ABSTRACT ‘The XXIth century is full of technological inventions that made the very idea of a listening device possible, from the early gramophones to the latest portable mini disk players. What evolutions can we predict for the listening devices of the future, and how these evolutions will change the way we access and listen to music ? In this chapter, we suggest that listening, devices can be greatly enhanced by providing new Forms of user controls which provide users with semantically preserving variations. These controls are intended to allow listeners different musical perceptions on a piece of music, by opposition to traditional listening, in which the musical media is played Passively by some neutral device. The objective is both to increase the musical Comfort of listeners, and, when possible, to provide listeners with smoother paths to new music (music they do not know, or do not like), This chapter illustrates this idea on a few ‘examples of active listening projects conducted at Sony Computer Science Laboratory, Paris, based on the notion of constrained exploratory space. These constrained spaces suggest that the classical boundaries between composing, listening and mixing may be redefined, thereby assigning new roles to composers, sound Engineers and listeners.LIST OF FIGURE ‘Sr.No. | Figure Name Page No. 1 Gircuit diagram of multipurpose listening device 3 z Ind 148 diodes 7 3 “Transistor bes 8 4 Variable resistor 12 = Resistors is 6 Detection of colour codes 2 7. Different types of capacitors a = Principle of capacitor er) 9. Principle diagram of electrolytic capacitor 2 10. Structure of aluminium electrolytic capacitor 26 i. Different batteries 26 Rh General schematic diagram Bw B. PCB layout 32 rom Final PCB of multipurpose listening device 36Chapter | Name Of Chapter Page No. 1. | Introduction 13 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Project Objective 1 1.3 Benefits 2 14 Future Scope 2 2 Literature Review 4 2.1 History q 3 | Project Analysis 56 3.1 Circuit Diagram 5 3.2 Explanation 3 3.3 Working 6 4 | Problem Statement & Methodology 732 4.1 Hardware required 7 4.2 Software Required 27 Result 336 Conclusion 37 ReferenceINTRODUCTON CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ‘This chapter starts with introduction and background of the project. It is followed by objectives, scope of works and problem statements, Methodologies are presented in the last part of this chapter. 1.1 Overview: ‘This circuit can detect very faint, remote sounds with a good clarity. It is useful in large conference halls, auditoria, cinema halls, lecture rooms in colleges, etc. The circuit can be housed in a small plastic box and kept in a shirt pocket. It is especially useful for watching TV programmes at a low volume so as not to disturb other family members in the house.An electret microphone is used to pick up sounds. The advantages of using it are its excellent frequency range and high sens fabricating the circuit. ity. Four transistors and a few resistors and capacitors are required for The circuit operates off two 1.5V AA-size cells. Transistors TI and T2 amplify sounds picked up by the microphone. Transistor T3 with resistor R2 (1-mega-ohm) in feedback path ensures a constant level. This is necessary because faint sounds should be boosted by the device and strong sounds should be attenuated to a safe level. Earphones of the types used with Walkman and cellphones (32-ohm impedance) are used for listening. Wire the stereo headphone socket such that both the right and left earphones are connected to the circuit, Multiturn trimmer RI (10-kilo-ohm) is used to control the sensitivity of the microphone. 1.2 Project Objective: Each technological advance has brought with it new forms of controls. The origins of listening machines with mass-produced musical materials may be traced back to the Phonograph, invented by Thomas Edison in 1878, which used tin foil cylinders, and shortly after the Gramophone, invented by Berliner in 1888, which used flat disks. In these devices, there was no control intentionally given to the user (se, e.g. Read & Welch, 1976). There was,INTRODUCTON however, an unintentional control in the Gramophone in That the horn could be turned around, thereby influencing the directivity of the sound source, Electricity soon began to be used for listening devices, both with radio and Frangois Pachet, Active Listening.with new electrically recorded disk players in the 20s. The use of electricity also introduced new controls: the volume button and the treble/bass button. Juke-boxes were introduced in 1927, allowing listeners to select explicitly music titles from a given catalogue of disks, using various sorts of push buttons. The next big technological advance was the invention of binaural (stereo) recording method in 1931. The corresponding control was the panoramic button allowing to control the amount of signal in one loudspeaker or the other. Finally, digital format for audio introduced more controls, e.g. on the equalization of sound. In all these cases technological advances were followed by the introduction of “technical” controls, that is. controls operating directly on the technology . ‘Through this we can here any hereby signal with great efficiency and high frequency signal. 13 Benefits: ©) tCan Be Useful In:- © Large Conference Halls © Auditorium © Cinema Hall © Lecture Room In Colleges, Etc * And At All Places Where Sound Amplification Is Needed. ‘* Excellent Frequency Range And High Sensitivity. © This Circuit Can Detect Very Faint, Remote Sounds With A Good Clarity. © Low Cos. © Easy To Construct. © Low Power Consumption.INTRODUCTON 14 Future scope: Nowadays electric lighting is a major energy consumer. Enormous energy savings are possible Using energy efficient equipment, effective controls, and careful design. Using less electric. Lighting reduces heat gain, thus saving air-conditioning energy and improving thermal comfort. Electric lighting design also strongly affects visual performance and visual comfort by aiming to maintain adequate and appropriate illumination while controlling reflection and glare. So by using lighting as a electricity in listening device, which will glow when any signal is detected by the microphone and in turn transmitted by the headphones.It can be used in various rooms like seminar halls, lectures rooms in colleges and in many places. And also a frequency detector can be used which will transmit the signal according to the sensitivity of the signal detected which will reduce the crossing of different signals and remove attenuation .If size of microphone can be increased then the frequency range increases, which