Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271 – 281

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Assessment of crushed shales for use as compacted landfill liners

Yahia E.-A. Mohamedzein *, Amer A. Al-Rawas, Mohammed Y. Al-Aghbari,
Ahmed Qatan, Abdul-Hamid Al-Rawas
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, P. O. Box 33, Al-Khod 123, Oman
Received 4 January 2005; received in revised form 11 May 2005; accepted 1 June 2005
Available online 27 July 2005

Abstract

The possibility of using crushed shales as landfill liners is investigated in this study. Two types of shales were studied by
performing the following laboratory tests: hydraulic conductivity, compaction, swelling, consolidation, X-ray diffraction
(XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and chemical analysis. For both compacted shales, the hydraulic conductivity
was in order of 10
7 cm/s or less which satisfies the specifications for landfill liners. The results of XRD and SEM support the
low values of the hydraulic conductivity. Because of the dominant presence of low-activity kaolinite, there was no significant
change in the hydraulic conductivity when the compacted shales are exposed to calcium chloride solution. The compressibility
of the compacted clay was low and no serious post-construction settlement is expected. The shear strength of the compacted
shales was within the usual expected range for earthen liners and, therefore, should pose no challenges with respect to shear
strength. The crushed shales also satisfy the other criteria related to Atterberg limits and grain size.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Compressibility; Hydraulic conductivity; Landfill liners; Shales; Oman; Shear strength

1. Introduction rapid population growth, expanding urbanization and

increased human activities, better engineered landfills
Most landfills for waste disposal in Oman are open are badly needed. Engineered landfill will contain the
dumps. Recent study showed that the Muscat area (the waste in such a manner that human health and the
biggest metropolitan area in Oman) has a disposal rate environment will not be affected.
of 750–800 tons/day (El-Zawahry et al., 2000). The The containment facility in its simplest form con-
study has indicated that the rate of domestic waste is sists of a clay liner, a cover and the waste (Daniel,
increasing and it concluded that to better cope with the 1993). For economical reasons, natural clays available
within a reasonable hauling distance can be used for
landfill liners. In Oman, as well as other countries in
* Corresponding author. the Arabian Gulf, the clay sources are sparse and the
E-mail address: [email protected] construction of landfill liners from natural clays may
(Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein). not be economically feasible. Researchers in these
0013-7952/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.001
272 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281

countries have used different techniques to obtain Table 1

suitable liner materials. For example, Abduljauwad Specifications for liner materials
and Dakkak (2001) mixed different types of marl to Property Limiting Value
construct a liner system. Al-Yaqout and Townsend Percentage of gravels (%) b30
(2001) reported the use of a relatively deep layer of Maximum particle size (mm) 25
Percentage of fines (%) N30
well-compacted gatch sands (an impermeable calca-
Plasticity index (%) N10
reous material). Taha and Kabir (2003) used sedimen- Activity N0.3
tary and granite residual soils as landfill liners. To Coefficient of hydraulic lV10
7
extend these efforts, the objective of this study is to conductivity (cm/s)
investigate the use of crushed shales for landfill liners. Minimum thickness of a For a domestic waste facility, it will
compacted clayey liner generally be about 0.9–1m.
This study is motivated by the fact that shales or
For an industrial/toxic facility, it will
mudrocks contain high percentage of clay minerals generally be 3–4 m, although some
and may be suitable for landfill liners (Batchelder and specifications require up to 15 m or
Joseph, 1997). multiple composite liner system.

