a positive or negative
expressions of the cause-effect relationships effect on its use for recreation or conservation.
between land qualities and the performance of
the land utilization type, is one of quantitative It is as necessary to assess inputs, or costs, as it
matching. The second procedure is also at least is to estimate production. These consist of
potentially quantitative. The third procedure, recurrent and non-recurrent (capital) inputs.
however, although it may give a quantitative
impression through use of numerical values As with benefits, inputs are first described in
for diagnostic criteria, is essentially one of physical terms, which are subsequently
qualitative matching. For matching to be translated into costs. In the case of recurrent
quantitative, the inputs and benefits must be inputs, it is first necessary to specify the
related to land qualities in numerical terms management techniques, possibly amplifying
(usually economic, sometimes production the details of these already given in
volume). descriptions of land utilization types. The
goods and services required are then listed.
Estimation of Benefits and Inputs These will frequently include:
• Recurrent material inputs, e.g. seed,
One of the main means to assess the fertilizer
desirability of proposed changes in land use is • Irrigation water
a comparison between the benefits obtained • Labor requirements, skilled and
and the inputs or costs required to obtain unskilled
them. • Machinery (operation, maintenance,
and depreciation)
The benefits may consist of produce, services • Transport requirements.
and other intangible benefits. Produce
includes crops, harvested pasture, livestock Assessment of Environmental Impact
products, timber and forest extraction
products. Intangible benefits include the Consideration of the environmental impact, or
creation of employment, provision of probable consequences of change for the
recreational or tourist facilities, nature environment, should permeate the matching
conservation (flora and fauna), and aesthetic process and, indeed, the evaluation as a whole.
considerations. The benefit of water To provide environmental safeguards, it is
conservation, whether by vegetation essential that land suitability shall normally be
conservation in catchments or through assessed on the assumption that the kinds of
flooding of land by reservoir construction, land use proposed will be sustained, that is,
might be regarded as either produce or capable of being continued over an indefinite
intangible benefits. period of time. This requires that any adverse
changes to the environment shall be neither Economic and Social Analysis
severe nor progressive.
In qualitative studies, economic and social
Environmental effects are not necessarily analysis is only in generalized terms. It may
unfavorable; for example, if irrigation is cover, for example, an inventory or analysis of
established in an arid region, the soil organic government development objectives, available
matter content may be improved. macro-economic tools and macro-economic
data; general information on the present
The most important aspect is to assess the agricultural and other rural economy,
possibilities of environmental degradation, for including recent trends; an inventory of the
example soil erosion, soil salinization or technical and institutional infrastructure;
pasture degradation. Many changes in land use available information on population and its
necessitate to some degree adverse effects on present and probable future rates of change;
the environment, for example the lowering of and sociological information, such as land
soil organic matter levels when forest is tenure systems, labor potential, educational
cleared for agriculture. What is essential is that levels, etc. Constraining problems identified at
environmental degradation shall be neither this stage might include, for example, seasonal
severe nor progressive. Severe degradation is labor shortages, adverse tenure conditions, or
that in which the land resources are largely poor access to markets and services. The
and irreversibly destroyed, as for example in market prospects of commodities are assessed
severe gully erosion. Progressive degradation and the comparative advantages of the survey
refers to the condition in which a resource is area with other regions in relation to these
being continuously depleted by a land use commodities. Much of the information is likely
practice; degeneration of vegetation by to derive from discussions with farmers,
systems of pastoralism in which there is no traders and officials, and from publications by
control of livestock numbers is an example. government, international and other
development agencies.
Where a hazard of severe or progressive
degradation is identified, the technical In quantitative studies, economic analysis
measures necessary to prevent it are plays an important part, although the nature of
determined and their cost calculated. the analysis varies according to the land
Frequently such land is classified as Not utilization type under consideration, and
Suitable since sustained use of the type whether the study is at the semi-detailed or
concerned is not possible or the cost of detailed level of intensity.
preventing degradation is excessive.
The analysis is often concerned with feasibility
In special circumstances, it may be that some studies and project formulation. In land
degree of land degradation is accepted as development projects, the economic viability
unavoidable. In such cases, the evaluation of the development proposals is assessed in
should state that only short-term use is two ways: with respect to the users of land and
foreseen, and should give information on the with respect to the country as a whole. In the
nature and extent of the degradation and on first of these, analysis is concerned with the
the expected condition of the land when the economic viability with respect to farmers,
use ends. firms, or executing government agencies; that is,
whether the proposed uses will pay their way
In considering environmental impact, off-site from the viewpoint of the users of the land. The
effects, i.e. consequences for the environment second form of analysis is into whether the
outside the area under study, should be proposed development will benefit society, i.e.
considered. Examples are the effects of forest the people of the country as a whole. This is
clearance upon river flow regimes, of changes frequently examined by social cost-benefit
in river water and sediment content caused by analysis, in which costs and prices are adjusted
reservoir construction upon navigation, in such a way as to reflect the true scarcity
fisheries, etc., and the influence of saline value (opportunity cost) of resources to the
drainage water on the quality of irrigation community. Economic estimation procedures
water downstream.