ill be useful for detecting sound from large distances.LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 HISTORY ‘This project was initially planned as automatic transmitting device. It was modified upon recommendation to an multipurpose listening device. This will be much more useful for me personally, as I love listening movies, songs. However, the project is useful in almost any enclosed room with high humidity. Headphones and microphones. particularly benefit from good airflow. Excess humidity can lead to faster moki development and growth. The expected outcome for this project is that the multipurpose listening device is built and it can perform well. ‘The animation of the system is built to show the working principle of the designed system, Besides that, this project shows the comparison between the enhanced system and existent fistening and exhaust system. For current used system, users have to switch on or off the ‘earphones manually but for enhanced system the will be switched on and off when people ‘wants to hear any sound which may be listening songs or watching any videos by just placing the microphone in front of the transmitting device - In earlier centuries such facilities were not available to use but with the development of technologies, use of transistors, resistors made us to develop such kind of devices. EARLY REVIEWS: «Background reading and references. * Search for suitable and practical circuits. * List down and identify the suitable components using in the circuits Design the prototype circuit boards and assembling, © Test and do analysis to the circuits.CHAPTER 3 PROJECT ANALYSIS: 3.1 Circuit diagram: 1: Circuit diagram of multipurpose listening device 3.2 Explanation: We have the switch which is used for on/off operation which is connected to the 3 volts battery in series. The combination of these two is connected in parallel with variable resistor. We hhad used four be548 transistors and the resistors and capacitors are mounted over it.capacitot cl is connected to the base of transistor t1 via a resistor of 1 mega ohm. In the same way c2 is connected to transistor? via resistor2.resistor r4 is connected to the collector of transistor t2. Resistor r5 is connected in parallel to diode 1n4148 to the base of transistor 13. Capacitor cS is connected to the base of transistor 14, resistor F7is connected to the collector of transistor (4 which in turn connected as a negative part to the headphones socket and vec is connected as positive to the socket.PROJECT ANALYSIS 3.4Working of circuit: This circuit can detect very faint, remote sounds with a good clarity. An electrets microphone is used to pick up sounds. The advantages of using it are its excellent frequency range and high sensitivity. Four transistors and a few resistors and capacitors are required for fabricating the circuit. The circuit operates off two 15V AA-size cells. Transistors TI and T2 amplify sound picked up by the microphone. Transistor T3 with resistor R2 (I-mega-ohm) in feedback path ensures a constant level. This is necessary because faint sounds should be boosted by the device and strong sounds should be attenuated to a safe level. Earphones of the types used with Walkman and cell phones (32-ohm impedance) are used for listening. Wire the stereo headphone socket such that both the right and left earphones are connected to the circuit. Multitumn trimmer VR1 (10-kilo-ohm) is used to control the sensitivity of the microphone.PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY CHAPTER 4 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODLOGY 4.1 Hardware required: 4.1. LDIODE 1N4148: FIG 4.1: IN4148 diodes The 1N4148 is a standard silicon switching diode. It is one of the most popular and long- lived switching diodes because of its dependable specifications and low cost. Its name follows the JEDEC nomenclature. The IN4148 is useful in switching applications up to about 100 MHz with a reverse-recovery time of no more than 4 ns. The IN4148 comes in a DO-35 glass package for thru-hole mounting. This is useful for breadboarding of circuits. A surface mount device, IN4148WS, is available in a plastic SOD package As the most common mass-produced switching diode, the IN4I48. replaced the older 1N914,which had a 200 times greater leakage current : 5 A vs. 25 nA.Since leakage is usually an undesirable property, today manufacturers produce the IN4148 and sell it as either part number.It was second-sourcedby many manufacturers; Texas Instruments listed their version of the device in an October 1966 data sheet, These device types have an enduring popularity in low-current applications,PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY Basics Concepts: FEATURES “Hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) package sHigh s “General application hing speed: max. 4 ns Continuous reverse voltage: max. 100 V Repetitive peak reverse voltage: max. 100 V “Repetitive peak forward current: max, 450 mA, APPLICATIONS High-speed switching. DESCRIPTION ‘The 1N4148 and 1N4448 are high-speed switching diodes fabricated in planar technology. and encapsulated in hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) packages. 4.1.2. TRANSISTOR BC548 Fig 4.2 transistor be548,PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY ‘The BC548 is a general purpose epitaxial silicon NPN transistor found commonly in European electronic equipment. It is part of an historically significant series of transistors that began in 1966 when Philips introduced the metal-cased BC 108 family of transistors that included the high-voltage BC107 and low noise BC109 variants. The BC107, BC108, and BC109 became the most used transistors in Australia and Europe. Later plastic packaged functional equivalents, including the BC547, BC548, and BC549, reduced costs, reduced thermal resistance and provided an insulated case, and are frequently specified in circuits published in European and Australian electronics magazines, though much less known in the USA. The BC546, BC547, BC548, BC549 and BC5S0 have broadly similar characteristics. In particular they have the same maximum collector current and power dissipation Absolute Maximum Ratings, but their collector breakdown voltage ratings Vceo and Vcgo vary. ‘The BCS48 has a 30 Vexo,while the BCS47 is 50 V and the BC546 is 80 V. The BCS49 and BCSS0 are low-noise versions with Veros of 30V and 4SV respectively .the BC548 is low cost and is available in most European Union and other countries. It is often the first type of bipolar transistor hobbyist’s encounter, and is often featured in designs in hobby electronics magazines where a general-purpose transistor is