Cutting Tool &

Tool Geometry
Raju Ahammad
Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET)
Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.kuet.ac.bd/me/rajuahammad/
 What is manufacturing?
Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting materials to make parts or
products. The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words manus (hand)
and factus (make).

Machine Tools: A machine tool is used to hold the work part (stiffly), position the tool
(accurately) relative to the work, and provide power for the machining process at the
speed, feed, and depth that have been set. By controlling the tool, work, and cutting
conditions, machine tools permit parts to be made with great accuracy and repeatability to
the given tolerances.
✔ The term machine tool applies to any power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation.
What is Machining: Machining is manufacturing process in which a
cutting tool is used to remove excess material from a work part so that
the remaining material is the desired part shape.
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 Machining Processes
Material Removal Processes – Metal Cutting Process
A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of material
from a starting work part so the remaining part has the desired geometry.
✔ Traditional Process (Machining) – Material removal by a sharp cutting tool, e.g.,
turning, milling, drilling
✔ Nontraditional processes - Various energy forms other than sharp cutting tool to
remove material. e.g., Laser and Electron Beam machining

✔ Abrasive processes – Material removal by hard, abrasive particles,

e.g., grinding

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 Machining Processes
Machining in Manufacturing Sequence-
■ Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as casting, forging, and
bar drawing .
❑ Other processes create the general shape of the starting work part.
❑ Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create.

Why Machining is Important??

■ Variety of work materials can be machined

❑ Most frequently used to cut metals

■ Variety of part shapes and special geometric features possible, such as:

❑ Screw threads
❑ Accurate round holes
❑ Very straight edges and surfaces
■ Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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 Machining Processes
Disadvantages with Machining-
■ Wasteful of material
❑ Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least in the unit operation
■ Time consuming
❑ A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or forming
The physical functions of a Machine Tool in machining are -

✔ Machine Tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any contour
on the preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
✔ Firmly holding the blank and the tool
✔ Transmit motions to the tool and the blank

✔ Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.

✔ Control of the machining parameters, (speed, feed and depth of cut).

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 Cutting Tools
Metal cutting: The process in which a thin layer of excess metal(chip)is removed by a wedge
shaped single point or multi-point cutting tools with defined geometry from a workpiece,
through a process of extensive plastic deformation
✔ During the metal cutting there is a relative motion
between the workpiece and cutting tool. Such relative
motion is produced by a combination of rotary and
translatory movements of either of the workpiece of
cutting tool or the both.
Relative Motion Between Work Piece And Cutting Tool.
Rotation Of Work Against The Tool. Example: Turning
Rotation Of Tool Against Work Piece. Example: Drilling, Milling.
Linear Movement Of The Work Piece Against The Tool Example: Planer.
Linear Movement Of The Tool Against The Work. Example – Shaper

✔ Cutting tool is a device used to remove unwanted material from the

given work piece
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 What are processes used in metal cutting?
Metal cutting processes are of 2 types:
• Chip removal processes
• Non-chip removal process
✔ In chip removal processes, The desired shape and dimensions are obtained by separating a
layer from the original workpiece in the form of chips. The various chip forming processes are:
Turning, shaping, boring, drilling, milling, honing, grinding.

✔ Turning is machining process to produce parts round in shape by a single point Cutting Tool.
✔ Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in the workpiece.
✔ Reaming: The holes that are produced by drilling are rarely straight and cylindrical in form.
The reaming operation finishes and sizes the hole already drilled into the work piece.

✔ Boring: It is the process of enlarging a hole already produced by

drilling.

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 What are processes used in metal cutting?
✔ Shaping: It is the process of material removal in which the tool reciprocates against a
stationary workpiece producing a plane surface.
✔ Milling is the cutting operation that removes metal by feeding the work against a rotating,
cutter having single or multiple cutting edges

Chipless Processes: The metal is given the desired shape without removing any
material from the parent workpiece. Some of the processes are- rolling, forging,
spinning, stamping

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What are processes used in metal cutting?

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What are processes used in metal cutting?

