1

INFORMATION SYSTEM CONCEPTS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES :
 To introduce the general concepts of systems, their objective, their elements and
their classification.
 To explain the concept of information, its characteristics and its role in Information
systems.
 To explain different types of Computer Based Information Systems like DSS, MIS,
EIS etc.
 To explain different types of Office Automation Systems.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term system is in common parlance. People talk of transport system, educational system,
solar system and many others. System concepts provide a framework for many organizational
phenomenon including features of information system.

1.2 DEFINITION OF A SYSTEM

The term system may be defined as an orderly arrangement of a set of interrelated and
interdependent elements that operate collectively to accomplish some common purpose or
goal. For example - Human body is a system, consisting of various parts such as head, heart,
hands, legs and so on. The various body parts are related by means of connecting networks of
blood vessels and nerves and the system has a main goal of “living”. Thus, a system can be
described by specifying its parts, the way in which they are related, and the goals which they
are expected to achieve. A business is also a system where economic resources such as
people, money, material, machines, etc are transformed by various organizational processes
(such as production, marketing, finance etc.) into goods and services. A computer based
information system is also a system which is a collection of people, hardware, software, data
and procedures that interact to provide timely information to authorized people who need it.
1.2 Information Systems Control and Audit

1.3 TYPES OF SYSTEM

As shown in Fig. 1.3.1, we can distinguish systems on the basis of following parameters:
(i) Elements
(ii) Interactive Behavior
(iii) Degree of Human Intervention
(iv) Working / Output
SYSTEM

Elements Interactive Behavior Degree of Human Intervention Working/ Output

Abstract Physical Open Closed Manual Automated Deterministic Probabilistic

Fig. 1.3.1 : Classification Chart of System

1.3.1 According to Elements

(i) Abstract System : Abstract System also known as Conceptual System or Model can be
defined as an orderly arrangement of interdependent ideas or constructs. For example, a
system of theology is an orderly arrangement of ideas about God and the relationship of
humans to God.
(ii) Physical System : A physical system is a set of tangible elements which operate
together to accomplish an objective. Some of its examples are shown in Table 1.3.1.
Physical System Description
Circulatory system The heart and blood vessels which move blood through the body.
Transportation system The personnel, machines, and organizations which transport
goods.
Weapons system The equipment, procedures, and personnel which make it
possible to use a weapon.
School system The buildings, teachers, administrators, and textbooks that
function together to provide education to students.
Computer system The equipment which function, together to accomplish
computer processing.

Table 1.3.1 : Examples of Physical System

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.3

The examples illustrate that a system is not a randomly assembled set of elements; it consists
of elements, which can be identified as belonging together because of a common purpose,
goal, or objective. Physical systems are more than conceptual construct; they display activity
or behavior. The parts interact to achieve an objective.

1.3.2 According to Interactive Behavior

A system may be composed of a number of components that work together in a cascade to
achieve a goal for which the system is designed. All systems work in a specific environment
and based on how they perform within an environment, systems can be categorized in two
classes:
(i) Open System : A system that interacts freely with its environment by taking input and
returning output is termed as an Open System. With change of environment, an open
system also changes to match itself with the environment. For example, the education
system or any business process system will quickly change when the environment
changes. To do this, an open system will interact with elements that exist and influence
from outside the boundary of the system.
Information systems are open systems because they accept inputs from environment and
sends outputs to environment. Also with change of environmental conditions, they adapt
themselves to match the changes.
(ii) Closed System : A system that does not interact with the environment nor changes with
the change in environment is termed as a Closed System. Such systems are insulated
from the environment and are not affected with the changes in environment. Closed
systems are rare in business area but often available in physical systems that we use in
our day to work. For example, consider a ‘throw-away’ type sealed digital watch, which is
a system, composed of a number of components that work in a cooperative fashion
designed to perform some specific task. This watch is a closed system as it is completely
isolated from its environment for its operation. Such closed systems will finally run down
or become disorganized. This movement to disorder is termed on increase in entropy.
Organizations are considered to be relatively open systems as they continuously interact with
the external environment, by processes or transformation of inputs into useful output.
However, organizations behave as a relatively closed system in certain respects so as to
preserve their identity and autonomy. They may ignore many opportunities so as to maintain
their core-competence.
Organizations perform several operations on these inputs (consisting of finance, physical and
mental labor, and raw material) and process out products or services. The process of
exchange generates some surplus, in the form of profit, goodwill experience and so on, which
can be retained in the organization and can be used for further input output process.
Organizations are dependent upon their external environment for the inputs required by them
and for disposing of their outputs in a mutually beneficial manner. Fig. 1.3.2 illustrates open
system vs closed system.

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 1.4 Information Systems Control and Audit

No Exchanges with environment

CLOSED SYSTEM

Known Known and

And Controlled Exchange with environment defined output
defined input insulated from outside disturbances

RELATIVELY CLOSED SYSTEM

Known and
unknown Subject to known and unknown inputs and
inputs and environmental disturbances Output
threats
OPEN SYSTEM

Fig. 1.3.2 : Closed System vs Open System

Entropy : Entropy is the quantitative measure of disorder in a system. Systems can run down
and decay or can become disordered or disorganized. Presenting or offsetting an increase in
entropy requires inputs of matter and energy to repair, replenish and maintain the system. This
maintenance input is termed as Negative Entropy. Open systems require more negative entropy
than relatively closed systems for keeping at a steady state.
In general, the life cycle of a closed system is much shorter compared to that of an open
system because it decays faster for not having any input/ interaction from environment.
Open systems require more negative entropy than relatively closed systems for keeping at a
steady state of organization and operation, but all the systems described in the text require it.
Examples of system maintenance through negative entropy by inputs of matter and energy are
shown in Table 1.3.2.
System Manifestations of entropy Negative Entropy
Automobile Engine won’t start tyres too thin. Tune up engine, Replace tires.
Computer program User dissatisfaction with features Program enhancements.
and errors.
Computer data files Errors and omissions in data field. Review and correct procedures
Not all relevant entities included. procedure to identify omission
and obtain data.
Table 1.3.2 : Systems and their Entropies

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.5

1.3.3 According to Degree of Human Intervention

(i) Manual Systems : Manual Systems are the systems where data collection, manipulation,
maintenance and final reporting are carried out absolutely by human efforts.
(ii) Automated Systems : Automated Systems are the systems where computers or
microprocessors are used to carry out all the tasks mentioned above. However, none of
the business system is 100% automated; rather, to some extent, it depends on manual
intervention, may be in a negligible way.
Computers made it possible to carry out processing which would have been either too difficult
or too much time-consuming or even impossible to do manually. A system may be even 100%
manual. In earlier days, all accounting procedures and transactions, production details or
sales data used to be maintained in different ledgers that were created by human efforts only
and all these were manual systems. With introduction of computers and complexity in
business procedures, these manual jobs were passed to computers in a major way and now a
business system inherently involves a close man-machine interaction. The reasons for using
computer in business area are as follows:
 Handling huge volume of data that is not manageable by human efforts.
 Storing enormous volume of data for indefinite period without any decay.
 Quick and accurate processing of data to match the competitive environment.
 Quick retrieval of information on query.
 Quick and efficient transportation of data/information to distant places almost at no cost.
 Availability of software tools for quick decision making in a complex situation.

1.3.4 According to Working/Output

(i) Deterministic System : A deterministic system operates in a predictable manner
wherein the interaction among the parts is known with certainty. If one has a description
of the state of the system at a given point in time plus a description of its operation, the
next state of the system may be given exactly, without error. An example is a correct
computer program, which performs exactly according to a set of instructions.
(ii) Probabilistic System : The probabilistic system can be described in terms of probable
behavior, but a certain degree of error is always attached to the prediction of what the
system will do. An inventory system is an example of a probabilistic system. The average
demand, average time for replenishment, etc, may be defined, but the exact value at any
given time is not known. Another example is a set of instructions given to a human who,
for a variety of reasons, may not follow the instructions exactly as given.

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1.6 Information Systems Control and Audit

1.4 GENERAL MODEL OF A SYSTEM

A general model of a physical system is input, process and output. This is, of course, very
simplified because a system may have several inputs and outputs as shown in Fig. 1.4.1 :

Storage

Input Processing Output

Feedback

Fig. 1.4.1 : General Model of a System

A System may have many inputs and outputs.
 Input is the data flowing into the system from outside. For example : A newspaper takes a
news feed from a news wire service such as Reunters.
 Processing is the action of manipulating the input into a more useful from. For example : The
newspaper takes the pure text obtained from the news wire service and creates front page
layout using pictures and formatted text.
 Output is the information flowing out of a system. For example : The raw news wire
information is viewed on your website as a story, all nicely formatted in the company style.
 Storage is the means of holding information for use at a later date.
 Feedback occurs when the outcome has an influence on the input.

1.5 SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT

The external world which is outside the system boundary is known as System Environment.

1.5.1 System Boundary

All systems function within some sort of environment, which is a collection of elements. These
elements surround the system and often interact with it. For any given problem, there are
many types of systems and many types of environments. Thus, it is important to be clear
about what constitutes the system and the environment of interest.
For example, a physiologist looking at human system may be interested in studying the entire
human body as a system, and not just a part of it (such as the central nervous system only). If
the entire human body is the system of interest, the physiologist is likely to define the
environment more broadly than he might if the focus was on just the central nervous system.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.7

The features that define and delineate a system form its boundary. The system is inside the
boundary; the environment is outside the boundary. In some cases, it is fairly simple to define
what is part of the system and what is not; in other cases, the person studying the system may
arbitrarily define the boundaries. Some examples of boundaries are discussed in Table 1.5.1.
System Boundary
Human Skin, hair, nails, and all parts contained inside form the system; all things
outside are environment.
Automobile The automobile body plus tires and all parts contained within form the system.
Production Production machines, production inventory of work in process, production
employees, production procedures, etc. form the system. The rest of the
company is in the environment.
Table 1.5.1 : Examples of Systems and their Boundaries
1.5.2 Subsystem
A subsystem is a part of a larger system. Each system is composed of subsystems, which in
turn are made up of other subsystems, each sub-system being delineated by its boundaries.
The interconnections and interactions between the subsystems are termed Interfaces.
Interfaces occur at the boundary and take the form of inputs and outputs. Fig. 1.5.1 shows
examples of subsystems and interfaces at boundaries.
Computer Configuration as system

Storage Subsystem

Storage
Units

Input Subsystem Processing Subsystem Output Subsystem

Input Output
CPU
Units Units

Interfaces
(at channels)

Central Processing unit as system

Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem

Arithmetic Control Storage

Unit Unit Units

Interfaces

Fig. 1.5.1 : Components of a Computer System

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1.8 Information Systems Control and Audit

1.5.3 Characteristics of Subsystems

The use of subsystems as building blocks is basic to analysis and development. This requires
an understanding of the principles, which dictate how systems are built from subsystems.
(i) Decomposition : A complex system is difficult to comprehend when considered as a
whole. Therefore the system is decomposed or factored into subsystems. The
boundaries and interfaces are defined, so that the sum of the subsystems constitutes the
entire system. This process of decomposition is continued with subsystems divided into
smaller subsystems until the smallest subsystems are of manageable size. The
subsystems resulting from this process generally form hierarchical structures (Fig. 1.5.2).
In the hierarchy, a subsystem is one element of supra-system (the system above it).
Decomposition into subsystems is used to analyze an existing system and to design and
implement a new system. In both cases, the investigator or designer must decide how to factor,
i.e., where to draw the boundaries. The decisions will depend on the objectives of the
decomposition and also on individual differences among designers, the latter should be minimized.
An example of decomposition is the factoring of an information processing system into
subsystems. One approach to decomposition might proceed as follows:
1. Information system divided into subsystem such as :
a. Sales and order entry
b. Inventory
c. Production
d. Personnel and payroll
e. Purchasing
f. Accounting and control
g. Planning
h. Environmental intelligence
System

Subsystem A Subsystem B Subsystem C

A1 A2 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2

A21 A22 C11 C12

Fig. 1.5.2 : Hierarchical Relations of Subsystems

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.9

2. Each subsystem is divided further into subsystems. For example, the personnel and
payroll subsystem might be divided into the following smaller subsystems:
a. Creation and update of personnel pay-roll records
b. Personnel reports
c. Payroll data entry and validation
d. Hourly payroll processing
e. Salaried payroll processing
f. Payroll reports for management
g. Payroll reports for government
3. If the task is to design and program a new system, the subsystems (major applications)
defined in (2) might be further subdivided into smaller subsystems or modules. For
example, the hourly payroll processing subsystem might be factored into modules for the
calculation of deductions and net pay, payroll register and audit controls preparation,
cheque printing, and register and controls output (Fig. 1.5.3).