required. ‘The part number is assigned by Pro Electron, which allows many manufacturers to offer electrically and physically interchangeable parts under one identification. As viewed in the image to the right, and going from left to right, lead 1 is the collector, lead 2 is the base, and lead 3is the emitter. Note that not all transistors with TO-92 cases follow this arrangement. Contents > 1. Specifications > 2, Power ratings > 3. Voltage ratings > 4, Bc548 family ¥ 5. Noise figure > 6.Gain groupingPROBLEM STATEMED ‘AND METHODOLOGY SPECIFICATIONS: Devices registered to this Pro Electron number must have minimum performance characteristics. Breakdown voltage, collector-to-emitter with base open-circuit Vezo = 30 V - Rated continuous collector current Ic = 100 mA, Rated total power dissipation Pyoy = 500 mW (some manufacturers may specify 625 mW ‘Transition frequency (gain-bandwidth product) {, = 150 MHz minimum (300 MHZ typical). In the summer of 2013. the manufacturer's budgeted cost for the part is less than US $0.03 in lots of 1000. POWER RATINGS: ‘The rated power dissipation for transistors is the total power developed across both junctions of the transistor that will raise the internal temperature to the maximum permitted (ic. not something that should be maintained in normal use), and will be specified for a given ambient temperature for low-power transistors such as these, in this case 25 degrees Celsius. In practice factors such as the proximity of the transistor to the printed circuit board will influence how well heat can be removed from the transistor and proximity to other heat-generating components will increase the ambient temperature - and probably reduce the permissible dissipation below the 500-625 mW ideal-conditions specification. VOLTAGE RATINGS: The BC548 and BC549, and their PNP counterparts (BC558 and BC559) can be used in circuits where voltages reach no more than 30 Volts, limited mainly by their Vero rating. ‘The Vergo rating, refers to the maximum voltage between collector and base with the emitter open-circuit (not typical operation), and their predecessors, the BC108 and BC109, while having Veuo or Vces ratings of 30 V have only a 20 Vcro) rating, meaning a BCS48 (or BCS49) can replace a BC 108 but a BC108 might not be a safe replacement for a BC148. 10PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY BCS48 FAMILY: ‘The BC546 and BCS47 have higher voltage ratings; the BC549 has lower noise, and the C550 has both higher voltage and lower noise. The PNP counterparts of the BC546 to BCSS0 are be556 to bcS60 respectively. The surface-mount package version are be846 to be850. NOISE FIGURE: ‘The noise figure of the BC548 is less than 10 dB and typically 2 dB at a collector current of 0.2 mA, the low-noise counterparts: BC549 and BC5SO are specified to have a noise figure of less than 4dB and typically 1.4dB under the same conditions, while the low-noise PNP complements - BC559 and BC560 - have a slightly lower typical noise figure of 1.2 db GAIN GROUPINGS: ‘The type number of any of the devices in this "family" may be followed by a letter to indicate a narrow range of gain (hy:) spread (although it is not so common for a BCxx7 or BCax8 part to be available with a "C° gain grouping). "A" indicates low gain (110 to 220 at 2 mA) "B" indicates medium gain (200 to 450) "C" indicates high gain (420 to 800) Soa BCS47 might have a current gain anywhere from 110 to 800, but the gain of a BCS47A. would be within the range of 110 to 220. FryPROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY 4.1.3. Variable resistor:- FIGURE4.3: VARIABLE RESISTOR DESCRIPTION: Informally a pot is a three- terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat, ‘The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage), the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment, Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power(more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load. A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. The measuring instrument called a potentiometer essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an ;plementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment, Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for 12PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load. ‘Nomenclatures of potentiometer: v Resistance—position relationshi Linear taper potentiometer Logarithmic potentiometer Rheostat, ‘taper’ vvy ei Digital potentiometer v Membrane potentiometers Potentiometer applications: Audio control Television ‘There are a number of terms im the electronics industry used to describe certain types of potentiometers: ¥ Slide pot or slider pot: a potentiometer that is adjusted by sliding the wiper left or right (or up and down, depending on the installation), usually with a finger or thumb. ¥ Thumb pot or thumbwheel pot: a small rotating potentiometer meant to be adjusted infrequently by means of a small thumbwheel. ¥ Trim pot or trimmer pot: a trimmer potentiometer typically meant to be adjusted once or infrequently for “fine-tuning” an electrical signal. Potentiometer construction: Single-tun potentiometer with metal casing removed to expose wiper contacts and resistive track.Potentiometers comprise a resistive element. a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along the element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one end to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper, BPROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive element formed into an are of a circle usually a little less than a full tum and a wiper sliding on this element when rotated, making electrical contact. The resistive clement, with a terminal at each end, is flat or angled. ‘The wiper is connected to a third terminal, usually between the other two. On panel potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. The only point of ingress for contamination is the narrow space between the shaft and the housing it rotates in. ‘Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a linear element instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the slot the slider moves in, making effective sealing more difficult and compromising long-term reliability. An advantage of the slider potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual indication of its setting. While the setting of a rotary potentiometer can be seen by the position of a marking on the knob, an array of sliders can give a visual impression of, for example, the effect of a multi-band equaliser (hence the term "graphic equaliser”), The resistive clement of inexpensive potentiometers is often made of graphite. Other materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet. Conductive tack potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor pastes that contain hard-wearing resins and polymers, solvents, and lubricant, in addition to the carbon that provides the conductive properties. 