2. Literature review conductivity of clays containing less reactive clay

minerals such as kaolinite, illite and attapulgite (paly-
The practice of compacted clay liners (CCL) gorskite) were found to be unaffected by chemical
started in the last three decades (Daniel, 1993). solutions (Stern and Shackelford, 1998; Broderick
Since then, a large number of landfills have been and Daniel, 1990).
constructed worldwide. Based on the performance of
the constructed facilities and extensive research, stan-
dard specifications were proposed for design and 3. Geological setting of northern Oman
construction of new facilities. Because a leakage
from a landfill liner can cause adverse and harmful The geology of northern Oman Mountains can be
impact on the environment, strict specifications are simplified into three main lithological–structural units
imposed on the selection of a liner material, design (Fig. 1): autochthonous, allochthonous and neo-au-
and construction of the compacted clay liners. The tochthonous units (Glennie et al., 1974). The autoch-
compacted clay liner must have a low hydraulic con- thonous unit, the rocks of which are exposed in the
ductivity to control leachate from the waste (Mitchell central Oman mountains, comprises three types: the
et al., 1995). The hydraulic conductivity must not crystalline basement complex in Jebel Ja’alan and
increase due to chemical and biological attack from Qalhat areas, the metamorphics in Saih Hatat and
waste leachate. Furthermore, the CCL must be the clastic rocks and platform carbonates in Jebel
designed to accommodate the landfill settlement and Akhdar and Jebel Nakhl. This pre-Permian unit is
have sufficient shear strength to resist bearing capa- overlain by the Hajar Supergroup (middle Permian
city and slope failures. Soils that possess the proper- to middle Cretaceous) which is composed of shal-
ties shown in Table 1 will generally satisfy the above low-marine limestones and dolomites. These rocks
requirements (Daniel, 1993; Rowe et al., 1995). have been successively overthrusted southwards by
Natural clays usually satisfy the above require- the allochthonous Hawasina Complex (late Permian to
ments; however, highly plastic clays that desiccate mid-Cretaceous) of deep-sea sediments, i.e., radiolar-
are not preferable because the desiccation cracks can ian cherts and carbonate turbidites (Coleman, 1981),
increase the amount of leachate. Also, the hydraulic and by the Semail Ophiolite (late Cretaceous), tecton-
conductivity of some clays that contain active clay ically overlies the Hawasina Complex, of basic and
minerals such as montmorillonite can increase drasti- ultrabasic igneous rocks, i.e., gabbro, peridotite,
cally if the soil is permeated with chemical solutions sheeted dykes and basaltic lavas. This ophiolite suite
due to the relatively high reactivity of these clay is extensively exposed in the northern Oman Moun-
minerals (Stern and Shackelford, 1998). The hydraulic tains. The mountainous areas are off-lapped by Ter-
 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281 273

Fanja 58°30 N 59°00 Gulf of Om

a n
Muscat
U.A.E.

Gulf of Oman Saudi Oman

Arabia
Map
Area

Indian Ocean

H
Sur

22°30
WAHIBAH SA
NDS

Al-Fulaij

LT
AU
J

MF
Maastrichtian & Tertiary
B

OR
Semail Ophiolite

SF
Oman Melange w
lift

AN
Batain Melange w A
Up

TR
w
Hawasina w
hi

AH
"Autochthonous"
us

w
SIR

sub–ophlolite sediments
Ha

Precambrian basement
Ji
MA
gf–

w
Hu

0 25 km S
w
RJ

Fig. 1. Geological map of NE Oman (modified from Glennie et al., 1974; Shackleton et al., 1990). H, Ras al Hadd; J, Jebel Ja’alan; S, Al-
Ashkarah; B, Bilad Bani Bu Ali; Ji, Ras al Jifan; W, Wahiba Sands.

tiary carbonate sequences (neo-autochthonous unit) of sieve number 4). Benson and Daniel (1990) showed
conglomerates and shallow-marine limestones. The that particles with large size bclodsQ have increased
Oligocene sediments include large boulders of ophio- the hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay liners.
lite, some of which have been altered into expansive Thus, by limiting the maximum size of the material to
clays, due to intensive weathering. 4.75 mm, the effect of clods on the hydraulic conduc-
tivity will be reduced.

4. The materials
5. Laboratory tests
Samples were obtained from two different loca-
tions in Oman (Fig. 1): Al-Fulaij site in the eastern To check the suitability of the crushed shales for
region and the Fanja site in Al Dakhiliya region of use as a liner, some physical and chemical tests were
Oman. The samples were excavated with shovels performed on samples of the two materials. The phys-
from the sides of natural slopes. The samples obtained ical tests included liquid limit, plastic limit, linear
were in forms of soft rock with blocky structure and shrinkage, sieve analysis, hydrometer, specific gravi-
were crushed resulting in fine-grained soils with a ty, compaction, hydraulic conductivity, consolidation,
maximum size of material of about 4.75 mm (i.e., shear strength, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron
274 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281