Hourly Payroll Processing

Calculation Preparation of Payroll and

of gross pay, payroll register Cheque register and
deductions, and audit printing controls output
and net pay controls

Fig. 1.5.3 : Hourly Payroll Processing Subsystem

(ii) Simplification : Simplification is defined as the process of organizing subsystems so as
to reduce the number of interconnections, which is a potential interface for
communication among subsystems. The number of interconnections if all the subsystems
interact is in general 1/2n(n-1), where n is the number of subsystems.
(iii) Decoupling : If two different subsystems are connected very tightly, very close
coordination between them is required. For example, if the raw material is put directly
into production the moment it arrives at the factory, the raw materials system can be said
to be tightly couple. Under these conditions, raw material delivery (input to production
system and output from raw material system) must be precisely timed in order to avoid
delays in production or to prevent new material from arriving too soon with no place to be
stored.

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 Inventories, buffer, or waiting lines : In the example of the raw material subsystem and
production subsystem, a raw material inventory allows the two subsystems to operate
somewhat independently (in the short run). Data buffers are used in some computer
systems and some communications systems to compensate for different rates of input
and output of data.
 Slack and Flexible resources : When the output of one subsystem is the input to
another, the existence of slack resources allows subsystems to be some what
independent and yet allows each to respond to the demands of the other subsystem. For
example, most data processing systems can provide an extra report or extra analysis
because they have slack resources. The ability of an organization to respond can be
employed for a variety of purposes. An information systems organization that uses the
concept of a combination of systems analyst - programming that an organization with the
same number of personnel that uses systems analysts and programming than an
organization with the same number of personnel that uses systems analysts only for
analysis and design and programmers only for programming.
 Standards : Standard allow a subsystem to plan and organize with reduced need to
communicate with other subsystems. If, for example, the production department wishes
to design a data processing module involving finished goods and a standard product
code is used throughout the organization, there is no need to communicate negotiate
with other departments about the codes to be used. A standard decoupling mechanisms
to reduce to reduce need for communication and close connection among database
description maintained by the data administrator (the data dictionary) allows use of the
database without tedious and time-consuming checking with other subsystems also using
the database.

1.5.3 Supra-System
A Supra-System refers to the entity formed by a system and other equivalent systems with
which it interacts. For example, an organization may be subdivided into numerous functional
areas such as marketing, finance, manufacturing, research and development, and so on. Each
of these functional areas can be viewed as a subsystem of a larger organizational system
because each could be considered to be a system in and of itself. For example, marketing
may be viewed as a system that consists of elements such as market research, advertising,
sales, and so on. Collectively, these elements in the marketing area may be viewed as making
up the marketing Supra-System. Similarly the various functional areas (subsystems) of an
organization are elements in the same supra- system within the organization.

1.5.4 System Stress and System Change

Systems whether living or artificial systems like organizational systems, information systems,
change because they undergo stress. A stress is a force transmitted by a system’s supra-
system that causes a system to change, so that the supra-system can better achieve its goals.
In trying to accommodate the stress, the system may impose stress on its subsystems and so
on.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.11

When a supra-system exerts stress on a system, the system will change to accommodate the
stress, or it will become pathological; that ism it will decay and terminate.
A Supra-system enforces compliance by the system through its control over the supply of
resources and information input to the system. If the system does not accommodate the stress
the supra-system decreases or terminates the supply of matter energy and information input to
the system. If the system does not accommodate the stress, the supra-system decreases or
terminates the supply of matter energy and information input.
Systems accommodate stress through a change in the form; there can be structural changes
or process changes. For example - a computer system under stress for more share-ability of
data may be changed through the installation of terminals in remote locations - a structural
change. Demands for greater efficiency may be met by changing the way in which it sorts the
data - a process change.

1.6 INFORMATION
Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context. It has been
defined by Davis and Olson as - “Information is data that has been processed into a form that
is meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived value in current or progressive
decision”. For example, data regarding sales by various salesmen can be merged to provide
information regarding total sales through sales personnel. This information is of vital
importance to a marketing manager who is trying to plan for future sales.
The term “data” and ‘information’ are often used interchangeably. However, the relation of
data to information is that of raw material to finished product. A data processing system
processes data to generate information on which business decisions are based. Therefore, the
quality of information determines the quality of action or decision. The management plays the
part of converting the information into action through the familiar process of decision-making.
Therefore, Information plays a vital role in the survival of a business.

1.6.1 Attributes of Information

Some of the important attributes of useful and effective information are as follows :
(i) Availability : Availability or Timeliness is a very important property of information. If
information is not available at the time of need, it is useless. Data is organized in the
form of facts and figures in databases and files from where various information is derived
for useful purpose.
(ii) Purpose : Information must have purposes at the time it is transmitted to a person or
machine, otherwise it is simple data. Information communicated to people has a variety
of purposes because of the variety of activities performed by them in business
organizations. The basic purpose of information is to inform, evaluate, persuade, and
organize.

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1.12 Information Systems Control and Audit

It helps in creating new concepts, identifying problems, solving problems, decision

making, planning, initiating, and controlling. These are just some of the purposes to
which information is directed to human activity in business organizations.
(iii) Mode and format : The modes of communicating information to humans are sensory
(through sight, hear, taste, touch and smell) but in business they are either visual, verbal
or in written form.
Format of information should be so designed that it assists in decision making, solving
problems, initiating planning, controlling and searching. Therefore, all the statistical rules
of compiling statistical tables and presenting information by means of diagram, graphs,
curves, etc., should be considered. Format of information dissemination is a matter of
imagination and perception. It should be simple, relevant and should highlight important
points but should not be too cluttered up.
(iv) Decay : Value of information usually decays with time and usage and so it should be
refreshed from time to time. For example, we access the running score sheet of a cricket
match through Internet sites and this score sheet is continually refreshed at a fixed
interval or based on status of the state. Similarly, in highly fluctuating share market a
broker is always interested about the latest information of a particular stock/s.
(v) Rate : The rate of transmission/reception of information may be represented by the time
required to understand a particular situation. A useful information is the one which is
transmitted at a rate which matches with the rate at which the recipient wants to receive,
Quantitatively, the rate for humans may be measure by the number of numeric characters
transmitted per minute, such as sales reports from a district office. For machines the rate
may be based on the number of bits of information per character (sign) per unit of time.
(vi) Frequency : The frequency with which information is transmitted or received affects its
value. Financial reports prepared weekly may show so little changes that they have small
value, whereas monthly reports may indicate changes big enough to show problems or
trends.
(vii) Completeness : The information should be as complete as possible. For example -
Hartz's model for investment decisions provides information on mean, standard deviation
and the shape of the distribution of ROI and NPV. With this complete information, the
manager is in a much better position to decide whether or not to undertake the venture.
(viii) Reliability : It is just not authenticity or correctness of information; rather technically it is
a measure of failure or success of using information for decision-making. If an
information leads to correct decision on many occasions, we say the information is
reliable.
(ix) Validity : It measures the closeness of the information to the purpose which it purports to
serve. For example, some productivity measure may not measure, for the given situation,
what they are supposed to do e.g., the real rise or fall in productivity. The measure
suiting the organization may have to be carefully selected or evolved.

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(x) Quality : Quality refers to the correctness of information. Information is likely to be

spoiled by personal bias. For example, an over-optimistic salesman may give rather too
high estimates of the sales. This problem, however, can be circumvented by maintaining
records of salesman's estimates and actual sales and deflating or inflating the estimates
in the light of this.
(xi) Transparency : If information does not reveal directly what we want to know for
decision-making, it is not transparent. For example, total amount of advance does not
give true picture of utilization of fund for decision about future course of action; rather
deposit-advance ratio is perhaps more transparent information in this matter.
(xii) Value of information : It is defined as difference between the value of the change in
decision behavior caused by the information and the cost of the information. In other
words, given a set of possible decisions, a decision-maker may select one on basis of the
information at hand. If new information causes a different decision to be made, the value
of the new information is the difference in value between the outcome of the old decision
and that of the new decision, less the cost of obtaining the information.
(xiii) Adequacy : To be useful, an information must be adequate so that the desired actions
can be initiated. Required information should flow on different directions within the
organization and to and from its environment. Further, the type of information that flows
within the organization or across, it should have adequate and relevant contents.

1.6.2 Types of Information

Information, broadly, can be divided into two different types : Internal Information and
External Information in the context of business organizations.

External
Top Planning Information Information
related to external
environment
Middle
Controlling information Internal
related to internal Information
Junior environment

Fig. 1.6.1 : External and Internal Information

Internal information : The internal information can be defined as an information that has
been generated from the operations of the organization at various functional areas. The
internal information gets processed and summarized from junior to top most level of

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management. The internal information always pertains to the various operational units of the
organization. Examples of internal information would be production figures, sales figures,
information about personnel, accounts, material etc.
External information : The external information is collected from the external environment of
the business organization. External information is considered to affect the organizational
performance from outside the organization.
For example - Information such as Govt. policies, competition, economic status etc. are
considered to be external information. Access to internal and external information by different
levels of management is shown in Fig. 1.6.1.