supply an important part of the data required a higher return on investment, but the latter
for quantitative suitability classification. would certainly provide greater employment
or take up more settlers; in cases such as this,
At the semi-detailed level of intensity it will where there appeared to be a conflict between
usually be helpful to carry out cost-benefit different objectives, the consequences of each
analysis on a tentative basis, so as to provide alternative would be assessed and presented
guidance on the economic prospects for the as an output from the evaluation.
kinds of land use considered. This exercise
involves making explicit assumptions about Land suitability classification
the main attributes of the land use (e.g. man-
days of labor required, crop yields obtained). The results of the matching process are
By requiring these data it raises the level of combined with those of assessment of inputs
analysis and makes the suitability ratings and benefits, environmental impact, and
explicit in economic terms. economic and social analysis to produce a
classification, showing the suitability of each
Where applicable a farm survey confined to the land mapping unit for each relevant kind of
structure of the farm enterprise will be carried land use.
out. Linkages between land utilization types
and farming systems will need to be The Field Check
established. Stratified sampling based on
ecologically and agriculturally homogeneous A field check of the land evaluation is essential
zones is necessary to make the results usable in order to ensure that the suitability classes
for land evaluation. This general survey may be arrived at by the above procedures are in
supplemented by detailed farm surveys with accord with experienced judgment. Field
emphasis on the production processes. checking is particularly important where a
conversion table has been employed in the
At the detailed level of intensity, economic matching process, since rigid application of
analysis is based on data relating to the such tables can occasionally produce results at
availability of resources and their allocation by variance with common sense. The field
producers, input-output relationships, sales checking should normally be carried out by a
patterns, prices and costs, and credit needs and party including a natural scientist and one or
availability. Cost-benefit analysis or other more people experienced in the types of land
quantitative methods of economic analysis will use concerned, e.g. farmer, agriculturalist,
be employed. At the farm level, optimization forester, engineer.
techniques may be used to give guidance on
realistic farm planning; techniques such as Synopsis of Procedures
budgeting, program planning or mathematical
programming may be selected, depending on The following figures show the procedures of
the degree of sophistication that is land evaluation as a part of land use planning
appropriate. at three levels of intensity according to the
two-stage and parallel approaches. These
At all levels of intensity, analysis is not diagrams are necessarily complex, for such is
confined to production-oriented objectives nor the nature of land use planning, and the precise
to return on capital invested. Changes in land sequence of interactions will vary with
use have consequences for other national, or circumstances. Decision making, or the
local objectives, such as employment, activities of government policy makers, is
reduction in numbers of landless people, separated from evaluation activities which
regional development, or changes in income supply information for these decisions. The
distribution between sectors of the evaluation activities are divided into those in
community. Consideration of these technical disciplines (resource survey and
consequences forms a further branch of the interpretation), those involving economic and
analysis. For example, in deciding whether social analysis, and interaction between these
poorly-drained valley-floor land was to be types. Although shown separately, it is possible
allocated to grazing by livestock or to rice that the two-stage procedure will be followed
growing, it might be found that the former gave at one or more levels of intensity, usually
including that of reconnaissance, and the 4 N N S3 N S2
parallel procedure at others. 1 1 R
Units 5 N N N S3 S1
Presentation of Results 2 2 2
et
The results of the land evaluation are c.
presented in the form of a report and maps,
giving the types of information already In some cases both current and potential
described. Information on more than one use suitability classifications could be given in a
should always be given. single tabular legend, either by showing two
tables side by side or by dividing each cell in
Land suitability maps, with explanatory the manner shown in in the given table. The
legends which may include tables, usually nature and extent of the major land
provide the most satisfactory means of improvements should be indicated with the
conveying the results of evaluation to the user table.
in summary form. A supporting text is always
required, to explain the procedures used, to In cases where land mapping units are not
give descriptions of the types of land use, their homogeneous, the map or its legend should
management and improvement specifications, normally indicate the suitabilities of each type
and their economic and social consequences, of land within the mapping unit.
as well as to record the data and assumptions
on which the evaluation was based. Tables can frequently be used to present data
in a manner more concise and easy to interpret
Where suitabilities for several different kinds than text. Tables can be used, for example, to:
of land use are to be shown there are two • summarize the physical
alternative methods. The first is to produce a characteristics of land mapping units;
series of maps showing suitability for each use • summarize the characteristics of land
separately. In that case, the land suitability utilization types, together with their
map will show land mapping units, each with a management and improvement
shading or colour and a symbol indicating its specifications;
suitability for that use. The second method is • present the suitability classification
to produce a single map showing boundaries of itself, as in the map legend but in
the land mapping units and indicate their greater detail;
suitability for each kind of land use by means • list the physical, technological,
of a table. A convenient form for such a tabular economic and social data employed in
legend is given in the following table. Such a each classification;
legend could show either current or potential • present the information used in
suitability and may include suitability comparison of the productivity and
subclasses and units in addition to the classes profitability of each kind of land use.
shown.