microscope. Chemical analysis tests included the per- 5.2. X-ray diffraction
centage of cations like Ca2+, Mg+, Na+, K+ and com-
pounds such as SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O, The X-ray diffractometer used in this study was a
Na2O and TiO2. Additional tests such as cation ex- Philips PW1700 Automated Powder Diffractometer.
change capacity (CEC) were performed. The labora- The generator settings were 40 kV and 40 mA and
tory tests were conducted according to the current CuKa radiation, k = 1.5418Å, was used.
standards (e.g., British Standard BS 1377: 1990 and The soil was initially air dried and then crushed to
ASTM Standards). Since the procedures for all the pass a No. 200 sieve (75 mm). About 30 g of the
above tests are standardized, only a brief description sieved soil was placed in a beaker containing 800 mL
of some tests which require some details is presented of distilled water and a few drops of a dispersing agent
below. were added. Then the suspension was stirred thor-
oughly and left for at least 4–6 h. The top 4 cm of
5.1. The hydraulic conductivity the suspension was then transferred into 50-mL cen-
trifuge tubes. Clay fractions (about b 2 Am) were
The hydraulic conductivity tests were performed obtained by centrifuge fractionation. About 100 mg
using the rigid wall permeater under falling and of the clay fraction was mixed with 1–2 mL of
constant head conditions according to ASTM distilled water and stirred thoroughly. Approximately
D5856-95. Soil was compacted in the compaction 50 mg of the clay in the suspension was then trans-
mould at different water content using the standard ferred onto a 2.6  2.3-cm glass slide. The clay parti-
Proctor, modified Proctor and reduced compaction cles were allowed to settle freely on the slide.
efforts. The mould together with the compacted Similarly, the remaining 50 mg was also transferred
sample were placed in a water tank for few days onto another slide. The oriented clay specimens
to allow for saturation of the sample. The hydraulic mounted on the slides were allowed to dry. Then,
conductivity tests were performed using de-aired tap they were examined in three forms; untreated, treated
water. Hydraulic gradients of up to 10 were used. with ethylene glycol and heated to 550 8C for 2 h. One
Hydraulic conductivity tests were repeated several of the slides was used for both the untreated and heat-
times and the average value was computed. The treated samples while the other was used for the
average hydraulic conductivity was corrected to ethylene glycol treatment. Two drops of ethylene
that for 20 8C. glycol were directly applied on the clay film, which
Hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted was left for 24 h before testing.
using water permeant as well as calcium chloride
(CaCl2). The test procedure described above was 5.3. Scanning electron microscope and specimens
used for both permeants. Because of the relatively preparation
low hydraulic gradient (up to 10), the tests took up
to 3–4 weeks to get a measurable amount of efflu- A JEOL JSM-840A scanning electron microscope
ent. Only a maximum of one pore volume of per- (SEM) utilizing the secondary electron mode was
meant passed through the test specimen. However, used in this study. Magnification ranges from 20
larger amounts of pore volumes are required for to 5000 were used for the examination of soil fabric.
adequate evaluation of the effect of chemical per- This SEM allows the viewing of relatively large speci-
meant on hydraulic conductivity (Broderick and mens up to 10  10  5 mm in size.
Daniel, 1990). This is only possible under the con- Initially, clay discs of about 70 mm in diameter and
dition of high hydraulic gradients. Attempts to use 25 mm in height were prepared. Prismatic specimens
higher gradient were not successful because higher approximately 1 cm3 were carefully cut using a sharp
gradient resulted in blow-out of the sample. Also, knife. The specimens were dried slowly at a relatively
hydraulic gradients of less than 10 are considered a constant temperature of approximately 25 8C over a
reasonable approximation of the hydraulic gradient period of about 2 weeks. Air drying was adopted (Al-
in the field which is approximately about unity Rawas and McGown, 1999). Two specimens from
(Oweis and Khera, 1998). each sample were tested. The dried specimen was
 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281 275

100
then fractured by cutting a V-shaped groove around 90

Percentage Passing
the middle of the specimen and applying a combined 80
bending and pulling action as suggested by Smart and 70
60
Tovey (1982). The base of the specimen was then 50
trimmed flat and cemented to the SEM aluminum 40 Al-Fulaij
30
stub. After mounting, the specimen was subjected to 20 Fanja
applications and removals of cellotape to remove 10
0
debris and particles damaged during fracturing. The 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
peeled specimen surface was vacuum coated with Grain Size (mm)
gold to make it electrically conductive to prevent
Fig. 2. Grain size distributions for the crushed shales.
charge build-up on the specimen.