1.7 INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ITS ROLE IN MANAGEMENT

An Information System can be considered as an arrangement of a number of elements that
provides effective information for decision-making and/or control of some functionalities of an
organization. Information is an entity that reduces uncertainty about an event or situation. For
example, correct information about demand of products in the market will reduce the
uncertainty of production schedule. Enterprises use information system to reduce costs,
control wastes or generate revenue. Computer Based Information System are complementary
networks of hardware/software that people and organizations use to collect, fitter, process,
create and distribute data. Hence onwards, the chapter focuses only to CBIS.
In modern business perspective, the information system has far reaching effects for smooth
and efficient operations. Some of important implications of information system in business are
as follows:
 Information system helps managers in effective decision-making to achieve the
organizational goal.
 Based on well-designed Information system, an organization will gain edge in the
competitive environment.
 Information systems help take right decision at the right time.
 Innovative ideas for solving critical problems may come out from good Information
system.
 Knowledge gathered though Information system may be utilized by managers in unusual
situations.
 Information system is viewed as a process, it can be integrated to formulate a strategy of
action or operation.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.15

1.7.1 Factors on which Information Requirements depend

The factors on which information requirements of executives depend are as follows :
1. Operational function
2. Type of decision making
3. Level of management activity
(1) Operational function : The grouping or clustering of several functional units on the basis
of related activities into a sub-systems is termed as Operational function. For example, in a
business enterprise, marketing is an operational function, as it is the clustering of several
functional units like market research, advertising, sales analysis and so on. Likewise,
production finance, personnel etc. can all be considered as operational functions.
Information requirement depends upon operational function. The information requirement of
different operational functions vary not only in content but also in characteristics. In fact, the
content of information depends upon the activities performed under an operational function.
For example, in the case of production, the information required may be about the production
targets to be achieved, resources available and so on. Whereas in the case of marketing
functions, the content of information may be about the consumer behavior, new product
impact in the market etc.
(2) Type of decision making : Organizational decisions can be categorized as Programmed
and Non-programmed ones.
Programmed Decisions : Programmed decisions or structured decisions refer to decisions
made on problems and situations by reference to a predetermined set of precedents,
procedures, techniques and rules. These are well-structured in advance and are time-tested
for their validity. As a problem or issue for decision-making emerges, the relevant pre-decided
rule or procedure is applied to arrive at the decision. For example, in many organizations,
there is a set procedure for receipt of materials, payment of bills, employment of clerical
personnel, release of budgeted funds, and so on.
Programmed decisions are made with respect to familiar, routine, recurring problems which
are amenable for structured solution by application of known and well-defined operating
procedures and processes. Not much judgment and discretion is needed in finding solutions to
such problems. It is a matter of identifying the problem and applying the rule, thus simplifying
the process of decision making.
Non-programmed Decisions : Non-programmed decisions or unstructured decisions are
those which are made on situations and problems which are novel and non-repetitive and
about which not much knowledge and information are available. They are non-programmed in
the sense that they are made not by reference to any pre-determined guidelines, standard
operating procedures, precedents and rules but by application of managerial intelligence,
experience, judgment and vision to tackling problems and situations, which arise infrequently
and about which not much is known. There is no simple or single best way of making

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decisions on unstructured problems, which change their character from time to time, which are
surrounded by uncertainty and enigma and which defy quick understanding. Solutions and
decisions on them tend to be unique or unusual. For example - problems such as a sudden
major change in government policy badly affecting a particular industry, the departure of a top
level key executive, drastic decline in demand for a particular high profile product, competitive
rivalry from a previously little known manufacturer etc. do not have ready-made solutions.
(3) Level of management activity : Different levels of management activities in management
planning and control hierarchy are Strategic level, Tactical level and Operational level.
 Strategic Level or Top level : Strategic level management is concerned with the
developing of organizational mission, objectives and strategies. Decisions made at this
level of organization in order to handle problems critical to the survival and success of
the organization are called Strategic Decisions. They have a vital impact on the
direction and functioning of the organization. For example - decisions on plant location,
introduction of new products, making major new fund-raising and investment operations,
adoption of new technology, acquisition of outside enterprises and so on go into making
strategic decisions.
 Tactical Level or Middle level : Tactical level lies in middle of managerial hierarchy
where managers plan, organize, lead and control the activities of other managers.
Decisions made at this level called the Tactical decisions (which are also called
operational decisions) are made to implement strategic decisions. A single strategic
decision calls for a series of tactical decisions, which are of a relatively structured nature.
Tactical decisions are relatively short, step-like spot solutions to breakdown strategic
decisions into implemental packages. Tactical decisions are specific and functional;
made in a relatively closed setting; more easily available and digestible; and less
surrounded by uncertainty and complexity.
 Operational level or Supervisory Level : This is the lowest level in managerial
hierarchy wherein the managers coordinate the work of others who are not themselves
managers. They ensure that specific tasks are carried out effectively and efficiently.

1.7.2 Components of Computer Based Information System

A Computer-based Information System (CBIS) is an information system in which the
computer plays a major role. Such a system consists of the following elements as shown in
Fig 1.7.1.
Hardware : The term hardware refers to machinery including the computer itself, which is
often referred as Central Processing Unit (CPU) and all of its support equipment. Among the
support equipment are input and output devices, storage devices, and communications
devices.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.17

PROCESSOR UNIT
CPU

Control
Unit
Input Output /
Device Communications
Arithmetic Logic Unit Devices

Primary Memory

Secondary Storage Devices

Fig 1.7.1 : The Hardware Components of CBIS

Software : The term software refers to the computer programs and the manuals (if any) that
support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry
within the hardware parts of the CBIS to function in ways that produce useful information from
data.
Data : Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful information. Like programs,
data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs
them.
Procedures : Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer system. For
instance, the steps that must be taken to enter a password and log onto computer terminal are
a procedure. The actions needed to restore the computer system to its operational state after
a major failure are another example of a procedure. Procedures often specify the actions that
people should take in a step-by-step manner.
People : Every CBIS needs people if it is to be made useful. People are probably the
components that influence the success or failure of information systems the most. Users,
programmers, system analysts, and database administrators are just some of the people
associated with the computer-based information systems.
Some of the characteristics of Computer Based Information Systems are as follows:
1) All systems work for predetermined objectives and the system is designed and developed
accordingly.
2) In general, a system has a number of interrelated and interdependent subsystems or
components. No subsystem can function in isolation; it depends on other subsystems for
its inputs.

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3) If one subsystem or component of a system fails, in most cases the whole system does
not work. However, it depends on how the subsystems are interrelated.
4) The way a subsystem works with another subsystem is called interaction. The different
subsystems interact with each other to achieve the goal of the system
5) The work done by individual subsystems is integrated to achieve the central goal of the
system. The goal of individual subsystem is of lower priority than the goal of the entire
system.
Major areas of computer-based applications are finance and accounting, marketing and sales,
manufacturing, inventory/stock management, human resource management etc.
 Finance and Accounting
The main goal of this subsystem (considering Business functions as whole system) is to
ensure financial viability of the organization, enforce financial discipline and plan and monitor
the financial budget. Also it helps forecasting revenues, determining the best resources and
uses of funds and managing other financial resources. Typical sub-application areas in finance
and accounting are - Financial accounting; General ledger; Accounts receivable/payable;
Asset accounting; Investment management; Cash management; Treasury management; Fund
management and Balance sheet.
 Marketing and Sales
Marketing and sales activities have great importance in running a business successfully in a
competitive environment. The objective of this subsystem is to maximize sales and ensure
customer satisfaction. The marketing system facilitates the chances of order procurement by
marketing the products of the company, creating new customers and advertising the products.
The sales department may use an order processing system to keep status and track of orders,
generate bills for the orders executed and delivered to the customer, strategies for rendering
services during warranty period and beyond, analyzing the sales data by category such as by
region, product, salesman or sales value. The system may also be used to compute
commissions for dealers or salesmen and thus helps the corporate managers to take
decisions in many crucial areas.
 Production or Manufacturing
The objective of this subsystem is to optimally deploy man, machine and material to maximize
production or service. The system generates production schedules and schedules of material
requirements, monitors the product quality, plans for replacement or overhauling the
machinery and also helps in overhead cost control and waste control.
 Inventory /Stores Management
The inventory management system is designed with a view to keeping track of materials in the
stores. The system is used to regulate the maximum and minimum level of stocks, raise alarm
at danger level stock of any material, give timely alert for re-ordering of materials with optimal
re-order quantity and facilitate various queries about inventory like total inventory value at any

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time, identification of important items in terms stock value (ABC analysis), identification most
frequently moving items (XYZ analysis) etc.
Similarly well-designed inventory management system for finished goods and semi-finished
goods provides important information for production schedule and marketing/sales strategy.
 Human Resource Management
Human resource is the most valuable asset for an organization. Utilization of this resource in
most effective and efficient way is an important function for any enterprise. Less disputes,
right utilization of manpower and quiet environment in this functional area will ensure smooth
sailing in business. Human resource management system aims to achieve this goal. Skill
database maintained in HRM system, with details of qualifications, training, experience,
interests etc helps management for allocating manpower to right activity at the time of need or
starting a new project. This system also keeps track of employees’ output or efficiency.
Administrative functions like keeping track of leave records or handling other related functions
are also included HRM system. An HRM system may have the following modules – Personnel
administration; Recruitment management; Travel management; Benefit administration; Salary
administration; Promotion management etc.

1.8 TYPES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS

It is a fact that much of management is primarily concerned with decision- making and so the
importance of information system is further emphasized in this matter.
Management at different levels take decisions matching to their position or hierarchy in the
organization and different types of information systems are designed and developed for them
i.e. an information system for a departmental manager will be characteristically different from
one designed for a corporate manager.
If we consider an organization having a pyramidal management structure with the corporate
level managers at the top and operational managers at the bottom, typical categories of data
are manipulated at different levels.
The Fig. 1.8.1 exhibits data available at different functional areas of an organization for
management.
 At the lowest level, that is managed by operational level managers (like supervisor,
section in-charge), all types of inputs available from various sources are collected. The
routine office work, like maintaining inward register and public interaction are mostly
done at this level. However, no decision-making process is carried out at this level. But
proper organization of data for further processing is an important task to be completed at
this level. So sufficiently trained manpower will be deployed at this stage.
 At the middle level of management the decision making-process starts. Inputs from
different internal and external information sources are collected (normally passed from
operational level managers) and processed for strategic decisions. Middle level
managers who are expected to contribute significantly towards development of the

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organization will be the key personnel to carry out the processing activities of the
strategic data. They will use various tools of analysis and typical software products to
report to the higher level with options and possible effects.
 At the top level, the decisions are taken on the basis of the information passed from
middle management.

Top level management Strategic level

Middle level management Tactical level

Supervisory level management Operational data

Fig. 1.8.1 : Information systems at different Levels

Primarily, Information systems can be classified into three broad categories upon their focus
on the kind of activities in a business enterprise. These categories are shown in Fig. 1.8.2.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Operations Support Systems Management Support Systems Office Automation Systems

Fig. 1.8.2 : Categories of Information Systems

1.9 OPERATIONS SUPPORT SYSTEMS (OSS)

The objective of Operation Support System is to improve the operational efficiency of the
enterprise. As these systems primarily are concerned with the operations, they use internal
data primarily for managers at the lower levels. These are further classified into three
categories:
– Transaction Processing Systems
– Management Information Systems
– Enterprise Resource Planning Systems

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.21

1.9.1 Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

Transaction Processing System (TPS) at the lowest level of management is an information
system that manipulates data from business transactions. Any business activity such as sales,
purchase, production, delivery, payments or receipts involves transaction and these
transactions are to be organized and manipulated to generate various information products for
external use. For example, selling of a product to a customer will give rise to the need of
further information like customer billing, inventory status and increase in account receivable
balance. Transaction processing system will thus record and manipulate transaction data into
usable information.
Typically, a TPS involves the following activities :
(i) Capturing data to organize in files or databases;
(ii) Processing of files / databases using application software;
(iii) Generating information in the form of reports;
(iv) Processing of queries from various quarters of the organization.
A TPS may follow periodic data preparation and batch processing (as in payroll application) or
on-line processing (as in inventory control application). However in industries and business
houses now-a-days on-line approach is preferred in many applications as it provides
information with up-to-date status. However, the people involved in TPS usually are not in a
position to take any management decision.
(I) TPS Components
The principal components of a TPS include inputs, processing, storage and outputs. The
components or elements are part of both manual and computerized systems.
 Inputs : Source documents, such as customer orders, sales, slips, invoices, purchase
orders, and employee time cards, are the physical evidence of inputs into the Transaction
Processing System. They serve several purposes like - capturing data, facilitating
operations by communicating data and authorizing another operation in the process,
standardizing operations by indicating which data require recording and what actions
need to be taken, and providing a permanent file for future analysis, if the documents are
retained etc.
 Processing : This involves the use of journals and registers to provide a permanent and
chronological record of inputs. Journals are used to record financial accounting
transactions, and registers are used to record other types of data not directly related to
accounting. Some of the more common special journals are – sales journal, purchase
journal, cash receipts journal etc.
 Storage : Ledgers and files provide storage of data on both manual and computerized
systems. The general ledger, the accounts/vouchers payable ledgers, and the accounts