1) Linear Tapper Potentiometer Taper potentiometer (linear describes the electrical characteristic of the device, not the geometry of the resistive clement) has a resistive element of constant cross-section, resulting in a device where the resistance between the contact (wiper) and one end terminal is proportional to the distance between them, Linear taper potentiometers are used when the division ratio of the potentiometer must be proportional to the angle of shaft rotation (or slider position), for example, controls used for adjusting the centering of the display on an analog cathode-ray oscilloscope. Precision potentiometers have an accurate relationship between resistance and slider position. 14PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY 2) Logarithmic potentiometer A logarithmic taper potentiometer has a resistive element that either ‘tapers’ in from one end to the other, or is made from a material whose resistivity varies from one end to the other. This results in a device where output voltage is a logarithmic function of the slider position. Most (cheaper) “log” potentiometers are not accurately logarithmic, but use two regions of different resistance (but constant resistivity) to approximate a logarithmic law. The two resistive tracks overlap at approximately 50% of the potentiometer rotation; this gives a stepwise logarithmic taper. A logarithmic potentiometer can also be simulated (not very accurately) with a linear one and an external resistor. True logarithmic potentiometers are significantly more expensive. Logarithmic taper potentiometers are often used in connection with audio amplifiers as human perception of audio volume is logarithmic. 3) Rheostat The most common way to vary the resistance in a circuit is to use a theostat. The word rheostat was coined about 1845 by Sir Charles Wheatstone, from the Greek (6 —_rheos) meaning “stream”, and - states (from i histanai, " to set, to cause to stand") meaning "setter, s becoming regulating device’,which is a two-terminal variable resistor. The term "rheostat obsolete, with the general term “potentiometer” replacing it, For low-power applications (less than about | watt) a three-terminal potentiometer is often used, with one terminal unconnected or ‘connected to the wiper. Where the rheostat must be rated for higher power (more than about watt), it may be built with a resistance wire wound around a semicircular insulator, with the wiper sliding from one turn of the wire to the next. Sometimes a rheostat is made from resistance wire wound on a heat- resisting cylinder, with the slider made from a number of metal fingers that grip lightly onto a small portion of the turns of resistance wire. The "fingers" can be moved along the coil of resistance wire by a sliding knob thus changing the “tapping” point. Wire-wound rheostats made with ratings up to several thousand watts are used in applications such as DC motor drives, electric welding controls, or in the controls for generators. The rating of the rheostat is given with the full resistance value and the allowable power dissipation is proportional to the fraction of the total device resistance in circuit, 154) Digital potentiometer A digital potentiometer (often called digipot) is an electronic component that mimics the functions of analog potentiometers. Through digital input signals, the resistance between two terminals can be adjusted, just as in an analog potentiometer. There are two main functional types, volatile, which lose their set position if power is removed, and are usually designed to initialise at the minimum position, and non-volatile, which retain their set position using a storage mechanism similar to flash memory or EEPROM. Usage of a digipot is far more complex than that of a simple mechanical potentiometer, and there are many limitations to observe, nevertheless they are widely used, often for factory adjustment and calibration of equipment, especially where the limitations of mechanical potentiometers are problematic. A digipot is generally immune to the effects of moderate long- term mechanical vibration or environmental contamination, to the same extent as other semiconductor devices, and can be secured electronically against unauthorised tampering by protecting the access to its programming inputs by various means. In equipment which has a microprocessor, FPGA or other functional logic which can store settings and reload them to the “potentiometer” every time the equipment is powered up. a multiplying DAC can be used in place of a digipot, and this can offer higher setting resolution, Jess drift with temperature, and more operational flexibility. 5) Membrane potentiometers A membrane potentiometer uses a conductive membrane that is deformed by a sliding element to contact a resistor voltage divider. Linearity can range from 0.5% to 5% depending on the material, design and manufacturing process. The repeat accuracy is typically between 0.1mm. and 1.0mm with a theoretically infinite resolution. The service life of these types of potentiometers is typically 1 million to 20 million cycles depending on the materials used during manufacturing and the actuation method; contact and contactless (magnetic) methods are available. Many different material variations are available such as PET, FR4, and Kapton. Membrane potentiometer manufacturers offer linear, rotary, and application-specific variations, ‘The linear versions can range from 9mm to 100mm in leagth and the rotary versions range from 16PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY 0° to multiple full turns, with each having a height of 0.5mm. Membrane potentiometers can be used for position sensing. For touch-screen devices using resistive technology, a two-dimensional membrane potentiometer provides x and y coordinates. The top layer is thin glass spaced close to a neighbouring inner layer. The underside of the top layer has a transparent conductive coating; the surface of the layer beneath it has a transparent resistive coating. A finger or stylus deforms the glass to contact the underlying layer. Edges of the resistive layer have conductive contacts ‘Locating the contact point is done by applying a voltage to opposite edges, leaving the other two edges temporarily unconnected. The voltage of the top layer provides one coordinate. Disconnecting those two edges, and applying voltage to the other