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 Cutting Tools
Classification of cutting tools
▪ Single-Point Cutting Edge Tools
▪ One dominant cutting edge
▪ Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
▪ Turning uses single point tools

▪ Multiple Point Cutting Edge Tools

▪ More than one cutting edge

▪ Motion relative to work achieved by rotating

▪ Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting

edge tools

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Tool signature for single point cutting tool

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Tool signature for single point cutting tool

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Tool signature for single point cutting tool

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 Tool signature for single point cutting tool
Tool signature for single point cutting tool
✔ Shank- It is the main body of the tool
✔ Flank- The surface of the tool adjacent to the cutting edge
✔ Face- The surface on which the chip slides
✔ Nose- It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
✔ Nose Radius- Strengthens finishing point of tool
✔ Cutting Edge- It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the work piece
✔ Side cutting edge angle- Angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank

✔ End cutting edge angle- Angle between end cutting edge and the line normal to the
tool shank

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 Tool signature for single point cutting tool
✔ Side Relief angle- Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angle to the side
flank.
✔ End Relief angle- Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angle to the end
flank .
✔ Side Rake angle- Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge.
✔ Back Rake angle- Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular to the side cutting edge.

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Tool signature for single point cutting tool
Single Point Cutting Tool Terminology – 3D

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Tool signature for single point cutting tool
Single Point Cutting Tool Terminology-2D


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 Tool signature for single point cutting tool
Cutting Tool Materials
❑ Carbon steels, High-speed steels
❑ Cast carbides, Cemented carbides, Coated carbides
❑ Cermets, Ceramic Tools
❑ Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN)
❑ Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials
❑ Harder than work piece.
❑ High toughness
❑ High thermal shock resistance
❑ Low adhesion to work piece material
❑ Low diffusivity to work piece material
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 Cutting Tools
Characteristics of a cutting tool material:
1. The material should be harder than the workpiece so that it is able to penetrate into the
work piece and it should have hot hardness i.e. the ability of material to retain hardness at
elevated temperature.
2. The coefficient of friction at the tool chip interface should be low for better surface finish
and less wear.
3. The material should have wear resistance i.e. the attainment of acceptable tool life before
tools need to be replaced
4. It should be chemically stable so that it does not react with the workpiece and chemically
inert so that there is no oxidation and hence no scales and pits are formed on the surface.
5. The material must have sufficient strength and toughness to withstand shocks and
vibrations.
6. The thermal conductivity should be high so that there is heat dissipation which is
generated during the machining process thereby increasing the life of the cutting tool.

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 Mechanics of Machining or Principle of Metal cutting
✔ The main target is to produce a desired shape, size and finish of a component by removing the
excess metal in the form of chips from a rough block of material.
✔ A cutting tool exerts a compressive force on the workpiece. Under this compressive force the
material of the workpiece is stressed beyond its yield point causing the material to deform
plastically and shear off.
✔ The plastic flow takes place in a localized region called shear plane. The sheared material
begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small pieces called chips. The
compressive force applied to form chips is called the cutting force. The flowing chips cause
wear of cutting tool. Heat is produced during shearing action.

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 Mechanics of Machining or Principle of Metal Cutting
Metal cutting process are generally of two types. Orthogonal and oblique cutting.
■ Orthogonal cutting- The cutting edge of the tool is straight and perpendicular to the direction of
motion.
■ Oblique cutting- The cutting edge of the tool is set at an angle to the direction of motion.

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Mechanics of Machining or Principle of Metal cutting

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Mechanics of Machining or Principle of Metal cutting

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 Tool Signature
Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized abbreviated system is known as tool
signature or tool nomenclature. It indicates the angles that a tool utilizes during the cut. It specifies
the active angles of the tool normal to the cutting edge.

• What do you mean by tool

signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8
???

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 Cutting conditions
A relative motion is required between the tool and the work to perform the machining operation.
The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed V. In addition, the tool must be
moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion ,called the feed f .
✔ The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original
workpiece, called the depth of cut d.

Collectively speed, feed, depth of cut are called

cutting conditions. They form the 3 dimensions for
the machining process and for certain operations,
they can be used to calculate material removal rate
for the process:

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 Orthogonal Cutting Model
Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the cutting edge is perpendicular to the
direction of cutting speed.