Tabular Legend to Land Suitability Maps 1/

1/Adapted From Mahler, 1970.

Kinds of land use

A B C D E et
c.
Land 1 S1 S1 S3 S1 N
2
2 S2 S1 S2 N N
1 2
Mappi 3 S4 S2 S2 N S3
ng R
TWO - STAGE APPROACH TO LAND EVALUATION
PARALLEL APPROACH TO LAND EVALUATION
TABULAR LEGEND TO LAND SUITABILITY
MAPS
 descending sequence of uses built into the
system, i.e. in descending sequence of
desirability, they are as follows: (a) arable use
for many crops and without soil conservation
practices; (b) arable use with restriction on
• The text should be as brief as possible choice of crops and/or with soil conservation
and conceived in a supporting role for practices; (c) grazing of improved pastures; (d)
the maps and tables. grazing of natural pastures, or at the same level,
woodland; and (e) at the lowest level,
recreations, wildlife conservation, water
Besides presenting the results of the catchments and aesthetic purposes.
evaluation itself, it is valuable to record in
permanently available form the basic data Limitations referred to land characteristics
collected for the purpose of making it. This will which have adverse effect on capability.
often include a soil map with supporting text, Permanent limitations are those which cannot
and data on geology, geomorphology, climate, easily be changed, at least by minor land
hydrology, vegetation, demography, etc. Where improvement, such as slope, angle, soil depth,
the results of the evaluation are presented liability to flooding and climate. Temporary
mainly in economic terms as costs, income and limitations can be removed or ameliorated by
profitability, it is important to record the land management like soil nutrient content
physical quantities from which income and and drainage independence.
costs have been derived; this permits
reappraisal, leading where necessary to It should be remembered that lands are
changes in suitability classification, e.g. in the classified mainly on the basis of permanent
event of substantial changes in relative costs limitations. The general rule is that if one
and prices. limitation is of sufficient severity to lower the
land to a given class (downgrading), no matter
Other Important Notes about Land how favourable all other characteristics may
Evaluation be. Therefore, the negative feature of the land
is taken into account in assigning different
Land Capability Classification types of land to capability classes.

Capability classification enables the land on a Other Explicit Assumptions

farm to be allocated rationally to the different
kinds of land use required – rotational arable, 1. A favourable ratio of output to input
permanent grazing, woodland, etc., whilst based on long term economic trends is
leaving as much choices as possible open to the one of the criteria for allocating land
farmer, there is a strong element of guidance to capability classes.
on soil conservation needs. The main product 2. Management is assumed to be a
“moderately high level” one that is
practical and within the ability of a
majority of the farmers and ranchers.
3. Location and accessibility, e.g.
of land capability classification is a map in distance to market, existence and
which areas of land are put into capability conditions of roads are taken into
classes ranging from best to worst. account.