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receivable ledger are the records of final account that provide summaries of a firm’s
financial accounting transactions.
 Outputs : Any document generated in the system is output. Some documents are both
output and input. For example - a customer invoice is an output from the order-entry
application system and also and input document to the customer. The trial balance lists
the balances of all the accounts on the gametal ledger and tests the accuracy of the
record keeping. Financial reports summarize the results of transaction processing and
express these results in accordance with the principles of financial reporting.
(II) Features of TPS
(i) Large volume of data : As TPS is transaction – oriented, it generally consists large
volumes of data and thus require greater storage capacity. Their major concern is to
ensure that the data regarding the economic events in the organizations are
captured quickly and correctly.
(ii) Automation of basic operations : Any TPS aims at automating the basic
operations of a business enterprise and plays a critical role in the day-to-day
functioning of the enterprise. Any failure in the TPS for a short period of time can
play havoc with the functioning of the enterprise. Thus, TPS is an important source
of up-to-date information regarding the operations in the enterprise.
(iii) Benefits are easily measurable : TPS reduces the workload of the people
associated with the operations and improves their efficiency by automating some of
the operations. Most of these benefits of the TPS are tangible and easily
measurable. Therefore, cost benefit analysis regarding the desirability of TPS is
easy to conduct. As the benefits from TPS are mainly tangible, the user acceptance
is easy to obtain.
(iv) Source of input for other systems : TPS is the basic source of internal
information for other information systems. Heavy reliance by other information
systems on TPS for this purpose makes TPS important for tactical and strategic
decisions as well.

1.9.2 Management Information Systems (MIS)

Management Information Systems (MIS) assist managers in decision making and problem
solving in contract to TPS, which is operations oriented. They use results produced by the
TPS, but they may also use other information. In any organization, decisions must be made on
many issues that recur regularly and require a certain amount of information. Because the
decision making process is well understood, the manager can identify the information that will
be needed for the purpose. In turn, the information systems can be developed so that reports
are prepared regularly to support these recurring decisions.
(I) Definition of Management Information System (MIS) : Many experts have defined MIS
in different languages. A Management Information System has been defined by Davis and
Olson as “An integrated user-machine system designed for providing information to

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support operational control, management control and decision making functions in an

organization”.
The information system makes use of resources such as hardware, software, personnel,
procedure and supplies as well. MIS is designed to provide accurate, relevant and timely
information to managers at different levels and in different
functional areas throughout the organization for decision- Management
making purpose. MIS support the managers at different
levels to take strategic (at top level) or tactical (at middle Information
level) management decisions to fulfill the organizational Systems
goals. Nature of MIS at different levels has different flavors
and they are available in the form of reports, tables, graphs Fig. 1.9.1 : MIS Components
and charts or in presentation format using some tools. MIS at
the top level is much more comprehensive and condensed or summarized compared to that
existing in the middle level management. In order to understand MIS, its constituent
components (Fig. 1.9.1) must be well understood.
Management : A manager may be required to perform following activities in an organization:
(i) Determination of organizational objectives and developing plans to achieve them.
(ii) Securing and organizing the human and physical resources so that these objectives
could be accomplished.
(iii) Exercising adequate controls over the functions.
(iv) Monitoring the results to ensure that accomplishments are proceeding according to plan.
Thus, management comprises the processes or activities that describe what managers do in
the operation of their organization : plan, organize, initiate, and control operations. In other
words, Management refers to a set of functions and processes designed to initiate and co-
ordinate group efforts in an organized setting directed towards promotion of certain interest,
preserving certain values and pursuing certain goals. It involves mobilization, combination,
allocation and utilization of physical, human and other needed resources in a judicious manner
by employing appropriate skills, approaches and techniques.
Information (as referred to MIS) : Information could be defined as sets of facts, figures and
symbols processed for the current decision-making situation. The information is considered to
be of significance in a particular situation.
System : A system is defined as a set of related components, activities, process and human
beings interacting together so as to accomplish some common objective.
Putting all these three components together, MIS can be defined as set of related processes,
activities individuals or entities interacting together to provide processed data to managers at
various levels and functional areas.
The functions of MIS can be shown with the help of Fig. 1.9.2. For example, in a competitive
market for products manufactured by an enterprise, its management needs information on the

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1.24 Information Systems Control and Audit

pricing policy of the competitors, specially of competing products, sales techniques etc., to
effectively combat the effect of the competition.

Determination of Information Needs

Data Gathering and Processing Evaluation, Indexing, Abstraction

Dissemination Storage

Information Use

Fig. 1.9.2 : Functions of MIS

(II) Characteristics of an effective MIS : Some of the important characteristic for an

effective MIS are eight in number and are briefly discussed below:
(i) Management Oriented : It means that effort for the development of the information
system should start from an appraisal of management needs and overall business
objectives. Such a system is not necessarily for top management only, it may also meet
the information requirements of middle level or operating levels of management as well.
(ii) Management Directed : Because of management orientation of MIS, it is necessary that
management should actively direct the system’s development efforts. For system’s
effectiveness, it is necessary for management to devote their sufficient time not only at
the stage of designing the system but for its review as well to ensure that the
implemented system meets the specifications of the designed system.
(iii) Integrated : Development of information should be an integrated one which means that
all the functional and operational information sub-system should be tied together into one
entity. An integrated Information system has the capability of generating more meaningful
information to management by taking a comprehensive view or a complete look at the
inter locking sub-systems that operate within a company.
(iv) Common Data Flows : It means the use of common input, processing and output
procedures and media whenever required. Data is captured by system analysts only
once and as close to its original source as possible. They, then, try to utilize a minimum
of data processing procedures and sub-systems to process the data and strive to
minimize the number of output documents and reports produced by the system. This
eliminates duplication in data collections, simplifies operations and produces an efficient
information system.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.25

(v) Heavy Planning Element : An MIS usually takes 3 to 5 years and sometimes even
longer period to get established firmly within a company. Therefore, a MIS designer must
be present in MIS development who should keep in view future objectives and
requirements of firm's information in mind.
(vi) Sub System Concept : Even though the information system is viewed as a single entity,
it must be broken down into digestible sub-systems which can be implemented one at a
time by developing a phasing plan. The breaking down of MIS into meaningful sub-
systems sets the stage for this phasing plan.
(vii) Common Database : Database is the mortar that holds the functional systems together.
It is defined as a "super-file" which consolidates and integrates data records formerly
stored in many separate data files. The organization of a database allows it to be
accessed by several information sub-systems and thus, eliminates the necessity of
duplication in data storage, updating, deletion and protection.
(viii) Computerized : Though MIS can be implemented without using a computer, the use of
computers increases the effectiveness of the system. In fact, its use equip the system to
handle a wide variety of applications by providing their information requirements quickly.
Other necessary attributes of the computer to MIS are accuracy and consistency in
processing data and reduction in clerical staff. These attributes make computer a prime
requirement in management information system.
(III) Misconceptions about MIS : Some of the myths about MIS are as follows :
(i) The study of MIS is about the use of computers. This statement is not true. MIS may or
may not be computer based, computer is just a tool, just like any other machine.
Installing a MIS depends largely on several factors such as – how critical is the response
time required for getting an information; how big is the organization; and how complex
are the needs of the information processing.
(ii) More data in reports means more information for managers. This is a misapprehension. It
is not the quantity of data, but its relevance, which is important to managers in process of
decision-making. Data provided in reports should meet information requirements of
managers. It is the form of data and its manner of presentation that is of importance to
business managers. Unorganized mass of data creates confusion.
(iii) Accuracy in reporting is of vital importance. The popular belief is that accuracy in
reporting should be of high order. At the operating level, it is true. Other examples,
where accuracy is really important, can be the dispensing of medicine; the control of
aircraft; the design of a bridge etc. Accuracy, however, is a relevant but not an absolute
ideal. Higher levels of accuracy involve higher cost. At higher decision levels, great
accuracy may not be required. The degree of accuracy is closely related to the decision
problem. Higher management is concerned with broad decisions on principles and
objectives. A fairly correct presentation of relevant data often is adequate for top
management decisions. For a decision on a new project proposal, top management is not
interested in knowing the project cost in precise rupee terms. A project cost estimated at
a fairly correct figure is all what it wants.

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(IV) Pre-requisites of an effective MIS : The main pre-requisites of an effective MIS are as
follows :
(i) Database : It can be defined as a “super-file” which consolidates data records formerly
stored in many data files. The data in database is organized in such a way that access to
the data is improved and redundancy is reduced. Normally, the database is sub-divided
into the major information sub-sets needed to run a business. The main characteristic of
database is that each sub-system utilizes same data and information kept in the same file
to satisfy its information needs. The other important characteristics of database are as
follows :
 It is user–oriented.
 It is capable of being used as a common data source, to various users, helps in
avoiding duplication of efforts in storage and retrieval of data and information.
 It is available to authorized persons only.
 It is controlled by a separate authority established for the purpose, known as Data
Base Management System (DBMS).
The maintenance of data in database requires computer hardware, software and
experienced computer professionals. In addition, it requires a good data collection
system equipped with experts having first-hand knowledge of the operations of the
company and its information needs.
(ii) Qualified system and management staff : The second pre-requisite of effective MIS is
that it should be manned by qualified officers. These officers who are expert in the field
should understand clearly the views of their fellow officers. For this, the organizational
management base should comprise of two categories of officers Systems and Computer
experts and Management experts.
 Systems and Computer experts in addition to their expertise in their subject area
should also be capable of understanding management concepts to facilitate the
understanding of problems faced by the concern. They should also be clear about
the process of decision making and information requirements for planning and
control functions.
 Management experts should also understand quite clearly the concepts and
operations of a computer. This basic knowledge of computers will be useful to place
them in a comfortable position, while working with systems technicians in designing
or otherwise of the information system.
(iii) Support of Top Management : The management information system to become
effective, should receive the full support of top management. The reasons for this are as
follows :
 Subordinate managers are usually lethargic about activities, which do not receive
the support of their superiors (top management).