two, formerly unconnected, provides the other coordinate. Alternating rapidly between pairs of edges provides frequent position updates. An analog-to digital converter provides output data. Advantages of such sensors are that only five conneetions to the sensor are needed, and the associated electronics is comparatively simple. Another is that any material that depresses the top layer over a small area works well. A disadvantage is that sufficient force must be applied to make contact. Another that the sensor requires occasional calibration to match touch location to the underlying display. (Capacitive sensors require no calibration or contact force, only proximity of a finger or other conductive object. However, they are significantly more complex.) Potentiometer applications Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant amaunts of power (more than a ‘watt or so), Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (for example volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light, dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly to control the brightness of Iamps.Preset potentiometers are widely used throughout electronics wherever adjustments must be made during manufacturing or servicing. User-actuated potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer electronics declined in the 1990s, with rotary encoders, up/down push-buttons, and other digital controls 7PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY now more common, However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls and as position sensors. * Audio control (Linear potentiometers) Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.TThe ‘log pot’ is used as the volume control in audio power amplifiers, where it is also called an “audio taper pot”, because the amplitude response of the human ear is approximately logarithmic. It ensures that on a volume control marked 0 to 1 for example, a setting of 5 sounds subjectively half as Joud as a setting of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a logarithmic potentiometer. It is almost always used in a ganged configuration with a logarithmic potentiometer, for instance, in an audio balance control. Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks act as tone controls or equalizers. © Television Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and colour Tesponse. A potentiometer was often used to adjust “vertical hold’, which affected the synchronization between the receiver's internal sweep circuit (sometimes a multivibrator) and the received picture signal, along with other things such as audio-video carrier offset, tuning frequency (for push-button sets) and so on. * Motion control Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in order to create "closed loop” control, such as in a servomechanism. This method of motion control used in the DC Motor the simplest method of measuring the angle or speed. * Transducers Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers because of the simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output signal 18PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY THEORY OF OPERATION A potentiometer with a resistive load, showing equivalent fixed resistors for clarity. The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the potentiometer. ‘This is their most common use.The voltage across RL can be calculated by: IRL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational amplifier), the output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:(dividing throughout by RL and cancelling terms with RL as denominator).As an example, assume and since the load resistance is large compared to the other resistances, the output voltage VL will be approximately: Due to the load resistance, however, it will actually be slightly lower, 6.623 V. One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor in series with the source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum resistance where some current will always flow, dividers are able to vary the output voltage from maximum (VS) to ground (zero volts) as the wiper moves from one end of the potentiometer to the other. There is, however, always a small amount of contact resistance.tn addition, the load resistance is often not known and therefore simply placing a variable resistor in series with the load could have a negligible effect or an excessive effect, depending on the load. 4.1.4. Resistors:- FIGURE4.4: RESISTOR 9PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to Jower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High- power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators, Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements(such as a volume control or a Lamp dimmer), oras, sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force.or chemical activity.Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.The electrical function of a resistor is specified bytes resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the Resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance. Electronic symbols and notation ‘Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows; (a) resistor (b) Rheostat (variable resistor), and (©) Potentiometer 20PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY Tomes bot kositon 20 x10,000 = 200,000 1,000 = 1K Resistor = 200 KQ witha + 10% Tolerance Fig 4.5 resistor detection Ohm's law: ‘The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law: V=!I-R. Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (1), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the relation between voltage and current in altemating current circuits. The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. ‘An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (Im = 10-3), kilohm (1k = 103 ), and megohm (IM. = 106) are also in common usage. 21PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY Series and parallel resistors: ‘The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistancevalues. Ri Re Ry Req = Ri + Ro+-++ + Rn. ‘The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistor. 1 a 1 ts « So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/(.1+.24.067}=2.725 ohms. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken uj smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such problems. Power dissipation: ‘At any instant of time, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is calculated 2PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY V2 2 P=PR=IV= R Where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat which must be dissipated by the resistor’s package before its temperature rises excessively. 