Concepts and their Assumptions The USDA Land Capability Classification

There are two concepts basic to the system The United Stated Department of Agriculture
namely: capability and limitation. Capability System has three categories, namely:
refers to the potential of the land for use in capability class, capability subclass, and
specified ways, or with specified management capability unit.
practices. There is an assumed sequence of
uses built into the systems, that is in Capability Class
 I
It is a group of capability subclasses that have II lle, erosion lle – 1 P–
the same relative degree of limitation or series
hazard. Classes are indicated by roman
III llw, lle – 2 Q–
numerals and the restriction on kinds of land
wetness series
use and management increases from Class I to
Class III. IV lls, soil lle - 3 R–
series
Land allocated to any particular capability llc, climate
class has the potential for the use specified for Non- lles,
that class and for all classes below it. So, Class Arable erosion
I whilst excellent fir arable land use can equally and soil
be put to any other uses. Class VI and VII is etc.
suited for improved pasture but also to any of V
the uses below it, however, Class VIII can be VI
used only for recreation, etc. The capability
VII
class does not necessarily indicate what is the
best use for land, nor the most profitable profit. VIII

Land can be allocated to a capability class

easily with the use of a conversion table. This
will show each kind of limitation and indicates
Capability Subclass the worst conditions that can be accepted
within each class. Once the conversion table is
This is a group of capability units that have drawn up, allocation of a given soil mapping
same major conservation problem or a land unit to a capability class and subclass is
that have the same limitation. The four routine. The unit placed in whichever is the
conservation problems or kinds of limitation lowest class to which it is by any limitation
are: e – erosion; w – excess water; s – soil root causes it to be in that class, e.g. excess water,
zone limitations (depth, stoniness, etc.) then it belongs to the associated subclass,
wetness – w. So, if the land falls under Class III,
Capability Unit then, the subclass is lllw. If two limitations
cause lowering to the same class, both are
This is a group of soil mapping units that have shown, e.g. lllws.
the same potential, limitations and
management responses. Units are shown by Procedure in determining land capability
Arabic Number, e.g. lle – 1; lllw – 3; etc. classes of land unit

Capability units can be designated by using the 1. With reference from the data obtained
following: 0 – sand and gravel in substratum; 1 in the bio-physical assessment of each
– erosion hazard; 2 – wetness by poor land unit particularly slope, texture,
drainage; 3 – slow permeability; 4 – coarse drainage, permeability, stoniness or
textured or excess gravel; 5 – fine or very fine rockiness, perform matching of these
texture; 6 – salts or alkali; 7 – cobblestone, characteristics with the set of land
stone or rock; 8 – hardpan or near impervious characteristics ideal for each of the
bedrock; and 9 – low fertility or toxicity. classes. Start from capability class I.
2. If the characteristics of the land unit
does not meet the ideal
The structure of the USDA land capability characteristics, demote the land unit
classification system to the next class and do the same. Do
the process until a perfect match is
Capability Capability Capability SMU obtained.
Class Subclass Units 3. After determining the class, proceed
to the sub-class. In here, match the
Arable
most critical/limiting characteristics
 of the land unit with the three
subclasses used, i.e. e – erosion, w – a. t – temperature regime =
wetness, and s – shallow or droughty S1
4. Proceed further to determine the b. w – water availability =
capability unit. The other most S2
important limiting characteristics of c. r – rooting condition = S3
the land unit are considered and d. f – nutrient retention = S4
match with the ten available units as e. n – nutrient availability =
described above. S5
5. Designate the complete class of the f. x – toxicity = S6
land unit by considering all the g. s – terrain = S7