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 The resources involved in computer-based information systems are large and are
growing larger in view of importance gained by management information system.
To gain the support of top management, the officers should place before top management all
the supporting facts and state clearly the benefits, which will accrue from it to the concern.
This step will certainly enlighten management, and will change their attitude towards MIS.
Their wholehearted support and cooperation will help in making MIS an effective one.
(iv) Control and maintenance of MIS : Control of the MIS means the operation of the
system as it was designed to operate. Some time, users develop their own procedures or
short cut methods to use the system, which reduce its effectiveness. To check such
habits of users, the management at each level in the organization should devise checks
for the information system control.
Maintenance is closely related to control. There are times when the need for
improvements to the system will be discovered. Formal methods for changing and
documenting changes must be provided.
(v) Evaluation of MIS : An effective MIS should be capable of meeting the information
requirements of its executives in future as well. This capability can be maintained by
evaluating the MIS and taking appropriate timely action. The evaluation of MIS should
take into account the following points.
 Examining whether enough flexibility exists in the system, to cope with any
expected or unexpected information requirement in future.
 Ascertaining the views of users and the designers about the capabilities and
deficiencies of the system.
 Guiding the appropriate authority about the steps to be taken to maintain
effectiveness of MIS.
(V) Constraints in operating a MIS : Major constraints which come in the way of operating
an information system are the following :
(i) Non-availability of experts, who can diagnose the objectives of the organization and
provide a desired direction for installing and operating system. This problem may be
overcome by grooming internal staff, which should be preceded by proper selection and
training.
(ii) Experts usually face the problem of selecting the sub-system of MIS to be installed and
operated upon. The criteria, which should guide the experts depend upon the need and
importance of a function for which MIS can be installed first.
(iii) Due to varied objectives of business concerns, the approach adopted by experts for
designing and implementing MIS is a non-standardized one.
(iv) Non-availability of cooperation from staff is a crucial problem which should be handled
tactfully. This task should be carried out by organizing lecturers, showing films and also
explaining to them the utility of the system. Besides this, some persons should also be
involved in the development and implementation of the system.

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(VI) Effects of using Computer for MIS : The effect of applying computer technology to
information system can be listed as below :
(i) Speed of processing and retrieval of data increases : Modern business situations are
characterized by high degree of complexity, keen competition and high risk and reward
factors. This invariably calls for systems capable for providing relevant information with
minimum loss of time. Manual systems, howsoever well organized, often fail to match the
demand for information for decision making. Computer with its unbelievably fast
computational capability and systematic storage of information with random access facility
has accounted as a major factor in inducing MIS development.
(ii) Scope of analysis widened : The use of computer can provide multiple type of information
accurately and in no time to decision makers. Such information equips an executive to carry
out a thorough analysis of the problems and to arrive at the final decision. Computer is
capable of providing various types of sales reports for example; area wise sales commission
of each salesman, product-wise sales, etc. Which are quite useful in analyzing the sales
department working and to ascertain their weaknesses so that adequate measures may be
taken in time. In this way, the use of computer has widened the scope of analysis.
(iii) Complexity of system design and operation increased : The need for highly processed
and sophisticated information based on multitudes of variables has made the designing of the
system quite complex. The computer manufacturers have developed some important
programs (software) that can perform the task of developing programs to cater to the
specialized needs of their customers, either on consultancy basis or on contract.
(iv) Integrates the working of different information sub-system : A suitable structure of MIS
may be a federation of information sub-system, viz., production, material, marketing, finance,
engineering and personnel. Each of these sub-systems are required to provide information to
support operational control, management control and strategic planning. Such information
may be made available from a common-data-base that meet out the information requirements
of different information sub-system by utilizing the services of computers for storing,
processing, analyzing and providing such information as and when required.
(v) Increases the effectiveness of Information system : Information received in time is of
immense value and importance to a concern. Prior to the use of computer technology for
information purposes, it was difficult to provide the relevant information to business executives
in time even after incurring huge expenses. But now with the use of computer technology, it is
not difficult to provide timely, accurate and desired information for the purpose of decision
making.
(vi) More comprehensive information : The use of computer for MIS enabled systems expert to
provide more comprehensive information to executives on business matters.
(VII) Limitations of MIS : The main limitations of MIS are as follows :
(i) The quality of the outputs of MIS is basically governed by the quantity of input and
processes.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.29

(ii) MIS is not a substitute for effective management which means that it cannot replace
managerial judgment in making decisions in different functional areas. It is merely an
important tool in the hands of executives for decision making and problem solving.
(iii) MIS may not have requisite flexibility to quickly update itself with the changing needs of
time, especially in fast changing and complex environment.
(iv) MIS cannot provide tailor-made information packages suitable for the purpose of every
type of decision made by executives.
(v) MIS takes into account mainly quantitative factors, thus it ignores the non-quantitative
factors like morale and attitude of members of organization, which have an important
bearing on the decision making process of executives.
(vi) MIS is less useful for making non-programmed decisions. Such type of decisions are not
of the routine type and thus require information, which may not be available from existing
MIS to executives.
(vii) The effectiveness of MIS is reduced in organizations, where the culture of hoarding
information and not sharing with other holds.
(viii) MIS effectiveness decreases due to frequent changes in top management, organizational
structure and operational team.

1.9.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is one of the latest high-end solutions that seek to
streamline and integrate operation processes and information flows in the company to
synergize the five major resources of an organization namely men, money, machine, materials
and market. Formally, ERP can be defined as follows :
“An ERP system is a fully integrated business management system that integrates the core
business and management processes to provide an organization a structured environment in
which decisions concerning demand, supply, operational, personnel, finance, logistics etc. are
fully supported by accurate and reliable real-time information.”
(I) Objectives : The major objectives of ERP are to
- provide support for adopting best business practices
- implement these practices with a view towards enhancing productivity and
- empower the customers and suppliers to modify the implemented business
processes to suit their needs.
An ERP system integrates various business processes as shown in Fig. 1.9.3.
(a) Business System : It includes the following aspects - Business Forecasting for product/
market groups; Target fixing and allocation by key parameters; Strategy formulation and
implementation; Resource allocation to key result areas; Strategy monitoring and control
and Information-based management for management applications.

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(b) Production : It includes the following aspects - Production planning and control; Work
processes; Purchasing and procurement system; Inventory management; Inventory
analysis and valuation; Excise/ custom interface; and Production information systems for
production applications.
(c) Maintenance : It includes the following aspects - Plant maintenance planning;
Breakdown, preventive, and conditional maintenance; Maintenance management –
initiation, execution, control and costing; Monitoring performance of maintenance action;
Maintenance contract management; and Maintenance information systems for
maintenance applications.
(d) Quality Control : It includes the following aspects - Quality assessment against
standards; Quality assessment by process, materials, and work center location; Analysis
of quality by reasons and actions taken; Building quality assurance data for
equipment/process/ technology selection; Monitoring quality across the organization from
input to output for operating decisions and business decisions; and Quality control
information systems for quality control applications.
Business System

Central Database

Organization Employees
Job / Project Management

Fixed Assets
Production Accounts Receivable
Marketing
Accounts Payable

Maintenance Logistics Finance

Inventory
Budgetary System

Quality Control Cost Accounting Personnel

General Ledger

Consolidation of Business Operations

Fig. 1.9.3 : Enterprise Resource Planning Model

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.31

(e) Marketing : It includes the following aspects - Market/customer/product analysis; Sales

forecasting and budgeting; Marketing research information; Distribution and channel
management; Order processing and analysis; Finished good store management;
Dispatching and invoicing; Accounts receivable analysis and management; and
Marketing information systems for marketing applications.
(f) Finance : It includes the following aspects - Financial planning and control; Management
of long-term funds and working capital management; Ledgers, payables and receivables;
Financial statement analysis; Cost accounting – cost center accounting and product /
process costing; Cost analysis for management decisions; Tax management; Finance
information systems for finance applications.
(g) Personnel : It includes the following aspects - Human resource planning, recruitment,
and training; Employee performance appraisal and upgradation; Job evaluation and
compensation management; Employee benefits and incentives; Employee health and
safety; Disciplinary measures; Maintaining industrial peace; Personnel information
systems for personnel applications.
(h) Consolidation of Business Operations : It includes the following aspects - Accounting
by units and divisions with local focus; Consolidation by accounts in corporate functions;
Comprehensive reporting systems for business decisions.
(II) Myths of ERP System : Some of the misconceptions about ERP System are as follows :
(i) There is a misconception that ERP is a computer system. Even though computers and
Information technology are integral parts of an ERP system, ERP is primarily an
enterprise-wide system which encompasses corporate mission; objectives; attitudes;
beliefs; values; operating style; and people who make the organization.
(ii) There is a misconception that ERP is relevant for manufacturing organizations only. In
contrast, ERP system is not limited to any particular industry segment but is relevant for
all types of business activities which include manufacturing as well as services.
(III) Characteristics of ERP System : Some of the characteristics of ERP System are as
follows :
(i) Flexible : ERP is a flexible system which may cover different languages, currencies, and
accounting standards etc. Functions that comprehensively manage multiple locations of
an organization can be packaged and implemented automatically.
(ii) Modular and Open : ERP system is modular and open which implies that any module
can be interfaced or detached, whenever required, without affecting the other modules. It
supports multiple hardware platforms for the organizations having heterogeneous
collection of systems and also supports third party add-ons also by providing access to
open database connectivity through the use of client/ server technology.
(iii) Integrated : ERP is an integrated system as it provides data automation – automatic
data exchange among different applications - that takes place between related business
components. The data of related business functions are automatically updated at the

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time a transaction occurs. Due to this feature, one is able to grasp business details in
real time, and carry out various types of management decisions in a timely manner.
(iv) Best Business Practices : ERP aims at adopting best business practices applicable
worldwide and imposes its own logic on an organization’s strategy and its
implementation. Best business practices available worldwide can also be adopted by an
organization through benchmarking which is the process of identifying, understanding,
and adapting outstanding practices from other organizations to help improve
performance.
(IV) Features of ERP : Some of the major features of ERP and what ERP can do for the
business system are as follows:
(i) ERP provides multi-platform, multi-facility, multi-code manufacturing, multi currency, and
multi-lingual facilities.
(ii) It supports strategic and business planning activities, operational planning and execution
activities and creation of resources. All these functions are effectively integrated for flow
and updation of information immediately upon entry of any information.
(iii) It has end-to-end Supply Chain Management (SCM) to optimize the overall demand and
supply of data.
(iv) It facilitates organization-wide integrated information system covering all functional areas
like – production, marketing, finance and accounting and human resources.
(v) It performs core activities and increases customer service, thereby augmenting the
corporate image.
(vi) It bridges the information gap across organizations.
(vii) It provides complete integration of system not only across departments but also across
companies under the same management.
(viii) It allows automatic introduction of the latest technologies like electronic funds transfer
(EFT), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), Internet, Video conferencing, Electronic
commerce (E-Commerce) etc.
(ix) It eliminates most of the business problems like material shortage, productivity
enhancement, customer service, cash management, inventory management, quality
management, prompt delivery etc.
It provides intelligent business tools like decision support systems, executive information
systems, data mining and easy working systems to enable better decision making.
(V) Benefits of ERP : There are numerous benefits of ERP which can be categorized into
following groups:
(i) Better use of Organizational Resources : ERP enables an organization to make better
use of its resources which are scarce by their nature. Making better use of these
resources is possible because ERP offers a model which indicates where the resources

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find best usage and how resources can be managed in that particular usage to produce
the best result. Thus, through the application of ERP, organizational resources are put at
a place where they have their optimum utilization.
(ii) Lower Operating Costs : ERP results into lower operating costs to the organization.
Lowering operating costs is possible because of improved business performance through
cycle time reduction, inventory reduction, order fulfillment improvement, increased
business agility, etc. Lower operating costs mean improved profitability for the
organization.
(iii) Proactive Decision Making : In today’s competitive and dynamic environment, there is a
need for proactive decision making rather than the reactive decision making. A proactive
decision-making process emphasis that decisions must be made in advance of likely
environmental changes and anticipated competitive moves by competitors.
(iv) Decentralized Decision Making : ERP enables an organization to decentralize its
decision-making process. Thus, decisions are made at those points at which these are
relevant for execution. Due to faster processing technology and structured query
language (SQL), managers can see the information in their own perspective. Further,
with intelligent ERP downloads, decisions can be made even at lower management
levels. Thereby releasing the burden on higher management levels and freeing them for
strategic thinking.
(v) Enhanced customer Satisfaction : To compete effectively in today’s marketplace,
organizations must focus on their customers. Customers have become increasingly
aggressive in demanding quality and service because they have a wide range of choices.
This requires organizations to define end-to-end approach for managing customers’
requests. ERP provides the way for this in the form of efficient and effective processing
of requests and emphasizing customer relationship management.
(vi) Flexibility in Business Operations : ERP provides flexibility in business operations,
which is required to adjust according to environmental needs. In order to take care of
changing needs , an organization has to design its business operations in such a way
that enables these operations to change according to environmental needs. ERP
provides flexibility in business operations because different languages, currencies,
accounting standards, etc. cab be covered in one system.
(VI) Limitations of ERP : Though ERP system has many benefits, it has some limitations
which are as follows :
(i) An ERP system provides current status only, such as open orders, Managers often need
to look at past along with the current status to identify trends ad patterns that aid better
decision making.
(ii) The methods used in the ERP applications are not integrated with other organizational or
divisional systems. Further, they do not include external intelligence.

