PSY001 NOTES

Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

What is Psychology?

Description:

 scientific study of mind and behavior

 The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” (life) and “logos,”
(explanation)
 Psychologists are actively involved in studying and understanding mental processes,
brain functions, and behavior.
 It encompasses the biological influences, social pressures, and environmental
factors that affect how people think, act, and feel.

Where do psychologists work?

 research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the
behavior of humans and animals
 schools and businesses

What are the methods used?

 observation, questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies.

1.1 Psychology as a Science

Scientific Methods

Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists
have one thing in common: They rely on scientific methods.

Research Psychologists

- use scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior
Psychologist-Practitioners
- such as clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists, use
existing research to enhance the everyday life of others.

Do you believe that all humans are scientists?

➢ Problem of Intuition

- is a popular topic in psychology these days, and generally refers to a brain process
that gives people the ability to make decisions without the use of analytical
reasoning, 
- Often, when one explanation for an event seems “right,” we adopt that explanation
as the truth even when other explanations are possible and potentially more
accurate.
- Once we learn about the outcome of a given event (e.g., when we read about the
results of a research project), we frequently believe that we would have been able
to predict the outcome ahead of time.

➢ Why Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods

- Empirical Method- processes of collecting and organizing data and drawing

conclusions about those data
o The empirical methods used by scientists provide a basis for collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data within a common framework in which
information can be shared.
- Scientific Method- set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to
conduct empirical research.

Research can sometimes provide facts that can help people develop their values

VALUES (subjective)

 personal statements
 cannot be considered to be either true or false, science cannot prove or disprove
them

Example:

It is important to quit smoking

FACTS

 objective statements
 when old facts are discarded, they are replaced with new facts based on newer and
more correct data
 Example:

Smoking increases the incidence of cancer and heart disease

Level of Explanation in Psychology

Topic: DEPRESSION

➢ Lower levels of explanation – (biological) tied to biological (life and living) influences,
such as genes, neurons, neurotransmitters, and hormones

- Studying and helping alleviate depression can be accomplished at low levels of

explanation by investigating how chemicals in the brain influence the experience of
depression. This approach has allowed psychologists to develop and prescribe
drugs, such as Prozac, which may decrease depression in many individuals

➢ Middle levels of explanation – (Interpersonal) refer to the abilities and characteristics of

individual people

- At the middle levels of explanation, psychological therapy is directed at helping

individuals cope with negative life experiences that may cause depression.

➢ Highest levels of explanation – (cultural and social) relate to social groups,

organizations, and cultures

- And at the highest level, psychologists study differences in the prevalence of

depression between men and women and across cultures. The occurrence of
psychological disorders, including depression, is substantially higher for women
than for men, and it is also higher in Western cultures, such as in the United States,
Canada, and Europe, than in Eastern cultures, such as in India, China, and Japan.
These sex and cultural differences provide insight into the factors that cause
depression.

No one level of explanation can explain everything.

All levels of explanation, from biological to personal to cultural, are essential for a better
understanding of human behavior.

Challenges of Studying Psychology

➢ Major Goal of Psychology - to predict behavior by understanding its causes

 - Making predictions is difficult in part because people vary and respond differently
in different situations.

➢ Individual differences - variations among people on physical or psychological

dimensions

- For instance, although many people experience at least some symptoms of

depression at some times in their lives, the experience varies dramatically among
people. Some people experience major negative events, such as severe physical
injuries or the loss of significant others, without experiencing much depression,
whereas other people experience severe depression for no apparent reason.

➢ CONS of Predictions:

- almost all behavior is multiply determined, or produced by many factors. You

should always be skeptical about people who attempt to explain important
human behaviors, such as violence, child abuse, poverty, anxiety, or depression,
in terms of a single cause.
- multiple causes are not independent of one another. They are associated such
that when one cause is present other causes tend to be present as well. This
overlap makes it difficult to pinpoint which cause or causes are operating.

➢ Human behavior is caused by factors that are outside our conscious awareness, making
it impossible for us, as individuals, to really understand them.