6.2. Mineralogical composition

6. Discussion of the results
The data presented by Brown and Brindley (1980)
6.1. The basic properties were used as a guide for the identification of clay
minerals. These were summarized in Table 3. Quartz
The basic properties of the crushed shales are with d-spacings of 3.34 Å and 4.26 Å and calcite with
shown in Table 2 and the grain size distribution is a d-spacing of 3.04 Å usually appear with less inten-
shown in Fig. 2. The resulting soils from both sites sity. The X-ray patterns of Al-Fulaij and Fanja clays
can be classified as low to medium plastic clays (CL) are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. Both clays
according to the Unified Soil Classification System are composed of kaolinite and illite clay minerals.
(USCS). Fig. 2 shows the grain size distribution for Further, kaolinite appears to be the major clay mineral
crushed shales. The percentage of fines (silt and clay) in both clays. Quartz and calcite non-clay minerals are
for Al-Fulaij is 94% whereas the percentage of clay is present in Al-Fulaij clay while only quartz is present
48%. The percentage of fines for Fanja is 95% and the in Fanja clay. No attempts were made to quantify the
percentage of clay fraction is 38%. For both locations, minerals.
the crushed shales satisfy the requirements for grain
size and Atterberg limits presented in Table 1. 6.3. Microfabric features
Based on the grain size distribution and Atterberg
limits, the activity of the clay is about 0.48 for Al- Fig. 5A and B shows the SEM images of Al-Fualij
Fulaij shales and about 0.42 for Fanja shales. The clay. The fabric is composed mainly of continuous
resulting clays are generally inactive clays according clay matrices with random orientation. Furthermore,
to Skempton classification (Perloff and Baron, 1976). there is no appearance of granular grains and pore
The presence of low-activity clay minerals is con- spaces are rarely seen. Clay flakes are clearly seen at
firmed by the results of X-ray diffraction tests as higher magnification as shown in Fig. 5B. Similar
shown below. fabric was observed for Fanja clay (Fig. 5C and D).
This micrographs clearly indicate that both shales
contain significant amount of clay-size particles.
Table 2
Properties of the crushed shales
6.4. Chemical analysis
Property Al-Fulaij Fanja
Liquid limit (%) 47 33 The results of chemical analysis performed on the
Plasticity index (%) 23 15
Linear shrinkage (%) 13.6 4.6
clay are presented in Table 4. The table indicates the
Percentage of fines (silt and clay) 94 95 presence of a high percentage of SiO2 compound for
Percentage of clay (particles b2 Am) 48 36 both clays. The CEC is about 8.6 and 8.4 mEq/100 g
Specific gravity 2.76 2.82 for Al-Fulaij and Fanja clays, respectively. These
Activity 0.48 0.42 values are typical for soils dominated by kaolinite
276 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281

Table 3
Identification of major clay minerals
Mineral Basal d-spacings (untreated) Glycolation effect Heating effect
+ 2+
Montmorillonite ~12.0 Å Na –mont. 14.0–15.0 Å Ca –mont. Expands to ~17.0 Å Collapses to 9.5–10.0 Å at 550 8C for 2 h;
no change at 550 8C for 2 h
Illite ~10.0 Å, ~5.0 Å, 3.3 Å No change Reflections decrease at 350 8C; 10.5 Å
Palygorskite 10.5 Å, 4.5 Å, 3.2 Å No change Disappears at 600 8C
Kaolinite ~7.0 Å; 3.5 Å No change Disappears at 550 8C for 2 h
Mont. = montmorillonite.

and illite clay minerals (Batchelder and Joseph, 1997; compressibility, high shear strength and low activity
Perloff and Baron, 1976). High values of CEC will clay minerals.
result in a greater amount of contaminant removed
from leachate flowing through the clay (Taha and 6.5. Compaction curves
Kabir, 2003). Although there is no widely acceptable
criteria for a minimum value, some researchers recom- To represent the range of the compaction efforts
mended a minimum CEC value of 10 mEq/100 g expected in the field, three levels of compaction
(Rowe et al., 1995; Taha and Kabir, 2003). The efforts were performed: standard, reduced standard
CEC for both shales are marginal but can be consid- and modified levels. The reduced standard level was
ered acceptable given the other favorable properties of intended to simulate the situation where soils are
the crushed shales such as low permeability, low compacted with efforts less than that of the standard