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ERP packages are integrated software packages, covering all business finances that support
the ERP operations. An ERP software is designed to model and automate many of the basic
processes of a company with the objective of integrating information across the company.
Some major ERP packages available in Indian market are as SAP, Oracle Applications,
Ramco Marshals, eBPCs, Activera and Baan ERP.

1.10 MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEMS (MSS)

Management Support Systems (MSS) focus on the managerial uses of information
resources and provide information to managers for planning and decision making. The
information provided by these systems is based on both the internal and external data using
various data analysis tools. There are three types of MSS, namely :
 Decision Support Systems (DSS)
 Executive Information (Support) System (EIS)
 Expert Systems

1.10.1 Decision Support Systems (DSS)

(I) What is a DSS?
Decision Support Systems (DSS) are a specific class of computerized information system
that supports business and organizational decision-making activities. A properly-designed
DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful
information from raw data, documents, personal knowledge, and/or business models to
identify and solve problems and make decisions.
Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present would be
- an inventory of all the current information assets (including legacy and relational data
sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts) of an organization;
- comparative sales figures between one week and the next,
- projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions;
- the consequences of different decision alternatives, given past experience in a context
that is described.
In other words, a Decision Support System (DSS) can be defined as a system that provides
tools to managers to assist them in solving semi-structured and unstructured problems in their
own, somewhat personalized, way. A DSS is not intended to make decisions for managers,
but rather to provide managers with a set of capabilities that enable them to generate the
information required by them in making decisions. In other words, a DSS supports the human
decision-making process, rather than providing a means to replace it.
Programmed Decision Systems : Systems that replace human decision making rather than
support it are sometimes called Programmed Decision Systems. These systems are used to

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make routine, structured decisions, such as approving loans or credit, reordering inventory,
triggering reminder notices, and selecting audit samples. In programmed decision systems,
the focus is on doing something more efficiently, whereas in DSS, the focus is on helping
decision makers become more effective.
(II) Characteristics of DSS : The DSS are characterized by at least three properties:
 They support semi-structured or unstructured decision-making.
 They are flexible enough to respond to the changing needs of decision makers, and
 They are easy to use.
(i) Semi-structured and Unstructured Decisions : Structured decisions are those that are
easily made from a given set of inputs. These types of decisions such as deciding to
issue a reminder notice if a bill is overdue or deciding to sell a stock under a given set of
market conditions can be programmed fairly easily. Unstructured decisions and semi-
structured decisions, however, are decisions for which information obtained from a
computer system is only a portion of the total knowledge needed to make the decision.
The DSS is particularly well adapted to help with semi-structured and unstructured decisions.
However, it can be designed to support structured decision making as well. A manager, for
instance, can browse through data at will (perhaps at a display terminal). When enough
information is gathered from this process to supplement other information (perhaps some of it
may be non computer-based), a decision can be reached.

Define and Formulate Problem

Frame problem into DSS Model

Use Model to obtain results

Reformulate Problem
Fig. 1.10.1 : Steps in solving a problem with DSS

In Fig. 1.10.1, it is shown how a semi-structured problem might be solved by using a DSS.
 Firstly, the problem is defined and formulated.
 It is then modeled with DSS software.
 Next, the model is run on the computer to provide results. The modeler, in reviewing
these results, might decide to completely reformulate the problem, refine the model, or
use the model to obtain other results.

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For example, a user might define a problem that involves simulating cash flows under a variety
of business conditions by using financial modeling software. The DSS model is then run,
providing results. Depending on what the results of the model indicate about cash flow, the
user might decide to completely remodel the problem, make small modifications to the current
model, run the model under a number of new assumptions, or accept the results. For instance,
if the model revealed inadequate cash flows to support organizational operations, model
modifications should be developed and run. The modification process might continue for
several interactions until an acceptable cash flow is identified.
(ii) Flexibility to adapt to changing needs : Semi-structured and unstructured decisions
often do not conform to a predefined set of decision-making rules. Because of this, their
DSS must provide for enough flexibility to enable users to model their own information
needs and should also be capable of adapting to changing information needs.
The DSS designer understands that managers usually do not know in advance what
information they need and, even if they do, those information needs keep changing
constantly. Thus, rather than locking the system into rigid information producing
requirements, capabilities and tools are provided by DSS to enable users to meet their
own output needs.
(iii) Ease of Learning and Use : Since DSS are often built and operated by users rather
than by computer professionals, the tools that accompany them should be relatively easy
to learn and use. Such software tools employ user-oriented interfaces such as grids,
graphics, non-procedural fourth – generation languages (4GL), natural English, and
easily read documentation, thus making it easier for users to conceptualize and perform
the decision-making process.
(III) Components of DSS (see Fig. 1.10.2) A decision support system has four basic
components listed below :
(i) The user : The user of a Decision Support System is usually a manager with an
unstructured or semi-structured problem to solve. Manager and staff specialist (analyst)
are the two broad classes of users. Typically, users do not need a computer background
to use a decision support system for problem solving. The most important knowledge is a
thorough understanding of the problem and the factors to be considered in finding a
solution.
 Manager : These are the users who have basic computer knowledge and want the
DSS to be very user friendly. The manager may be at any level of authority in the
organization (e.g., either top management or operating management).
 Staff Specialist (Analysts) : These are the people who are more details oriented
and willing to use complex system in their day to day work.

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(ii) Databases : Decision Support Systems include one or more databases that contain both
routine and non-routine data from both internal and external sources. The data from
external sources include data about the operating environment surrounding an
organization – for example, data about economic conditions, market demand for the
organization’s goods or services, and industry competition.
Decision support system

Corporate
database

Dialogue system,
often using a User
planning language database

DSS
User with a difficult, model
unstructured problem base

Fig. 1.10.2 : DSS Components

Decision Support System users may construct additional databases themselves. Some of the
data may come from internal sources. An organization often generates this type of data in the
normal course of operations – for example, data from the financial and managerial accounting
systems such as account, transaction, and planning data. The database may also capture
data from other subsystems such as marketing, production, and personnel. External data
include assumptions about such variables as interest rates, vacancy rates, market prices, and
levels of competition.
Implementation of Database : Database is implemented at three levels as listed below :
(a) Physical level : It involves the implementation of the database on the hard disk i.e.
storage of data in the hard disk. The management of storage and access is controlled by
operating system.
(b) Logical Level : It is designed by professional programs, who have complete knowledge
of DBMS. It deals with the nature of data stored, the scheme of the data. Storage which
is logically divided into various tables having rows and columns and the techniques for
defining relationships with indexes.

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(c) External level : The logical level defines schema which is divided into smaller units
known as sub-schemas and given to the managers each sub-schema containing all
relevant data needed by one manager.
(iii) Planning languages : Two types of planning languages that are commonly used in
Decision Support Systems are – General-purpose planning languages and Special-
purpose planning languages.
 General-purpose planning languages that allow users to perform many routine tasks
– for example, retrieving various data from a database or performing statistical
analyses. The languages in most electronic spreadsheets are good examples of
general-purpose planning languages. These languages enable user to tackle a
broad range of budgeting, forecasting, and other worksheet-oriented problems.
 Special-purpose planning languages are more limited in what they can do, but they
usually do certain jobs better than the general-purpose planning languages. Some
statistical languages, such as SAS and SPSS, are examples of special purpose
planning languages.
(iv) Model base : The planning language in a DSS allows the user to maintain a dialogue
with the model base which is the “brain” of DSS because it performs data manipulations
and computations with the data provided to it by the user and the database. There are
many types of model bases, but most of them are custom-developed models that do
some types of mathematical functions - for example, cross tabulation, regression
analysis, time series analysis, linear programming and financial computations. The
analysis provided by the routines in the model base is the key to supporting the user’s
decision.
(IV) Examples of Decision Support Systems in Accounting
Many DSS are developed in-house using either a general type of decision support program or
a spreadsheet program to solve specific problems. Below are several illustrations of these
systems.
 Cost Accounting System : The health care industry is well known for its cost
complexity. Managing costs in this industry require controlling costs of supplies,
expensive machinery, technology, and a variety of personnel. Cost accounting
applications help health care organizations calculate product costs for individual
procedures or services. One health care organization, for example, combines a variety of
DSS applications in productivity, cost accounting, case mix, and nursing staff scheduling
to improve its management decision making.
 Capital Budgeting System : Companies require new tools to evaluate high-technology
investment decisions. Decision makers need to supplement analytical techniques, such
as net present value and internal rate of return, with decision support tools that consider
some benefits of new technology not captured in strict financial analysis. One DSS
designed to support decisions about investments in automated manufacturing technology
is AutoMan, which allows decision makers to consider financial, nonfinancial,

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.39

quantitative, and qualitative factors in their decision-making processes. Using this

decision support system, accountants, managers, and engineers identify and prioritize
these factors. They can then evaluate up to seven investment alternatives at once.
 Budget Variance Analysis System : Financial institutions rely heavily on their
budgeting systems for controlling costs and evaluating managerial performance. One
institution uses a computerized DSS to generate monthly variance reports for division
comptrollers. The system allows these comptrollers to graph, view, analyze, and
annotate budget variances, as well as create additional one-and five-year budget
projections using the forecasting tools provided in the system. The decision support
system thus helps the comptrollers create and control budgets for the cost-center
managers reporting to them.
 General Decision Support System : As mentioned earlier, some planning languages
used in decision support systems are general purpose and therefore have the ability to
analyze many different types of problems. In a sense, these types of decision support
systems are a decision-maker’s tools. The user needs to input data and answer
questions about a specific problem domain to make use of this type of decision support
system. An example is a program called Expert Choice which supports a variety of
problems requiring decisions. The user works interactively with the computer to develop
a hierarchical model of the decision problem. The decision support system then asks the
user to compare decision variables with each other. For instance, the system might ask
the user how important cash inflows are versus initial investment amount to a capital
budgeting decision. The decision maker also makes judgments about which investment is
best with respect to these cash flows and which requires the smallest initial investment.
Expert Choice analyzes these judgments and presents the decision maker with the best
alternative.