identified parameters. Limiting 3. Designate S3 as the final rating of the
characteristics appearing at subclass land unit and the final suitability
level should not be repeated at the classification is S3r since r (rooting
unit level. For example, a land unit condition) is the major limiting factor.
may be classified as llw – 9 which
means that the land unit fall under Using Land Capability Classification in
Capability Class II (good and Farm Planning
productive soil) with wetness (w) as
capability and low fertility (9) as a The purpose for which the system was devised,
limiting factor. and to which it is best suited is farm planning.
It is regarded as the final stage in the field
Crop Suitability Evaluation (CSE) survey. If it is for an existing farm, it is done in
consultation with the farmer. If it is new for
Suitability is the adaptability of a given area for land settlement, the land use requirements
a specified kind of land use. Similar with the must be assumed.
LCC, crop suitability shall be done by matching
the land use requirements with the land The principal steps as follows:
qualities determined during the bio-physical
assessment. If the land use requirement does 1. Decide upon the arable land.
not fit the land unit qualities, then demote it to 2. Add land for grazing, woodland, etc.
the next suitability class or until an 3. If not already, then locate for central
appropriate matched has been found. Assume service point.
always that the worst limiting factor of the land 4. Locate water supplies. (wells,
unit is its suitability class. boreholes, weirs, channels)
5. Set out the farm road style.
Procedure for crop suitability determination 6. Set out major conservation works.
(FAO method) (storm drains)
7. Identify in outline, bunds and other
1. Assume that the land characteristics soil conservation works which the
grouped under land quality r – farmer will construct himself.
rooting conditions produce the
following ratings for wetland rice: soil Above may be followed by discussion of land
drainage class – S1; soil texture – S2; classes in relation to management, e.g. arable
and rooting depth – S3. Then, the rotation, fertilizer needs, etc. Whilst originally
suitability rating for land quality r – intended for large modern farm of 100 has and
rooting condition will be S3. upwards, the system has been found of equal
2. To determine the present suitability value in developing countries, such as
of the land unit for wet land rice the individual, village land reorganization and in
following example must be adopted. new land settlement.
Assuming that the following ratings
were obtained from matching land The Philippine Land Capability
characteristic values against the Classification System
ranges of requirements of wetland
rice:
The system was patterned mostly after the affect land use in several different ways: high
USDA method, hence, its structure is the same. slope angles increase the erosion hazard,
The system recognizes that the classification of decrease the potential for mechanization and
land should be based on its natural reduce access within the production unit.
characteristics rather than upon the skill of the Barera (1961) pointed out that the effective
individual operating it or upon prevailing use of machine is limited up to 20 % slope and
economic conditions. Thus, classes of land by animals to 25 %.
according to use capability are determined by
considering the soil conditions – physical, Erosion Factors
chemical and biological – slope, kind and
degree of erosion and certain other Erodibility is considered to be an inherent
environmental features such as climate and property of the soil, usually applied to the soil
drainage. Capability class is fixed classification series, and usually independent of
on the permanent physical characteristics of management. It has identifiable and distinctive
land, therefore, putting dikes or drainage on effect upon land use which is influenced not
land do not change its capability class. only by the slope length, rainfall intensity, soil
texture, soil structure, and infiltration capacity.
Basic Factors Used in Determining However, the way the land is handled may also
Capability Class affect its erodibility.