K
Q+I 3.57Å
3.35Å Untreated
Q+I
Untreated K 3.35Å
K 7.18Å
K 3.57Å C
7.2Å Q 3.0Å Q
I 4.2Å 4.17Å
I
5.34Å 5.00Å
Q+I
3.35Å
Ethylene glycol treatment Ethylene glycol treatment

K
Q 3.59Å C K Q+I
3.0Å 3.57Å 3.34Å
K 4.2Å K
7.18Å Q
7.22Å
4.16Å
Q+I
3.34Å
Heated at 500 °C
Q+I
Heated at 500
3.34Å

I C
I Q 3.03Å I
9.93Å 4.2Å
5.3Å 10.15Å
I Q
5.00Å 4.26Å

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Diffraction Angle (2θ) Diffraction Angle (2θ)

Fig. 3. XRD patterns of Al-Fulaij clay with different treatment. Fig. 4. XRD patterns of Fanja clay with different treatment.
 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281 277

~20µm A ~5µm B

~20µm C ~50µm D
Fig. 5. SEM micrographs of Al-Fulaij (A and B) and Fanja (C and D). A ( 1500), B ( 5000), C ( 1500) and D ( 2500).

Proctor (Daniel and Benson, 1990). The reduced level 14.5% and 11% for the reduced, standard and modi-
used is the same as the standard Proctor except that 15 fied efforts, respectively. The corresponding maxi-
drops of hammer per lift were used instead of 25 mum dry unit weights are 17.7, 18.4 and 20.2 kN/
drops. The compaction curves are shown in Figs. 6 m3, respectively.
and 7. For Al-Fulaij shales (Fig. 6) the optimum water Figs. 6 and 7 also show that on the wet side of
content is 23%, 20% and 16.3% for the reduced, the line of the optimums, the compaction curves follow
standard and modified efforts, respectively. The a unique line, called the line of natural saturation
corresponding maximum dry unit weights are 15.8, (Leroueil et al., 1992). Along this line, the hydraulic
16.4 and 18 kN/m3, respectively. For Fanja shales conductivity–water content relation obtained is also
(Fig. 7), the optimum water content is 15.5%,
19

Line of Natural ZAV Curve

Table 4
Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3)

18 Saturation
Results of chemical analysis of the clay
Property/Composition Al-Fulaij Fanja
17
CEC (mEq/100 g) 8.61 8.43
Compounds (%)
SiO2 44.47 54.07 16
Al2O3 20.09 16.67
Fe2O3 9.03 10.09 Reduced Effort
15
Standard
CaO 7.17 1.04
Modified
MgO 1.9 2.91
K2 O 1.88 1.84 14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Na2O 1.15 0.48
TiO2 1.12 2.02 Water Content (%)
LOI 14.5 9.88
Fig. 6. Compaction curves for Al-Fulaij Clay.
278 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281

22 1.00E-06
Line of Natural Saturation
Reduced
Effort
Dry Unit Weight (kN/m )
3

Standard
20
ZAV Curve
Modified

k (cm/sec)
18 1.00E-07

16
Reduced Effort
Standard
k-w along Line of
Modified
Natural Saturation
14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1.00E-08
0 5 10 15 20 25
Water Content (%)
Water Content (%)
Fig. 7. Compaction curves for Fanja Clay.
Fig. 9. Relationships between hydraulic conductivity and the mold-
ing water content (Fanja Shales).
unique for all compaction effort. As shown in Figs.
8 and 9, this trend is approximately followed for the hydraulic conductivity. Figs. 8 and 9 clearly indicate
compacted shales used in this study. In these figures, that the hydraulic conductivity depends on the com-
the hydraulic conductivity–water content curves for paction level and the molding water content.
different compaction efforts are merging into one Based on Fig. 8, for Al-Fulaij shales, hydraulic
curve. conductivities of V 10
7 cm/s can be obtained for
standard compaction level if the molding water con-
6.6. Hydraulic conductivity tent is between owc F 2%. For modified compaction
level, the values of the hydraulic conductivity are
The results of the hydraulic conductivity tests are b 10
7 cm/s for all samples tested. For the reduced
shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The hydraulic conductivity of compaction effort, the hydraulic conductivity is higher
both compacted shales is low. The low hydraulic than the minimum value required.
conductivity is expected and can be explained by For Fanja shales, hydraulic conductivities of
inspection of the results of scanning electron micros- V 10
7 cm/s can be obtained for standard compaction
copy shown in Fig. 5 which show that the fabric of level if the molding water content is between optimum
compacted shales provides a more tortuous flow path water content and up to 3% above the optimum water
for water to follow and, hence, a lower value of content. For the modified compaction level, the values
of the hydraulic conductivity are b 10
7 cm/s for all
1.00E-06 samples tested. For the reduced compaction effort, the
hydraulic conductivity is higher than the minimum
Reduced Effort value required.
Standard Figs. 8 and 9 show that acceptable hydraulic con-
k (cm/sec)