✔ Shear plane: As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation along
a plane called the shear plane, which is oriented at an angle φ with the surface of the work.

✔ where
▪ r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
▪ t1 = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
▪ t2 = chip thickness after separation

✔ Which one is more correct?

■ r≥1
■ r ≤1
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 Orthogonal Cutting Model
Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear plane angle ө
can be determined as-

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 Orthogonal Cutting Model
Shear Strain in chip formation-

■ From the shear strain triangle

■ Strain = deformation/ original length

▪ γ = AC/DB= (AD+DC)/DB

▪ γ = AD/DB + DC/DB

▪ AD/DB = Cot θ

▪ DC/DB = tan (θ - α)

▪ Therefore γ = Cot θ + tan (θ - α)

❑ γ = tan(θ - α) + cot θ

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 Forces Acting on Chip
■ Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
■ Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

■ F, N, Fs and Fn cannot be measured directly, in order

to measure these forces the forces acting on the tool
to be measured initially
❑ Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

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 Orthogonal Cutting Model
The Merchant Equation
▪ To determine θ, the minimum energy principle applied in metal cutting so that the deformation
process adjusted itself to a minimum energy condition.
■ Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can occur, the work material will select a
shear plane angle θ that minimizes energy, given by
Derived by Eugene Merchant

What the Merchant Equation Tells Us?

■ To increase shear plane angle
❑ Increase the rake angle (α)

❑ Reduce the friction angle (β) or coefficient of friction

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 Shear angle and its significance
❑ Importance of increasing shear angle:
If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear angle results in a smaller shear plane area.
Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force required to form the chip
will decrease when the shear plane area is decreased. This tends to make machining easier to
perform, and also lower cutting energy and cutting temperature.

▪ Shear stress acting along the shear plane

▪ where As = area of the shear plane

Shear stress = shear strength of work material during

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 Orthogonal Cutting Model
Cutting Temperature
▪ Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat
▪ This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool‑chip
▪ The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip
High cutting temperatures
▪ Reduce tool life
▪ Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator
▪ Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to thermal expansion of work material

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 Chip Formation
The cutting tool while machining on the workpiece removes an amount of material that is called
an chip.
As the tool advances on the workpiece, the metal in front of the tool compressed and when the
compression limit exceeded, it is separated from the workpiece and flows plastically in the form
of chips.

Four Basic Type of Chips in Machining are

• Discontinuous chip

• Continuous chip
• Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
• Serrated chip

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 Chip Formation
Continuous chips: These chips are produced while machining more ductile materials. This type of
chips are more desirable, about 95% of the power expended for metal removal is used in the
deformation taking place in the shear zone, and remaining power of about 5% is expended in
stored plastic energy in the workpiece and friction.

✔ Some ideal conditions that promote continuous chips in the metal cutting-

Small chip thickness(fine feed)

Small cutting edge
Large rake angle
High cutting speed
Ductile work material.

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 Chip Formation
Discontinuous chips: These chips are usually produced while cutting more brittle materials like gray
cast iron, bronze and hard brass. In this type, the chip produced in the form of discontinuous
segments. These types of chips are easier from view point of chip disposal; however the cutting force
becomes unstable with the variation coinciding with the fracturing cycle.

✔ Discontinuous chips are produced under the following conditions:

Low cutting speeds

Small rake angles
Higher dept of cut

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 Chip Formation
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
▪ When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile materials, some particles of
chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip. When such sizeable material piles upon the rake face,
it acts as a cutting edge in place of the actual cutting edge is termed as built up edge (BUE). By virtue
of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work material
Reasons
■ Ductile materials
■ Low‑to‑medium cutting speeds
■ Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
■ BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

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 Chip Formation
Serrated chip: Semi Continuous ( saw tooth appearance) chips produced when machining tool steels or
harden materials at high cutting speeds.

Reasons-
■ Ductile materials
■ Low‑to‑medium cutting speeds
■ Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
■ BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

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 Chip Formation

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 Chip Control
The control of chips in high speed production turning, is important to protect both the operator and the
tool. The long continuous chip that curls round the cutting tool has sharp edges and can inflict deep,
painful and dangerous cuts. It should never be handled with bear hands.
The usual procedure to avoid the formation of continuous chips to break the chip intermittently with a chip
breaker, which clamped on the rake face of the cutting tool.
The Chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip.
A wide variety of cutting tools and inserts with chip breaker features are available. However with soft
work piece materials, such as mild steel, aluminum chip breaker generally not as effective.
With proper lubrication the flow of chips can be control and also better tool life can be given.