Like any other kinds of land classification, the

system has also its particular purposes, i.e. to
record all the relevant data which will lead to
be discussion as to combination of agricultural Climate and other factors
and use and conservation measures which
allow the most intensive agricultural use of Climate may be defined as a composite or
land without the risk of soil erosion. The data generalization of the variety of day to day
required for this decision are soil type, slope of weather conditions which are expressed by a
the land, degree of soil erosion and other forms combination of several atmospheric elements,
of hazards in the use of the land for cultivation namely: temperature, precipitation and
like climate, stoniness, wetness and others. humidity, wind and air pressure.

Soil Factor Lands that particularly overflow or are subject

to floods specifically during the cropping
Each soil individual is the result of a unique season have limited use. Too stony land cannot
combination of the five soil forming factors: be used for cropping even though such land is
parent material, climate, biotic potential, level. But such land can be used for pasture.
topography, and climate. If environmental Alkalinity also inhibits the intensive use of the
conditions for growing crops are favourable, land.
soil conditions often limit production. Soil type
will reveal the following characteristics: (1) Structure of the system
texture if different horizons; (2) color of soil
material in the horizons; (3) thickness of the soil The Philippine system is most similar to the
horizon; (4) depth of the useful soil material; (5) USDA system. However, capability class and
permeability of the different soil material; (6) subclass are used and no capability units.
capacity of the soil to be hold water and plant Further, the classes identified are nine and
food; (7) inherent fertility of the soil; (8) soil given symbols using the letters of the alphabet.
reaction; (9) presence of salts in the area; and The classes are as follows:
(10) degree of wetness of the land.
Land suitable for cultivation
Slope Factor
Class A – good land that can be cultivated safely
The classification of the land for capability will and extensively with ordinary good farming
depend upon slope as one of the factors. It is a practices.
single and measurable property which can
Class B – good land that can be cultivated safely Many land classification have been devised by
using easily applied conservation practices. different authors and agencies. The storie index
system (Storie, 1964) was designed initially for
Class C – moderately good land that can be use in California. The Canadian System was
used regularly for cultivated crops in a good primarily a system for inventory land
rotation but needs intensive conservation evaluation. Beek and Bennema (1972)
treatment. formulated their classification for agricultural
land use planning in The Netherlands. Obeng
Class D – fairly good land that is best suited for (1968) devised his system for soils in Ghana
pasture but can be cultivated to crops in a good under practices of mechanized and hand
rotations but needs intensive conservation cultivation for crop and livestock production.
treatment. The paper of Bartelli (1968) is oriented to
potential farming lands in the coastal plain of
Land suitable for pasture and forest the southern United States. Perez (1989)
proposed a revision in the capability
Class L – land is flat but is too wet or stony and classification system for the Philippines
is suited for pasture or forestry. separating areas that could be used for
mechanized farming and those for hand
Class M – land is too steep, eroded or shallow cultivation. He suggested other capability
for cultivation but is suited for grazing, or classes aside from the 9 existing classes of the
forestry if well managed. original system. Each system is useful in its
particular environment and circumstance, but
Class N – land is very steep, eroded, rough, none are appropriate for all uses at all times.
shallow, or dry. Good only for forestry or Planners as well as students should strive to
grazing if handled properly. achieve the most useful system to meet the
needs of their specific project area, by adapting
Lands suitable for wildlife what is suited and revised or formulate new
ones according to the requirements of the
Class X – land is level but wet moist of the time planned activity.
and cannot be economically drained. Good for
farm pond or recreation. The following discussions are adapted from
the, “Field Guide to Soil and the
Class Y – land is too steep, eroded, barren and Environment”(Applications of Soil Surveys by
rugged and should be reserved only for wildlife Gerald W. Olson)
or recreation.
Storie Index (UCLA)
Study Guide Questions
Land classification by quantitative
1. Explain the structure of the USDA productivity indexes has been used in many
Land Capability Classification System. places. The Storie Index developed at the
2. Give an example of a parametric University of the California, illustrates
method of land classification and principles of application of productivity
differentiate it with a non-parametric indexes in land classification that have been
one? relatively widely applied (Edwards et al.,
3. How are capability classes written in 1970)
the Philippine system? Give the
corresponding classes in terms of the In the system, the master ratings developed for
USDA system. a particular land were based on the general
4. Outline the procedure in using land character of the soil profile, texture of the
capability classification in farm surface soil, slope of the land, climate, and
planning. other physical conditions affecting use of the
land. Ranges in percentage values were
Other Agricultural Land Classification selected for the various factors that were
Systems appropriate for the local conditions.
 𝑟
The land productivity index can be stated as PI = ∑𝑖=1(𝐴𝑖 𝑥 𝐶𝑖 𝑥 𝐷𝑖 𝑥 𝐸𝑖 𝑥 𝑊𝐹)
follows:
Where Ai = sufficiency of
Land Productivity Index (LPI) = A x B x C x X x Y available water
capacity (adjusted
Where: A = percentage rating for the for coarse fragments
general character of the soil and salts)
profile Ci = sufficiency of
B = percentage rating for the bulk density
texture of the surface (adjusted for
horizon permeability)