Modified ductivity values were obtained using modified com-

1.00E-07 paction for all values of molding water content. In
contrast, unacceptable hydraulic conductivity values
were obtained using reduced compaction effort. This
is a very important result and implies that high com-
k-w along Line of paction effort is the critical factor to achieving good
1.00E-08
Natural Saturation hydraulic conductivity results. Adding water alone is
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 not enough to make the shale compactable into a
Water Content (%) material with a relatively small number of macropores
Fig. 8. Relationships between hydraulic conductivity and the mold- and low hydraulic conductivity. But adding high com-
ing water content (Al-Fulaij Shales). paction energy with some water does achieve the
 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281 279

1
desired result. The compaction energy apparently
allows the shale to be remolded into a mass that is 0.9
relatively free of large pores. 0.8

Void Ratio
To investigate the effect of chemical permeant on Al-Fulaij
0.7
the hydraulic conductivity, tests were performed Fanja

using different concentrations of calcium chloride 0.6

hydrate (CaCl2d 2H2O). The CaCl2 was chosen be- 0.5

cause earlier studies have shown that calcium-domi- 0.4
nated solutions produce changes in hydraulic 10 100 1000 10000
conductivity of soils containing clays and the Pressure (kPa)
amount of change depends on the dominant type Fig. 11. Consolidation curves for the compacted shales.
of the clays (Stern and Shackelford, 1998; Ruhl
and Daniel, 1997; Gleason et al., 1997). The
changes are significant for bentonite and, to a lesser lished for compressibility. However, the expected
extent, for playgorsikite (attapulgite). The calcium compressibility of the compacted liner can be in-
chloride hydrate was used in concentrations of 0.3–3 ferred from the results of typical consolidation tests
mol/L of water. The results are shown in Fig. 10 for shown in Fig. 11 for standard compaction level.
samples compacted wet of optimum water using the Based on the results of consolidation tests for dif-
standard Proctor compaction method. The figure clear- ferent levels of compactions, the compressibility of
ly indicates that there are insignificant changes in the Al-Fulaij shales, as measured by C c / (e o + 1), ranged
hydraulic conductivity for both shales. This is from 0.1 and 0.13. The compressibility of Fanja
expected since the soils contain low- to medium-ac- shales varied between 0.07 and 0.11. The compress-
tivity clay minerals such as kaolinite. ibility of both shales for all compaction levels are
considered low (Wesly, 1988), and hence, liners
6.7. Consolidation tests constructed from this clay can satisfy the compress-
ibility requirements.
Besides hydraulic conductivity, other factors such
as compressibility, swelling and shrinking and shear 6.8. Shear strength
strength must be considered in the evaluation of
liner material (Daniel and Benson, 1990; McMahon The shear strength of the liner must be adequate to
and Mann, 1992). It is usually preferred if the maintain the stability of the side slopes and to resist
above properties can be correlated to water content deep shear failure (bearing capacity failure). Leroueil
and dry unit weight. Relations are established for et al. (1992) proposed an equation for the required
hydraulic conductivity and, to a lesser extent, for undrained shear strength (C u) of clay liners compacted
shear strength. No well-defined criterion is estab- wet of optimum in terms of optimum water content
Undrained Shear Strength

1.0E-06
120
100
k (cm/sec)

80
(kPa)

Al-Fulaij Experimental
1.0E-07 60
Fanja
Leroueil et al
40 (1992)
20
0
1.0E-08 20 22 24 26 28 30
0 1 2 3 4 Water Content (%)
Calcium Chloride (mole/ liter)
Fig. 12. Relation between undrained shear strength and water
Fig. 10. Effect of chemical permeant on the hydraulic conductivity. content (Al-Fulaij).
280 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281
Undrained Shear Strength (kPa)

activity, lower maximum dry unit weight, higher

350 optimum water content, lower permeability, higher
300
compressibility and lower shear strength. Also, the
250
properties of the two shales are within the general
200
trends for clays with similar mineralogical and clay
150
100 Experimental fraction.
50 Lerouil et al
(1992)
0
10 15 20 25 8. Conclusions
Water Content (%)