4.1.5. Capacitors FIGURE 4.6: DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAPACITOR A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical ‘component used to store energy electro statically in an electric field “The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors(Plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator).The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, ete. The non conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can beglass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates. When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collection one plate and negative charge -Q 2BPROB! TEM! AND METHODOLOGY to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow. Principle of Capacitors Capacitor consists of two metal plates with good transmittance in parallel, and dielectric (insulator) which dees not transmit electricity between them? ‘The name of capacitors is decided by the kinds of electrode material and dielectric, Dincic € ‘Accurmdaton of eectcty become ‘Bigger paper. laste and cram, lc, can be pat inside. ex} Fig 4.7 principle of capacitor Electrolytic capacitors are distinguished from other capacitors by the uniqueness of their electrode materials and dielectric. ‘Gam won Omen Omen Aeaa rae eaose)| Fig. 4.8 the principle diagram of electrolytic capacitor. 24PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY Electrolytic capacitor names after using oxide film formed electrochemically on electrode surface as Dielectric.Aluminum (Al), tantalum (Ta), niobium (Nb), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf) and other metals Can form a fine, highly isolative oxide currently, the only two metals in practical application are aluminum and tantalum,Oxide film formed on the surface of electrode 1 becomes an electrical insulator and functions as.a dielectric only when the electrode on which formed becomes anode. ‘Therefore, electrolytic capacitors are, in principle, capacitors with polarity. A liquid electrolyte, while tantalum electrolytic capacitors use a solid electrolyte, These structural differences in aluminum electrolytic capacitors and tantalum electrolytic capacitors have A large influence on their performance and reliability. ‘The biggest difference of them is in their electrolytes (liquid solid). Such properties as temperature characteristic and frequency characteristic are not as good with the Liquid electrolyte as with the solid electrolyte because the variation in conductivity is great. In contrast, the recoverability of the oxide film is not as good with solid electrolytes as it is with liquid electrolytes, And so the development of a flaw in the oxide film could easily result in a failure mode such as an increase in leakage current or a short circuit. Solid electrolyte capacitors do not have as good a ripple current resistance and charge-discharge resistance,and do not stand up as well to reverse current due to the difference in recoverability. The life of liquid electrolyte capacitors is limited because the electrolyte gradually permeates through the seal and difference in recoverability. The capacitors is limited because the electrolyte gradually permeates through the seal and diffuses, causing the capacitor to dry up and lose capacitance and resulting in an open condition. Solid capacitors, on the other hand, have an almost permanent life because their Electrolyte does not diffuse of liquid electrolyte Aluminium electrolytic capacitors have life. 2PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY The hybrid type which used the conductive polymer and the electrolysis solution for the electrolyte is also Produced commercially, and the lineup also of the capacitor excellent in performance and quality is curried out, Construction of Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors Fig 4.9 Structure of aluminium electrolytic capacitor 4.1.6, Battery Fig 4.10 Different batteries 26PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY ‘Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two AA, one D, one handheld ham radio battery, two 9-volts (PP3), two AAA, one C, one camcorder battery, one cordless phone battery. © Type + Power source © Working principle «Electrochemical reactions, Electromotive force * Electronic symbol 1+ T= ‘The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. It originated as a schematic drawing of the carliest type of battery, a voltaic pile. An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored exchanges and computer data centers.According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth.Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work, compared to combustion engines. 4.28oftware required: 4.2.1 PCB Designing Layout > Introduction: Printed circuit board is a piece of art the of an electronic circuit depends upon the layout on designing of PCB. The PCB designing of a circuit operation should be very precise to work it properly .the soloed point should be small enough so that any stray between thus point not exist. ‘Also high package density of component can be produced stray which should be avoided by 27PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY Proper circuit designing and component should spread in such a way that two component produced minimum stray. Also the track of PCB, soldering points and components mounting very correct and that will be of great help to success the project. ‘Making such precise PCB easy, for preparing PCB layout, used PCB layout manufacturing by ‘Vega Company with the help computerized equipment’ s. We cannot used ready-made PCB for our project. The track of PCB shown in figure. To make PCB with professional touch the general method that should be carried out is as follows. Advantages of PCB over normal wiring: 1) The circuit board fabrication cost (PCB cost) is lower with mass quantity production 2) Electronic circuit characteristics will be maintained without introducing parasite capacitance with a proper circuit board design. 3) Component wiring and assembly can be mechanized in a circuit board manufacturing facility. 4) PCB's offer uniformity of electrical characteristics from assembly to assembly. 5) Inspection time is reduced because printed circuitry eliminates the probability of error. 6) Chances of mis-wiring or short-circuited wiring are minimized. Dis-Advantages of PCB: 1) Re designing is required for the new type of circuit operation, 2) Very hard to get repaired if it gets damaged, 3) Etching of this PCB generates chemicals which are the harmful for the environment. 