1.10.2 Executive Information Systems (EIS)

An Executive Information System (EIS) – sometimes referred to as an Executive Support
System (ESS) – is a DSS that is designed to meet the special needs of top-level managers.
Some people use the terms “EIS” and “ESS” inter changeably, but others do not. Any
distinction between the two usually is because Executive Support Systems are likely to
incorporate additional capabilities such as electronic mail. In this section, we first cover those
people in organizations that are considered to be executives and examine the types of
decisions they make.
Executives : An executive can probably best be described as a manager at or near the top of
the organizational hierarchy who exerts a strong influence on the course taken by the
organization. The slots in a firm considered to be executive positions vary from company to
company. For example, in many firms, the Chief Information Officer (CIO) is usually an
executive who participates in key strategic decisions. In other firms, the CIO is a middle
manager (who often has a title other than CIO). And sometimes, the person in charge of an
organization’s CBIS is basically a data processing director.

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(I) Characteristics of EIS : Some of the characteristics of EIS are as follows :

(i) EIS is a Computer-based-information system that serves the information need of top
executives.
(ii) EIS enables users to extract summary data and model complex, problems without the
need to learn query languages statistical formulas or high computing skills.
(iii) EIS provides rapid access to timely information and direct access to management
reports.
(iv) EIS is capable of accessing both internal and external data.
(v) EIS provides extensive online analysis tool like trend analysis, market conditions etc.
(vi) EIS can easily be given a DSS support for decision making.
(II) Executive Roles and Decision Making : Most executive decisions fall into one of three
classes : Strategic planning, Tactical planning, and “Fire-fighting” activities (see Fig. 1.10.3).
Also, executives need a certain degree of control to ensure that these activities are carried out
properly.
 Strategic Planning : Strategic planning involves determining the general, long-range
direction of the organization. Typically, the CEO is ultimately responsible for the
development of strategic plans.

Performance of firm

Executive data bank

Transaction
processing
data

External Strategic Tactical Other areas

Internal planning planning
environment of firm
Projections

Fire-
External fighting
data
The organization

Fig. 1.10.3 : A data flow representation of the executive

decision-planning environment.
 Tactical Planning : Whereas strategic planning addresses the general concerns of the
firm, tactical planning refers to the how, when, where, and what issues involved with
carrying out the strategic plan. Although executives will not normally be concerned with
tactical details, they do need to worry about general tactics. For example, the vice-
president of finance must address how the firm can best achieve a balance between debt

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and equity financing. And the marketing vice-president will need to consider which
classes of products the company should produce to be successful in the marketplace.
 Fire Fighting : Major problems arise sometimes that must be resolved by someone at an
executive level. For example, if a company is involved in a big lawsuit that threatens its
financial solvency, an executive must get involved. Other possible fire-fighting activities
include damage caused to a major facility, the announcement of an important product by
a competitor, a strike, and a sharp reversal of the economy. Many of these events will
call for key alterations in plans.
In addition to planning and fire-fighting, executive management also needs to exert some
general control over the organization. For example, if the strategic plan calls for a 20 percent
increase in profitability, feedback is needed to ensure that certain actions taken within the
organization are accomplishing that objective. Thus, executives will also periodically review
key performance data to see how they compare against planned amounts.
(III) The Executive Decision-Making Environment : The type of decisions that executives
must make is broad. Often, executives make these decisions based on a vision they have
regarding what it will take to make their companies successful. To a large extent, executives
rely much more on their own intuition than on the sophisticated analytical skills. The intuitive
character of executive decision-making is reflected strongly in the types of information found
most useful to executives. Five characteristics of the types of information used in executive
decision making are-lack of structure, high degree of uncertainty, future orientation, informal
source, and low level of detail. These are discussed below:
 Lack of structure : Many of the decisions made by executives are relatively
unstructured. These types of decisions are not as clear-cut as deciding how to debug a
computer program or how to deal with an overdue account balance. Also, it is not always
obvious which data are required or how to weigh available data when reaching a
decision.
 High degree of uncertainty : Executives work in a decision space that is often
characterized by a lack of precedent. For example, when the Arab oil embargo hit in
mid-1970s, no such previous event could be referenced for advice. Executives also work
in a decision space where results are not scientifically predictable from actions. If prices
are lowered, for instance, product demand will not automatically increase.
 Future orientation : Strategic-planning decisions are made in order to shape future
events. As conditions change, organizations must change also. It is the executive’s
responsibility to make sure that the organization keeps pointed toward the future. Some
key questions about the future include : “How will future technologies affect what the
company is currently doing? What will the competition (or the government) do next?
What products will consumers demand five years from now?” As one can see, the
answers to all of these questions about the future external environment are vital.
 Informal Source : Executives, more than other types of managers, rely heavily on
informal source for key information. For example, lunch with a colleague in another firm

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might reveal some important competitor strategies. Informal sources such as television
might also feature news of momentous concern to the executive – news that he or she
would probably never encounter in the company’s database or in scheduled computer
reports.
 Low level of detail : Most important executive decisions are made by observing broad
trends. This requires the executive to be more aware of the large overview than the tiny
items. Even so, many executives insist that the answers to some questions can only be
found by mucking through details.
Executive Information Traditional Information
Dimensions of Difference
System System
Level of management For top or near top executives. For lower staff.

Nature of Information Access Specific issues/problems and Status reporting

aggregate reports
Nature of information Online tools and analysis. Offline status reporting.
provided
Information Sources More external, less internal Internal

Drill down facility to go Available. Not available

through details at successive
Information format Text with graphics Tabular

Nature of interface User-friendly Computer-operator

generated.
Table 1.10.1 : EIS vs Traditional Information Systems
As shown in Table 1.10.1, Executive Information Systems differ from Traditional Information
Systems in the following ways :
 Information tends to be presented by pictorial or graphical means.
 Information is presented in summary format, e.g. sales for the whole company. There is,
however, the facility to ‘drill down’ to other levels of information to see how the sale figure
were arrived at -by geographical location, by product group etc.
The powerful focus of an EIS is due to the saying “what gets measured gets done.” Managers
are particularly attentive to concrete information about their performance when it is available
to their superiors. This focus is very valuable to an organization if the information reported is
actually important and represents a balanced view of the organization’s objectives.
Misaligned reporting systems can result in inordinate management attention to things that are
not important or to things which are important but to the exclusion of other equally important
things. For example, a production reporting system might lead managers to emphasize volume

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.43

of work done rather than quality of work. Worse yet, productivity might have little to do with the
organization's overriding customer service objectives.
(IV) Contents of EIS : A general answer to the question of what data is appropriate for
inclusion in an Executive Information System is “whatever is interesting to executives".
EIS implementations begin with just a few measures that are clearly of interest to senior
managers, and then expand in response to questions asked by those managers as they use
the system. Over time, the presentation of this information becomes stale, and the information
diverges from what is strategically important for the organization.
While the above indicates that selection of data for inclusion in an EIS is difficult, there are
several guidelines that help to make that assessment. A practical set of principles to guide the
design of measures and indicators to be included in an EIS is presented below :
(i) EIS measures must be easy to understand and collect. Wherever possible, data should
be collected naturally as part of the process of work. An EIS should not add substantially
to the workload of managers or staff.
(ii) EIS measures must be based on a balanced view of the organization's objective. Data in
the system should reflect the objectives of the organization in the areas of productivity,
resource management, quality and customer service.
(iii) Performance indicators in an EIS must reflect everyone's contribution in a fair and
consistent manner. Indicators should be as independent as possible from variables
outside the control of managers.
(iv) EIS measures must encourage management and staff to share ownership of the
organization's objectives. Performance indicators must promote both team-work and
friendly competition. Measures will be meaningful for all staff; people must feel that they,
as individuals, can contribute to improving the performance of the organization.
(v) EIS information must be available to everyone in the organization. The objective is to
provide everyone with useful information about the organization's performance.
Information that must remain confidential should not be part of the EIS or the
management system of the organization.
(vi) EIS measures must evolve to meet the changing needs of the organization.

1.10.3 Expert Systems

An Expert System is highly developed DSS that utilizes knowledge generally possessed by
an expert to share a problem. Expert System are software systems that imitate the reasoning
processes of human experts and provide decision makers with the type of advice they would
normally receive from such expert systems. For instance, an expert system in the area of
investment portfolio management might ask its user a number of specific questions relating to
investments for a particular client like – how much can be invested. Does the client have any
preferences regarding specific types of securities? And so on.
A characteristic of expert systems is the ability to declare or explain the reasoning process
that was used to make decisions.

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Some of the business applications of Expert Systems are as follows :

(i) Accounting and Finance : It provides tax advice and assistance, helping with credit-
authorization decisions, selecting forecasting models, Providing investment advice.
(ii) Marketing : It provides establishing sales quotas, responding to customer inquiries,
referring problems to telemarketing centers, assisting with marketing timing decisions,
determining discount policies.
(iii) Manufacturing : It helps in determining whether a process is running correctly,
analyzing quality and providing corrective measures, maintaining facilities, scheduling
job-shop tasks, selecting transportation routes, assisting with product design and faculty
layouts.
(iv) Personnel : It is useful in assessing applicant qualifications, giving employees assisting
at filling out forms
(v) General Business : It helps in assisting with project proposals, recommending
acquisition strategies, educating trainees, evaluating performance.
(I) Need for Expert Systems
(i) Expert labor is expensive and scarce. Knowledge workers employee who routinely work
with data and information to carry out their day to day duties are not easy to find and
keep and companies are often faced with a shortage of talent in key positions.
(ii) Moreover, no matter how bright or knowledgeable certain people are, they often can
handle only a few factors at a time.
Both these limitations imposed by human information processing capability and the rushed
pace at which business is conducted today put a practical limit on the quality of human
decision making this putting a need for expert systems.
(II) Benefits of Expert Systems
(i) Expert Systems preserve knowledge that might be lost through retirement resignation or
death of an acknowledged company expert.
(ii) Expert Systems put information into an active-form so it can be summoned almost as a
real-life expert might be summoned.
(iii) Expert Systems assist novices in thinking the way experienced professional do.
(iv) Expert Systems are not subject to such human fallings as fatigue, being too busy, or
being emotional.
(v) Expert Systems can be effectively used as a strategic tool is the areas of marketing
products, cutting costs and improving products.
Still Expert Systems are not always the answer to managerial or organizational problems.
Some of the properties that potential applications should posses to qualify for Expert System
development are as follows:

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.45

(i) Availability : One or more experts are capable of communicating how they go about
solving the problems to which the Expert System will be applied.
(ii) Complexity : Solution of the problems for which the Expert Systems will be used is a
complex task that requires logical inference processing, which would not be easily
handled by conventional information processing.
(iii) Domain : The domain, or subject area, of the problem is relatively small and limited to a
relatively well-defined problem area.
(iv) Expertise : Solutions to the problem require the efforts of experts. That is, only a few
possess the knowledge, techniques, and intuition needed.
(v) Structure : The solution process must be able to cope with ill-structured, uncertain,
missing, and conflicting data, and a dynamic problem-solving situation.
(III) Components of Expert Systems
An Expert System provides tools, information and methods for decision making in specific
areas such as systems which generate competitive bids, systems to support loan approved,
systems to support draining in specialized areas where experts are is scarcity and so on.
An Expert System is typically composed of the Knowledge Base, Inference Engine, the
Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem and the User Interface.
(i) Knowledge Base (KB)
The knowledge base stores the rules data and relationships that are used to solve
problems and contains specific facts about the expert area. For instance, the example
where an insurance agent needs both expert tax and financial advice is a good candidate
for an Expert System with two knowledge bases. With such a system, a set of rules must
be developed to bridge the knowledge bases and resolve any conflicts.
The knowledge acquired from the expert has to be represented formally that deals with
the structuring of the information, how to manipulate it to infer additional data, and
knowledge acquisition. The power of a system tends to be related to the depth and
breadth of the knowledge in the knowledge base. There are several types of
representation techniques, like - Production Rule Systems, a Structured Object and
Predicate Calculus or Logic.
(ii) Inference Engine
The inference engine is the main processing element consisting of system of programs
that requests data from the user, manipulates the knowledge base and provides a
decision to the user. It performs this task in order to deduce new facts, which are then
used to draw further conclusions. The inference engine is the active component of an
expert system since it steers through knowledge and progresses the whole interaction.
The inference engine chooses rules from the agenda to fire.
There are, in fact, various techniques which model different reasoning methods; these include
backward and forward chaining; some operate with both.