Fig. 13. Relation between undrained shear strength and water Based on the results presented in this paper, the
content (Fanja). following conclusions can be drawn:

(1) The crushed shales satisfy the basic properties

(w opt), molding water content (w) and plasticity index
for clay liners (e.g., Atterberg limits, grain size
(PI) as
and percent of clay).

5:8ðw
wopt Þ
(2) The compacted shales have low compressibility
Cu ðkPaÞ ¼ 140e PI ð1Þ
for all levels of compaction.
This equation takes into account that the liner must (3) The compaction effort is a critical factor in
be compacted on the wet side of the optimum to achieving the required hydraulic conductivity.
satisfy the requirements for hydraulic conductivity The shales gave acceptable hydraulic conduc-
and swelling. tivity for a given range of molding water content
Following the above guidelines, the undrained only when compacted using standard and mod-
shear strength for compacted clay is obtained ified compaction.
using unconsolidated undrained triaxial (UU) tests. (4) The compacted shales have low activity and the
The shear strength was measured for different hydraulic conductivity is not expected to in-
values of water content on the wet side of the crease when the landfill is exposed to chemical
optimum as shown in Figs. 12 and 13. Both figures fluids. However, it should be noted that in this
show that the above equation generally gives the study the hydraulic conductivity was measured
lower limit of the undrained shear strength for both after the passage of a maximum of one pore
shales. The figures also show large variation in the volume of the permeants. The effect of large
measured values of C u. The large variation in mea- volume of permeant on the hydraulic conduc-
sured undrained strength of soils is reported in the tivity warrant further investigation. This can be
literature. For example, Harr (1977) reported that a accomplished by increasing the test period and/
coefficient of variation of up to 50% is expected for or using relatively moderate to high hydraulic
C u. The values of the undrained shear are generally gradients.
acceptable especially for standard and modified (5) The shear strength of the compacted shales is
compaction. within acceptable range for earthen liners.
(6) Al-Fulaij shales have more clay fraction, higher
plasticity, higher activity, lower maximum dry
7. Comparison between the properties of the two unit weight, higher optimum water content,
shales lower permeability, higher compressibility and
lower shear strength than Fanja shales. This is
There are some differences between the proper- consistent with the amount of clay-fraction par-
ties of the two shales and the results of the labora- ticles present in each shale.
tory tests consistently support this fact. In (7) The properties of the two shales are within the
comparison with Fanja shales, Al-Fulaij shales general trends for clays with similar mineralog-
have more clay fraction, higher plasticity, higher ical and clay fraction.
 Y.E.-A. Mohamedzein et al. / Engineering Geology 80 (2005) 271–281 281

Acknowledgments Gleason, M.H., Daniel, D.E., Eykholt, G.R., 1997. Calcium and
sodium bentonite for hydraulic containment applications. Jour-
nal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE 123 (5), 438 – 445.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial Glennie, K.W., Boeuf, M.G.A., Hughes Clarke, M.W., Moody-
support provided by Sultan Qaboos University under Stuart, M., Pillar, W.F.H., Reinhardt, B.M., 1974. Geology of
the Internal Research No. CE/02/03. The authors the Oman Mountains. Verhandelingen Van het koninklijk
thank Mr. Suliman Al-Kindy, Mr. Yaqoub Al-Alawi, Nederlands Geologisch Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap, Part 1
31, 182.
Ms. Raya Al-Sharji, Mr. Seif Al-Maamari, Ms. Samira
Harr, M.E., 1977. Mechanics of Particulate Media: A Probabilistic
Al-Kharousi, Mr. Mansour Al-Haddabi, Mr. Approach. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Mohammed H. Mansour and Ms. Muna Al-Amri for Leroueil, S., Bouchard, R., Bihan, J.P., 1992. Discussion: water
their help in the testing program. content–density criteria for compacted soil liners. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE 118 (6), 963 – 965.
McMahon, D.R., Mann, M.J., 1992. Discussion: water content–
density criteria for compacted soil liners. Journal of Geotechni-
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