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 Cutting fluids
• During metal cutting heat is generated as a result of the work done.
• Heat is carried away from the tool and work by means of cutting fluid which at the same time
reduce the friction between the tool and chip and between tool and work and also facilitates the
chip formation.
• Most practical cutting fluids are mineral oil or vegetable oil base. The mineral oil being the more
widely used.
The rise of temperature of work piece and tool give rise to:

1) Early wear of tool.

2) Dimensional in accuracy of machined surface.

3) Damage of surface properties of machined component.

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 Cutting fluids
The various functions of a cutting fluid are as follows:

i. It cools the cutting tool and workpiece. The heat produced is carried away by the fluid by
supplying adequate quantity of cutting fluid. This makes possible more accurate production
and measurement.
ii. It lubricates the cutting tool and thus reduces the coefficient of friction between the chip and
tool. This increases the tool life.
iii. The use of a cutting fluid results better surface finish.
iv. As friction gets reduced, the tool forces are also reduced and therefore the power consumption
during cutting is also reduced.
v. It causes the chips to break up into small pieces.
vi. It washes away the chips from the tool.
vii. It prevents corrosion of work and machine.
viii. Removal of heat from the cutting zone also reduces thermal distortion of the work and
permits improved dimensional control.

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 Cutting Fluids
A cutting fluid should possess the following properties:

1) It should have a high specific heat, high heat conductivity and high film coefficient.
2) It should posses good lubricating properties to reduce frictional forces and to decrease the
power consumption.
3) It should be odorless.
4) It should be non-corrosive to work and machine.
5) It should be non-toxic to operating personnel.
6) It should have low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
7) It should be stable in use and storage.
8) It should permit clear view of work which is specially desirable in precision work.
9) It should be safe particularly with regards to fire and accident hazards.

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 Factors affecting selections of cutting fluid

The selection of a particular type of cutting fluid depends on factors listed below:

a) Cutting speed
b) Feed rate
c) Depth of cut
d) Cutting tool material
e) Workpiece material
f) Velocity of cutting fluid
g) Expected cutting tool life
h) Cost of cutting fluid
i) The life of cutting fluid and loss of cutting fluid during operation.

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 Classification of cutting fluids
All the cutting fluids can be divided into two groups:
a) Water based fluids,
b) Straight or neat oil based cutting fluids.
Water based cutting fluids:
• Early attempts to improve cooling and lubricating properties of water included the addition of soft soap
but there are now oils which have the desired effect and from emulsion with water. These oils are known
as soluble oils.
• The most popular water based cutting fluid is soluble oil cutting fluid (a base mineral oil and emulsifiers).
• Soluble oil (1 to 5%) is mixed with water to form an emulsion. This has excellent cooling properties at
low cost and there is also some lubricating effect between tool and chip which reduces tool wear.
• Modern soluble oil contain corrosion inhibitor and a biocide to keep down the growth of bacteria that
would otherwise become a health hazard.
• Less frequently used forms of water based cutting fluids are based on chemical solutions.
• Soda solutions are often used on grinding operations as it has good flushing action and cooling effect.
• Water itself is seldom used as its coolant as it causes rust and corrosion.
• When water based fluids are used a sufficient stream of cutting fluid should be maintained otherwise the
tool may be unevenly cooled and the cutting tool may fail soon by thermally induced fatigue.
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 Classification of cutting fluids

Straight or neat oil based cutting fluids:

• The term straight when applied to lubricants and coolants means undiluted.
• Most of the oils are not used straight but are mixtures of oils or oil with chemicals such as
sulphur and chlorine added to them.
• Straight or neat oils are classified into following subgroups:
i. Mineral oils.
ii. Straight fatty oils.
iii. Compounded or blended oils
iv. Sulphurised oils .
v. Chlorinated oils.