1.2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions

School of Description Important

psychology contributors
(school of
thought)

Structuralism Uses the method of Wilhelm

introspection to identify the Wundt,
basic elements or “structures” Edward B.
of psychological experience Titchener

Functionalism Attempts to understand why William

animals and humans have James
developed the particular
 psychological aspects that they
currently possess

Psychodynamic Focuses on the role of our Sigmund

unconscious thoughts, feelings, Freud, Carl
and memories and our early Jung, Alfred
childhood experiences in Adler, Erik
determining behavior Erickson

Behaviorism Based on the premise that it is John B.

not possible to objectively Watson, B. F.
study the mind, and therefore Skinner
that psychologists should limit
their attention to the study of
behavior itself

Cognitive The study of mental processes, Hermann

including perception, thinking, Ebbinghaus,
memory, and judgments Sir Frederic
Bartlett, Jean
Piaget

Social-cultural The study of how the social Fritz Heider,

situations and the cultures in Leon
which people find themselves Festinger,
influence thinking and Stanley
behavior Schachter

Table 1.2 The Most Important Approaches (Schools) of Psychology

Figure 1.5 Timeline Showing Some of the Most Important Psychologist

Cont. of Figure 1.5 Timeline Showing Some of the Most Important Psychologist
PROBLEM

Most important questions that psychologists address have remained constant

Nature versus Nurture

- Most scientists now agree that both genes and environment play crucial roles in
most human behaviors
- Nature, refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we
are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics.
- Nurture refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are,
including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social
relationships, and our surrounding culture.

Free will versus Determinism

- Free will is the ability to make a choice when other options are present. Nothing
is predetermined. Instead, we create our own destiny and have the power to
make any decision at any given time. 
- Able to do what we want
- Determinism is the idea that we have no control over our actions. Instead,
internal and external factors determine the choices that we make. Our behavior
is completely predictable. We have no sense of personal responsibility, because
all of our actions are dictated by other things. 
- Belief-Desire-Temperament= Action

Accuracy versus Inaccuracy

- Human judgment is sometimes compromised by inaccuracies in our thinking

styles and by our motivations and emotions.
- Our judgment may be affected by our desires to gain material wealth and to see
ourselves positively and by emotional responses to the events that happen to us.

Conscious versus Unconscious processing

- Many of the major theories of psychology, ranging from Freudian

psychodynamic theories, argue that much of our behavior is determined by
variables that we are not aware of.

Differences versus Similarities

- Are people around the world generally the same, or are they influenced by their
backgrounds and environments in different ways?
EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS

PLATO (nature side)

- the living got a certain kind of knowledge are inmate or inborn

ARISTOTLE (nurture side)

- Nurture refers (Aristotle side)the living of each child is born as an empty slate
(Latin: tabula rasa- is the theory that individuals are born without built-in
mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or
perception.), ang mga bata ay nalalagyan ng empty slate as they grow,
naiimpluwensyahan sya by surroundings.

RENE DESCARTES (free will)

- He believed na nageexist ang inmate and natural abilities, one of the scientist,
nagdisect ng animals, and first person to understand na ang mga nerves
controlled our muscles. He also addresses the relationship between mind
(mental aspects of life), embody (physical aspects of life).

WILHELM WUNDT (German Psychologist)

- First research psychologist along with WILLIAM JAMES

- Developed a laboratory in german

WILLIAM JAMES (American Psychologist)

- Student of WILHELM WUNDT

- Founded a psychological laboratory sa Harvard university.

1. Structuralism: Introspection and the Awareness of Subjective Experience

WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920)

Structuralism

- school of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements or

“structures” of psychological experience
- Structuralists used the method of introspection to attempt to create a map of the
elements of consciousness.
Method of Introspection

- Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

- narinig nila ang sound pero nahihirapan silang idetermine kung ano iyon.
- Researchers studied and realized that there is a difference between the
sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus,

EDWARD BRADFORD TITCHENER (1867–1927)

➢ Best known of the structuralist and was a student of Wundt who came to the United
States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at Cornell University

➢ using introspection he and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000
sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste

➢ structuralists were the first to realize the importance of unconscious processes

2. Functionalism and Evolutionary Psychology

Functionalism (William James and others)

- the goal is understand why animals and humans have developed the particular
psychological aspects that they currently possess
- influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) theory of natural selection

Theory of Natural Selection

- proposed that the physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved

because they were useful or functional
- The functionalists believed that Darwin’s theory applied to psychological
characteristics too. Just as some animals have developed strong muscles to allow
them to run fast, the human brain, so functionalists thought, must have adapted
to serve a particular function in human experience.