42.2 Proteus Simulator: 28PROBLEM STATEMENT AND METHODOLOGY jeW eae B+ o4qns oe tue FANN Ose) RAH OORS DOD Fig4.11: Schematic Diagram Proteus PCB design combines the schematic capture and ARES PCB layout programs to provide a powerful, integrated and easy to use suite of tools for professional PCB Design.. All Proteus PCB design products include an integrated shape based auto router and a basic SPICE simulation capability as standard. More advanced routing modes are included in Proteus PCB Design Level 2 and higher whilst simulation capabilities can be enhanced by purchasing the Advanced Simulation option and/or micro-controller simulation capabilities. Lab center Electronics Ltd. was founded in 1988 by the chairman and chief software architect John Jameson, The initial launch of our Proteus design suite followed soon after and has since benefited from nearly 25 years continuous development, evolving into one of the most cost effective, fully featured EDA packages on the market. With current sales in over 50 countries spanning the globe Lab center is continuously expanding both its product portfolio and its customer base. Our goal is to provide you, the customer, with the best package at the best price. ‘To achieve this our company focus is three fold. Unlike some packages on the market today our 23PROBLEM STATEM. AND METHODOLOGY policy is, and always has been, one of continuous development on features that reduce the time to market for our customers. Typically, we release three to four versions per year with major functional enhancements in addition to maintenance and minor releases as required. This focus on development makes us more dynamic as a company and allows us the flexibility to provide both new functionality and maintenance releases to the customer more frequently. We believe that customer care isa keystone of our success. Our technical support is free both via telephone and email for professional users and our support staff are all experienced users of the software. Direct channels exist to the development team allowing us to provide quick and comprehensive responses to even the most complex problems, We consider user feedback to be of vital importance when determining development schedules for new releases and have a formal system for logging and prioritizing implementation of such features. » Proteus Professional starter Kit: Full feature schematic capture with support for hierarchical design, bus pins, configurable bill of materials and much, much more. Net list based ARES PCB layout with support of up to 16 copper layers, 10nm resolution, any angle component placement, full electrical and physical design rule checks and much more. Standard version of our integrated shape based auto-router (fully automated routing only) Extemal Auto Router Interface - allows export and import of designs (in the most common format) to/from a dedicated external AutoRoute. ‘Support for one shaped based ground plane per layer. ‘Component libraries containing over 10000 schematic parts and 1500 PCB footprints. Includes ProSPICE mixed mode simulator with 8000 models and 12 virtual instruments. 500 pin capacity for PCB design Standard version of our integrated shape based auto-router (fully automated routing only) 4.2.3 ARIES PCB Layout Software; > Now we are going to design a PCB layout for the above circuit. Proteus has the integrated ARES PCB designing suit. By using this we can easily develop the PCB layout. After 30PROBLEM STATEMED ‘AND METHODOLOGY simulation save the circuit designing and click on tools then select netlist to ARES. Then a window will open with list of component packages. > Then next step is creating a board edge by selecting 2D graphics box mode. Next click on the select layer at bottom left comer and select the board edge option. The image is shown in below figure. Then next click on work space then a green line will appear, With that draw a box and click again once, Then the box is fixed and turn into yellow color layout. This box is same like in above ISIS professional blue line. » The circuit should be inside of the yellow box. If the circuit is more complex and big in size, the there is a chance to expand the box by clicking on the select mode. Then next click on the component name and change the angle of the component by using rotation arrow options if required. Then place the component on the work space. After adding the all components to the work space, arrange the position of the components properly in the workspace. To move component one place to another place click on selection mode and click on component then it change color with white and hold the component and moved to required place within the yellow box. Then next thing is create tracks between components. Connection representation in green fine and yellow line shows the direction. After setting the track width click at the component one end with pen and follow the green line. When two components are v successfully connected then green line will removed automatically. In above second image red tracks indicate top copper and blue tracks indicate bottom tracks. This is duel layer PCB designing. If we want single layer PCB, we can place tracks out own, The given below image shows the single layer PCB design of our required circuit. After completion of tracking save the project in same folder where the above Proteus project saved. In Proteus we have one other tool that how the circuit is been looking like after completion. To see the final circuit, click on output in menu bar and then select 3D visualization. Then the circuit visualization will open in other window. It is having the features of all angles visualization, components less board view and back layer view. That is shown in below figure. wv iw I12:Final peb of multipurpose listenin device 2RESULT CHAPTER: 5 RESULT ‘The main idea behind using this project is the study of the sound that are being generated by any source and which will be detected by the microphone and we will hear that sound through the headphones. Now in order to make the PCB, Firstly draw the layout on the newly brought PCB, Then dip the PCB in the FeCI3 solution and shake it til you get the paths on the PCB. You can build the PCB as layout in Figure. Then put all components in PCB by drilling on their respective places, Firstly, put small components type such as R, C, LED and base pin of 18 pin and 8 pin IC into the PCB. Next put both the ICs into their respective socket, carefully and be aware of their pin numbers. Check for all components if they are placed correctly and now you can go for providing the power supply to the circuit. Now check that each and every components are getting the required power supply. The circuit use power supply at a max of 5V. 5.1 Polarity checking