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Tool Life
 Tool Life
Tool life is defined as the time elapsed between two successive grinding of the tool(Actual
machining time i.e. duration by which a tool performs satisfactorily after which it needs
replacement or reconditioning). During this period the tool cuts efficiently and effectively.
There are number of ways of expressing tool life/assessment of tool life such as-
▪ Volume of metal removed.
▪ Number of work pieces machined in one life time.
▪ total length of cut accomplished
▪ Actual machining time in mm
Tool life is said to be over when any one or more of following appear :

▪ Spoiled cutting edge.

▪ Presence of chatter marks on the workpiece.
▪ Sudden increase in power.
▪ Over heating due to friction.
▪ Poor surface finish.
▪ Dimensional instability.
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 Factors affecting Tool life
The life of cutting tool is affected by the various factors mentioned below :

1. Machining variables.
i. Cutting speed.
ii. Feed.
iii. Depth of cut.
2. Type of cutting such as continuous and intermittent cutting.
3. Tool geometry.
4. Tool material.
5. Machining conditions.
i. Temperature of the work and tool.
ii. Type of cutting fluid used.
6. Properties of material being cut.
i. Microstructure of workpiece materials.
ii. Tensile strength and hardness of the material.
iii. Degree to which the material cold works.

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 Taylor’s Tool Life Eqn
Tool Life Prediction
▪Taylor’s tool life equation predicts tool failure based
on flank wear of the tool

where
V is the cutting speed, t is the tool life,
n is Taylor exponent.
n=0.125 for HSS
n=0.25 for Carbide
n=0.5 for Coated Carbide/Ceramic
C is a constant given for work piece material

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 Tool Wear
Tool Wear
▪ Tools get worn out due to long term usage
Types of Tool Wear
▪ Flank wear (VB)
▪ It occurs on the relief face of the tool and the side relief
angle.
▪ Crater wear (KT)
▪ It occurs on the rake face of the tool.
▪ Notch wear or Chipping (VN)
▪ Breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the
tool

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 Machinability
Machinability
■ Machinability is a system property that indicates how easy a material can be machined at low cost.
■ Good machinabililty may mean one or more of the following: cutting with minimum energy,
minimum tool wear, good surface finish, etc.
Quantitative measures of machinability
■ Machinability index: an average rating stated in comparison with reference materials. This measure
can be misleading.
■ Tool life: service time in minutes or seconds to total failure by chipping or cracking of the tool at
certain cutting speed, or the volume of material removed before total failure.
■ Surface finish produced at standardized cutting speeds and feeds.
■ Others based on cutting force, power, temperature, or chip formation.

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 Machinability
Machinable Materials
Good machinable materials should have the following properties
■ Low ductility, low strain-hardening exponent (n), low fracture toughness.

■ Low shear strength (low TS), low hardness.

■ A strong metallurgical bond (adhesion) between tool and work piece is undesirable when it
weakens the tool material.

■ Very hard compounds, such as some oxides, all carbides, many inter metallic compounds, and
elements such as silicon, embedded in the work piece material accelerate tool wear, thus should be
avoided.
■ Inclusions that soften at high temperatures are beneficial.

■ High thermal conductivity is helpful.

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 Machinability
Machinable Materials
■ Ferrous materials
❑ Carbon steels: annealed, heat-treated (spheroidized), cold worked
❑ Free-machining steels: special inclusions
❑ Alloy steels: hard
❑ Stainless steels: high strength, low thermal conductivity, high strain hardening rate
❑ Cast iron: white, gray, nodular cast iron
■ Non-ferrous materials
❑ Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum alloys, Beryllium, Copper-based alloys, Nickel-based alloys and
super alloys,
❑ Titanium, Plastics, composites.

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 Factors Affecting Machining

Factors affecting the machinability of metals are as follows:

i. The type of work-piece, i.e. material of work-piece;

ii. Type of tool material;
iii. Size and shape of tool;
iv. Type of machining operation;
v. Size, shape and velocity of cut;
vi. Type and quality of machine used;
vii. Quality of lubricant used during machining operation;
viii. Coefficient of friction between chip and tool;
ix. Shearing strength of work-piece material.

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Slide master

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