Evolutionary Psychology

- a branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to

human and animal behavior
- Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists’ basic assumption, namely
that many human psychological systems, including memory, emotion, and
personality, serve key adaptive functions.
Fitness

- refers to the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual
organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other members of the
species who do not have the characteristic
- Fitter organisms pass on their genes more successfully to later generations,
making the characteristics that produce fitness more likely to become part of
the organism’s nature than characteristics that do not produce fitness.

the evolutionary approach is important to psychology because it provides logical

explanations for why we have many psychological characteristics.

3. Psychodynamic Psychology

Psychodynamic Psychology (Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers)

- an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of

unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
- Freud developed his theories about behavior through extensive analysis of the
patients that he treated in his private clinical practice.

Freud’s ideas were extended by other psychologists whom he influenced,

- including Carl Jung (1875–1961), Alfred Adler (1870–1937), Karen Horney

(1855–1952), and Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

4. Behaviorism and the Question of Free Will

Behaviorism

- school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to

objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their
attention to the study of behavior itself

“Black Box”

- human mind into which stimuli are sent and from which responses are received
- stimulus (anything that can cause reaction) and responses (reactions sa mga
stimuli)
John B. Watson (1878–1958)

- influenced by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

- 8-month old Little Albert Experiment
- Watson found that systematically exposing a child to fearful stimuli in the
presence of objects that did not themselves elicit fear could lead the child to
respond with a fearful behavior to the presence of the stimulus.
- In line with the behaviorist approach, the boy had learned to associate the white
rat with the loud noise, resulting in crying.
- White rat and the loud noise (stimulus) and crying (response)

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

- Stimulus- Response (Bell-Food-Salivation)

- who had discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had
previously been associated with the presentation of food. Watson and the other
behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain how events that people and
other organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce
specific behaviors (responses).
- Whenever they hear the bell, na conditioned sila na pag narinig nila ang bell
parating na yung food nila, ayun yung response ng salivation ng dogs.

Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904–1990)

- Most famous behaviorist and used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with
the application of rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals
- who expanded the principles of behaviorism and also brought them to the
attention of the public at large.
- Skinner used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of
rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals.

5. The Cognitive Approach and Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies mental processes, including

perception, thinking, memory, and judgment.

- cognitive psychology began in earnest in the 1960s

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)

- who studied the ability of people to remember lists of words under different
conditions
 - Ebbinghaus forgetting curve - theory human start losing the memory in their
knowledge over time in the matter of days and weeks. Nawawala ang memory
kapag hindi napraractice or hindi paulit ulit na na aaral.

Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969)

- who studied the cognitive and social processes of remembering

- Bartlett discovered that people found it very difficult to recall the stories
exactly, even after being allowed to study them repeatedly, and he hypothesized
that the stories were difficult to remember because they did not fit the
participants’ expectations about how stories should go.
- similar yung binabasa mong story pero iba ang ending, so nahihirapan kang
alalahanin yung mga ganong bagay dahil hindi sya nagfifit sa expectations mo
base sa alam na ng isang tao

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

- idea that our memory is influenced by what we already know was also a major
idea behind the cognitive-developmental stage model
- 4 stages, sensory motor stage, pre-operational stage, operational stage and
formal operational stage, dito malalaman ung schema, which is the mental
framework ng isang bata, assimilations and accommodation part sa kanya

Cognitive Psychologists

- Donald E. Broadbent (1926–1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934–), George Miller

(1920–), Eleanor Rosch (1938–), and Amos Tversky (1937–1996).

- Neuroimaging is the use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and
function of the living brain .

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) – ito yung kung saan tinatanggal mo lahat
ng accessories pag papasok ka dito.

6. Social-Cultural Psychology

Social-Cultural Psychology

- study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find
themselves influence thinking and behavior
 - Social-cultural psychologists are particularly concerned with how people
perceive themselves and others, and how people influence each other’s behavior.
- For instance, social psychologists have found that we are attracted to others who
are similar to us in terms of attitudes and interests.