of components: > Resistor: Resistor has two terminals. On resistor colour code is present for determining the 1 resistor. In order to make it more reliable and convenient be used digital millimeter in order to determining the value of resistor. Thus it gives more precise and affective output ic. value of resistor. > Capacitor: capacitor is known to all and everyone knows why capacitor is used. So in most of the project capacitor is used. Capacitor is the basic electronics element used to everywhere capacitor has two terminals. In my project capacitor is used for storage of energy. It helpful for me when the power is off then for little time the project is run. In my project two types of capacitor is use one is electrolyte and other is ceramic capacitor, In capacitor two terminals are present one leg in bigger than the other, the bigger leg indicates the positive terminal and small leg indicates the negative terminal. In order to check the capacitor we used the digital millimeter. Thus in this way we check whether capacitor work or not. It is difficult to judge the capacitor but with the help of data sheet I found the solution on it. 5.2 PCB-Printed Circuit Board: 33RESULT Printed circuit Board is nothing but the PCB. It is available in various sizes in market according to the requirement of the user. Ihave used PCB for making project. First of all before doing anything on PCB, so I scrub it properly but by scrubbing I found that pcb get damaged if 1 scrub it more so is top it, after that I gently clean it with a cloth and after that I start drawing circuit on peb with the help of marker pen on the copper side of the pcb, marker pen is used because it gets permanently marked and if we used a simple pen then while itching it gets removed and no connection path will be there, because of this reason marker pen is used. After ‘making circuit diagram on PCB I stop for a minute because marker takes time to have on PCB if just by drawing we touch it then it gets divert from the line and it will harm the project. Now: my circuit diagram is ready on PCB and the PCB is ready for itching. Itching is nothing but the oxidation phenomenon occurs on PCB. ‘Steps | follow while doing itching on PCB: > First I wear the gloves in my both hands so that itching powder should not react with my hands. > The second thing that I done I brought a box of a size larger than PCB as it should get deep totally in itching solution. > ‘The most important thing which I have noticed that while doing itching patience plays ‘an important role because it takes time to react with the solution. > Sol put my PCB in the box containing itching Solution. ® Reaction gets started with pcb, and I hold the box. start moving here and there because the reaction should be take on each and every part of the PCB. > Now the reaction starts and you will get to see that something is removing from the pcb it is nothing but the copper layer. > The circuit I have drawn remains as it is and the remaining portion gets wash off or gets clean, > Now only circuit diagram remains on the PCB and next I arranged handrill and star drilling as per the hole I have drawn on the PCB. Afler making all the holes with the help of handrill, I started mounting of component one by one. v 34RESULT v After mounting all the components it’s time to do soldering, I started soldering one by ‘one each component. v ‘Thus soldering gets completed and project gets ready to work. Thus in this way the whole process occurs. Problems occurred in PCB: First problem occur is that due excess itching solution some students PCB get damaged. v Due to this connections on PCB get lost and path on PCB get lost. vw ‘As students properly do not wear the gloves, their hands get reacted with the solution. v In order to connect the path soldering is to be done, but duc to soldering the chances of getting damage of PCB get increased, > One important problem is that drawing of mirror image, as most of students do not draw the mirror image, so they get problem while doing soldering on PCB. Because if we draw mirror image the soldering becomes easy and if we do not draw v mirror image then soldering is to be done on the same side. > While doing soldering on the same side it becomes difficult to do soldering while mounting components on PCB. > Also terminals or pin gets shorted due to which short circuit gets occur and might be result should not be get. 5.3 Results and Solution: > The result we get that we learned how to make PCB and how to use the itching solution. Whatever connections get lost we connect with the help of soldering. ‘The most important thing we leaned is that how to soldering and how to unsolder it. Most of the students get result on the project. v vv v ‘Thus in this way we made our project and lot of things we lear in this entire project. S4PRECAUTIONS 5.4.1 SOLDERING PRECAUTIONS ‘The construction was carried out with care. The precautions taken during the soldering were: > The tip of soldering iron was kept clean with the help of a file from time to time. 35RESULT. > The solder wire was of smaller thickness, > The overheating of components was avoided to prevent component damage as a result of excessive heat on the components due to the heat from the soldering iron, > The leads of the components were kept clean before soldering, with the use of sand paper. 5.4.2 COMPONENTS PRECAUTION: » Before using circuit it should be tested with a multi-meter. > LC should not be heated much whille soldering; too much heat can destroy the LC. For safety and ease of replacement, the use of ILC socket is suggested. » While placing the LC pin no | should be made sure at right hole. > Opposite polarity of battery can destroy LC so please check the polarity before switching ON the circuit. One should use diode in series with switch for safety since diode allows flowing current in one direction only. > Each component was soldered neatly and clean. » We should use insulated wires. FigureS.1. PCB of MULTIPURPOSE LISTENING DEVICE 36CONCLUSION CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 6.1 Conclusion: Therefore we have reached the epilogue of this project and we have worked on this project because this provides many real time applications .it is useful in the places where sound amplification is needed. Excellent frequency range and high sensitivity. This circuit can detect very faint, remote sounds with a good clarity, low cost, easy to construct. It also required low power consumption, output signal with high clarity and larger frequency is obtained. ‘The main disadvantage of this project is that .if the frequency is more than 30db,then it is not clearly audible to the user. 7