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1.46 Information Systems Control and Audit

 A forward-chaining mechanism first examines the KB and the problem at hand; then, it
attempts to discover a solution. For instance, a medical Expert System may be used to
examine a patient’s symptoms and provide a diagnosis based on the symptomology, the
Expert System might locate several diseases that the patient may here.
 With backward chaining, on the other hand, the Inference Engine starts with a
hypothesis or goal, which it then checks against the facts and rules in the knowledge
base for consistency. So, for instance, the Expert System might be given the goal to “find
this patient’s disease(s) and would work back from there, asking questions as necessary
to confirm or a refute candidate diagnoses”.
(iii) Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem (KAS)
The Knowledge Acquisition Subsystem is the software component of an Expert System
that enables the Knowledge Engineer (KE) a specialized systems analyst responsible for
designing and maintaining the expert System to build and refine an expert systems
knowledge base. The KE works with the knowledge acquisition subsystem to model
decision logic, derive industries and update the knowledge base.
Knowledge base development and maintenance can be done using special, reasonably
user-friendly software. This software provides a convenient and efficient means of
capturing and storing the contents of the knowledge base. Users are often presented with
easy-to-operate menus and templates for entering rules, facts and relationship among
facts. Once these are entered the software correctly stores the information in the
knowledge base. Such software notes it much easier and less expensive to develop,
update and refine the KB.
(iv) User Interface
A user interface is the method by which an expert system interacts with a user. These
can be through dialog boxes, command prompts, forms, or other input methods. Some
expert systems interact with other computer applications, and do not interact directly with
a human. In these cases, the expert system will have an interaction mechanism for
transactions with the other application, and will not have a user interface.
In most instances, the Expert System prompts the user to supply information about the
problem and the user types in the requested data. The data entered are examined by the
interface engine and compared to the facts, rules and relationships in the knowledge
base. This examination and comparison process results in the system continuing to
prompt the user for more information until the system has enough data about the current
problem so that it can reach a conclusion. Thus the user interface for an Expert System
is highly interactive.

1.11 OFFICE AUTOMATION SYSTEMS (OAS)

Office Automation System (OAS) are among the newest and most rapidly expanding
computer based information systems. Different office activities can be broadly grouped into
the following types of operations:

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(i) Document Capture : Documents originating from outside sources like incoming mails,
notes, handouts, charts, graphs etc. need to be preserved.
(ii) Document Creation : This consists of preparation of documents, dictation, editing of
texts etc. and takes up major part of the secretary’s time.
(iii) Receipts and Distribution : This basically includes distribution of correspondence to
designated recipients.
(iv) Filling, Search, Retrieval and Follow up : This is related to filling, indexing, searching
of documents, which takes up significant time.
(v) Calculations : These include the usual calculator functions like routine arithmetic, operations
for bill passing, interest calculations, working out the percentages and the like.
(vi) Recording Utilization of Resources : This includes, where necessary, record keeping
in respect to specific resources utilized by office personnel.
All the activities mentioned have been made very simple and effective by the use of computers.
The application of computers to handle the office activities is also termed as office automation.
Benefits of Office Automation Systems
(i) Office Automation Systems improve communication within an organization and between
organizations.
(ii) Office Automation Systems reduce the cycle time between preparation of messages and
receipt of messages at the recipients’ end.
(iii) Office Automation Systems reduce the costs of office communication both in terms of
time spent by executives and cost of communication links.
(iv) Office Automation Systems ensure accuracy of communication flows.
Fig. 1.11.1 depicts categories of Computer based Office Automation systems.

Computer Based Office Automation Systems

Text Electronic Electronic Teleconferencing

Processors document message and video
and related management communication conferencing
systems systems systems systems

Fig 1.11.1 : Building Blocks of Office Automation Systems

Each of these Office Automation Systems are briefly described as follows:

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1.48 Information Systems Control and Audit

1.11.1 Text Processing Systems

 Text processing systems are the most commonly used components of the OAS. This is
so because a large proportion of the office communication takes place in writing using
words of a natural language.
 Text processing systems automate the process of development of documents such as
letters, reports, memos etc. They permit use of standard stored information to produce
personalized documents. Such automation reduces keying effort and minimizes the
chances of errors in the document.
 The text processor may be simple word processing systems or desktop publishing
systems. The desktop publishing systems help in quick production of multiple copies of
the document with quality printing.
 The desktop publishing systems are often supported with laser printers, inkjet printers,
scanners and other such devices for producing good quality documents.

1.11.2 Electronic Document Management Systems

 The computer based document management systems are at capturing the information
contained in documents, stored for future reference and communicate the relevant parts
to the users as and when required. These systems are linked to the office automation
systems such as text processors, electronic message communication systems etc.
 These systems are very useful in remote access of documents that is almost impossible
with manual document management systems, For example, a customer may have a
complaint concerning delivery of goods not being in accordance with the delivery
instructions in the order. The computer based document management system would
enable the executive to access the document through his notebook computer connected
to any telephone line and show it to the customer, his order document in the office.
 In the case of internal communication document management systems can prove to be
very useful. For example, the loan application form filed in a branch of a bank can be
accessed by the sanctioning officer for scrutiny at the head office or any office for
scrutiny of loan proposals.
 With computer based document management systems, location of the executive
becomes irrelevant for access to documents. Thus, these systems can be very useful in
an office environment where traveling executives share work space in the office.

1.11.3 Electronic Message Communication Systems

Business enterprises have been using a variety of communication systems for finding and
receiving messages. These include telephone, mail and facsimile (Fax), etc. The computer
based message communication systems offer a lot of economy not only in terms of reduced
time in sending or receiving the message but also in terms of reliability of the message and
cost of communication.

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.49

Components of Message Communication Systems

The three basic components based message communication systems are as follows :
(i) Electronic Mail : Various features of electronic mail are stated below :
 Electronic transmission : The transmission of messages with email is electronic and
message delivery is very quick, almost instantaneous. The confirmation of transmission
is also quick and the reliability is very high.
 Online development and editing : The email message can be developed and edited
online before transmission. The online development and editing eliminates the need for
use of paper in communication. It also facilitates the storage of messages on magnetic
media, thereby reducing the space required to store the messages.
 Broadcasting and Rerouting : Email permits sending a message to a large number of
target recipients. Thus it is easy to send a circular to all branches of a bank using Email
resulting in a lot of saving of paper. The email could e rerouted to people having direct
interest in the message with or without changing or and appending related information to
the message.
 Integration with other Information systems : The E-mail has the advantage of being
integrated with the other information systems. Such an integration helps in ensuring that
the message if accurate and the information required for the message is accesses
quickly.
 Portability : Email renders the physical location of the recipient and sender irrelevant.
The email can be accessed fro any Personal computer equipped with the relevant
communication hardware, software and link facilities.
 Economical : The advancements in communication technologies and competition among
the communication service providers have made Email the most economical mode if
sending messages. Since the speed of transmission is increasing, the time cost on
communication media per page is falling further, adding to the popularity of email. The
email is proving to be very helpful not only for formal communication but also n informal
communication within the business enterprise.
(ii) Facsimile (Fax)
Facsimile (Fax) is electronic communication of images of documents over telephone lines.
The computer based fax technology automates fax communication and permits sharing of fax
facilities. It uses special software and fax servers to send and receive fax messages using
common communication resources. These servers have the ability to receive fax messages
and automatically reroute them to the intended recipient after viewing it at the central
computer, similarly, the managers in an enterprise can leave the fax messages to the server
which will send it to the intended recipient automatically.

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1.50 Information Systems Control and Audit

(iii) Voice Mail

Voice mail a variation of the email in which messages are transmitted as digitized voice. The
recipient of the voice mail has to dial a voice mail service or access the e-mail box using the
specified equipment and he can hear the spoken message in the voice of the sender. The
secured type of voice mail service may require the recipient to enter identification code before
the access is granted to the stored information.

1.11.4 Teleconferencing and Video-conferencing Systems

Teleconferencing is conducted a business meeting involving more than two persons located at
two or more different places. The teleconferencing helps in reducing the time and cost of
meeting as the participants do not have to travel to attend the meeting. Teleconferencing may
be audio or video conferencing with or without use of computer systems.
The computer based teleconferencing has the advantage of flexibility in terms of pre-recorded
presentations and integration with other information systems. These systems are based on
Personal computers featuring a digital camera and run on a visual communication software.
The communication links are still quite expensive making the desktop video conferencing
useful only for selected applications.

References :
1. Davis Olson, Second Edition, Management Information Systems, Mcgraw Hill.
2. Charles Parker & Thomas Case, Management Information System Strategy & Action, IInd
Edition, Mcgraw Hill, 1993.

Self - Examination Questions

1. Define following terms :
(i) System
(ii) System Boundary
(iii) Subsystem
(iv) System Environment
(v) Entropy
2. Differentiate between the following :
(i) Deterministic and Probabilistic systems
(ii) Open and Closed systems
(iii) Sub-system and Supra-system
(iv) Manual System and Automated System.
(v) Executive Information System and Traditional Information systems

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 Information Systems Concepts 1.51

(vi) Internal Information and External Information

(vii) Programmed Decisions and non-programmed decisions
3. Explain the concept of decomposition with the help of an example.
4. What do you mean by Information? Discuss various attributes of information.
5. Explain various types of information systems at various levels of management.
6. What is Decision Support System? Explain, in brief, various characteristics of a DSS.
7. What are the four basic components of a DSS? Explain them.
8. Discuss ERP systems, its model and limitations.
9. What is an Executive Information System?
10. What role do executives play in decision making?
11. Discuss the characteristics of the information used in decision making?
12. What purposes are served by an EIS?
13. What are Office Automation Systems and its categories. Explain in detail.
14. Discuss Expert systems in detail.
15. What do you understand by Operations Support Systems. Discuss its categories in
detail.
16. Discuss Computer based information System and its components in detail with example.
17. What do you understand by Transaction Processing System (TPS)? Discuss is detail.
18. Define Management Information System (MIS) Discuss characteristics of MIS.
19. What are the various misconceptions or myth about MIS.
20. What are the pre-requisites of an effective MIS.
21. How does use of computers in MIS effect an organizations performance.
22. How do you categorize Management Support Systems.

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