C = percentage rating for the Di = sufficiency of
slope of the land pH
X = percentage rating for site Ei = sufficiency of
conditions other than those electrical
covered in factors A, B, and conductivity
C (e.g. salinity, soil reaction, WF = weighing
freedom from damaging factor
winds, etc.) PI = productivity of
Y = percentage rating for the soil environment
rainfall r = number of
horizons in the
depth of rooting
The land productivity index is obtained my under ideal
multiplying a series of percentage ratings. conditions
Percentage ratings are converted to decimal
equivalents for use in the formula, and the Students and other with computer facilities
resulting product is reconverted to a should adopt this formula to fit their soil’s
percentage basis. The percentage rating for environment for calculating a productivity
each factor (A,B,C, X and Y) increases as the index for each of the different project area
favourableness of that factor increases. As the soils. According to Pierce (1982), the
land productivity index approaches 100 sufficiency concept can be extremely valuable
percent, the agricultural quality of the land in comparing a variety of different soils,
increases. Less productive land types have especially as the soils are influenced by the
indexes with lower values. If even one factor management practices affecting drainage and
alone has a low percentage rating, that factor erosion and other soil improvements and
can substantially reduce the level of the land degradations.
productivity index.
Prime Farmland (Beatty et al, 1979)
Sufficiency Concept (Pierce et al., 1982)
To identify areas of the best soils that should
Pierce et al., (1982) have adopted a numerical be considered for preservation for future food
index method to quantity soil productivity production, definitions of “prime farmlands”
based on the assumption that soil is a major has been established by Beatty et al., as
determinant of crop yield due to the follows:
environment it provides for root growth. Soil
parameters were evaluated in terms of root 1. The soils have one of the following:
response and each soil layer was weighted a. Aquic, udic, ustic or xeric
according to an ideal rooting distribution. moisture regimes and
Response and each soil parameter were sufficient available water
normalized to range from 0.0 to 1.0. capacity within a depth of 1 m
(40 inches), or in the root
The model used to evaluate productivity in this zone if the root zone is less
approach takes the following form: than 1 m deep, to produce the
 commonly grown in crops in 6. The soils are not flooded frequently
7 or more years out of 10; or during the growing season (less often
b. Xeric or ustic moisture than once in 2 years); and
regimes in which the 7. The soils have a product of K
available water capacity is (erodibility factor) x percent slope
limited but the area has a which is less than 2.0 and wind
developed irrigation water erosion product of I (soil erodibility) x
supply that is dependable (a C (climate factor) not exceeding 60.
dependable water supply is That is, prime farmland does not
one that in which enough include soils having a serious erosion
water is available for hazard; and
irrigation in 8 out of 10 years 8. The soils have a permeability rate of at
for the crops commonly least 0.15 cm (0.06 inch) per hour in
grown) and of adequate the upper 50 cm (20 inches) and the
quality; or mean annual soil temperature at a
c. Aridic or torric moisture depth of 50 cm is less than 15 °C, the
regimes and the area has permeability rate is not a limiting
developed irrigation water factor if the mean annual soil
supply that is dependable and temperature is 15 °C or higher; and
of adequate quality; and 9. Less than 10 % of the surface layer
2. The soils have a soil temperature (upper 15cm) in these soils consists of
regime that is frigid, mesic, thermic, or rock fragments coarser than 7.6 cm (3
hyperthermic. These are soils that, at inches). These soils present no
a depth of 50 cm (20 inches) have a particular difficulty in cultivating with
mean annual temperature higher than large equipment.
0°C (32°F), In addition, the mean
summer temperature at this depth in In general, this prime farmland definition
soils with an O horizon is higher than embraces land capability Class I, most of Class
8°C(47°F); in soils that have no O II and subclass IIIw that has an adequate water
horizon the mean summer management system.
temperature is higher than
15°C(59°F), and Study Guide Questions
3. This soils have a pH between 4.5 and
8.4 in all horizons within a depth of 1 1. How are the different categories of the
m (40 inches) deep. This range of pH USDA Land Capability Classification
is favorable for growing a wide variety system denoted and what are the
of crops without adding a large conventions in using the capability
amounts of soil amendments; and subclasses and capability units?
4. The soil either have no water table or 2. How is Storie Index structure
have a water table that is maintained compared with the Sufficiency
at a sufficient depth during the Concept model?
cropping season to allow food, feed, 3. How come that Class IIIw belongs to
fiber, forage, and oil seed crops the classification of prime farmland?
common to the area to be grown; and 4. In the Storie Index, how are the
5. The soils can be managed so that in all different factors rated? What soil
horizons within a depth of 1m (40 parameters are included in each
inches), or in the root zone if the root factor?
zone is less than 1 m deep, during part
of each year the conductivity of
saturation extract is less than 4
mmhos/cm and the exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) is less than
15; and
References

Dent D. and A. Young. 1981. Soil Survey and

Land Evaluation. London. George Allen and
Unwin Publishers Ltd.

Soil Conservation Society of America. 1984.

Resource Conservation Glossary. USA.
Government Printing Office.

Crop Science Society of America. 1984.

Planning the Uses of Land. Washington.
Government Printing Office.

Hausenbuiller, R.L. 1978. Soil Science

Principles and Practices. Iowa: WM. C. Brown
Co.

FAO. 1975. Guidelines for Soil Profile

Description. Rome, Italy: FAO – UNESCO.

FAO. 1975. Soil Map of the World. Rome, Italy:

FAO – UNESCO

Survey Staff. 1983. Keys to Soil Taxonomy.

Virginia Technical Publication Unit.