Social Norms

- the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and
perceived by them as appropriate; includes customs, traditions, standards, and
rules; general values of the group
- Many of the most important social norms are determined by the culture in which
we live, and these cultures are studied by cross-cultural psychologists(ethnicity)

Culture

- represents the common set of social norms, including religious and family values
and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a geographical region
- Cultures influence every aspect of our lives, and it is not inappropriate to say
that our culture defines our lives just as much as does our evolutionary
experience

Individualism (Western cultures)

- Norms in Western cultures are primarily oriented toward individualism, which

is about valuing the self and one’s independence from others
- Example: Children in Western cultures are taught to develop and to value a
sense of their personal self, and to see themselves in large part as separate from
the other people around them. Children in Western cultures feel special about
themselves; they enjoy getting gold stars on their projects and the best grade in
the class. Adults in Western cultures are oriented toward promoting their own
individual success, frequently in comparison to (or even at the expense of)
others.

Collectivism (Eastern cultures)

- Norms in the East Asian culture, on the other hand, are oriented toward
interdependence or collectivism.
- taught to focus on developing harmonious social relationships with others
- The predominant norms relate to group togetherness and connectedness, and
duty and responsibility to one’s family and other groups.
- Kapag ikaw ang panganay (bread winner) ikaw na ang magpapatapos sa mga iba
mong kapatid.
 - Kailangan akuin lahat ang responsibility na dapat sa parents kaya di nagiging
successful ang tao.

Psycholog Description Career opportunities

y field

Biopsycho This field examines the Most biopsychologists work

logy and physiological bases of in research settings—for
neuroscie behavior in animals and instance, at universities, for
nce humans by studying the the federal government, and
functioning of different in private research labs.
brain areas and the
effects of hormones and
neurotransmitters on
behavior.

Clinical These are the largest Clinical and counseling

and fields of psychology. The psychologists provide
counselin focus is on the therapy to patients with the
g assessment, diagnosis, goal of improving their life
psycholog causes, and treatment of experiences. They work in
y mental disorders. hospitals, schools, social
agencies, and in private
practice. Because the
demand for this career is
high, entry to academic
programs is highly
competitive.

Cognitive This field uses Cognitive psychologists

psycholog sophisticated research work primarily in research
y methods, including settings, although some
reaction time and brain (such as those who
imaging to study memory, specialize in human-
language, and thinking of computer interactions)
humans. consult for businesses.
Developm These psychologists Many work in research
ental conduct research on the settings, although others
psycholog cognitive, emotional, and work in schools and
y social changes that occur community agencies to help
across the lifespan. improve and evaluate the
effectiveness of intervention
programs such as Head
Start.

Forensic Forensic psychologists Forensic psychologists work

psycholog apply psychological in the criminal justice
y principles to understand system. They may testify in
the behavior of judges, court and may provide
attorneys, courtroom information about the
juries, and others in the reliability of eyewitness
criminal justice system. testimony and jury
selection.

Health Health psychologists are Health psychologists work

psycholog concerned with with medical professionals
y understanding how in clinical settings to
biology, behavior, and the promote better health,
social situation influence conduct research, and teach
health and illness. at universities.

Industrial Industrial-organizational There are a wide variety of

- psychology applies career opportunities in
organizati psychology to the these fields, generally
onal and workplace with the goal working in businesses.
environm of improving the These psychologists help
ental performance and well- select employees, evaluate
psycholog being of employees. employee performance, and
y examine the effects of
different working
conditions on behavior.
They may also work to
design equipment and
environments that improve
 employee performance and
reduce accidents.

Personalit These psychologists study Most work in academic

y people and the settings, but the skills of
psycholog differences among them. personality psychologists
y The goal is to develop are also in demand in
theories that explain the business—for instance, in
psychological processes advertising and marketing.
of individuals, and to PhD programs in
focus on individual personality psychology are
differences. often connected with
programs in social
psychology.

School This field studies how School psychologists work

and people learn in school, the in elementary and
education effectiveness of school secondary schools or school
al programs, and the district offices with
psycholog psychology of teaching. students, teachers, parents,
y and administrators. They
may assess children’s
psychological and learning
problems and develop
programs to minimize the
impact of these problems.

Social and This field examines Many social psychologists

cross- people’s interactions with work in marketing,
cultural other people. Topics of advertising, organizational,
psycholog study include conformity, systems design, and other
y group behavior, applied psychology fields.
leadership, attitudes, and
person perception.

Sports This field studies the Sports psychologists work

psycholog psychological aspects of in gyms, schools,
sports behavior. The goal professional sports teams,
y is to understand the and other areas where
psychological factors that sports are practiced.
influence performance in
sports, including the role
of exercise and team
interactions.

1.3 Chapter Summary (Page 41)

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR PERSPECTIVES

Scientific areas of study are often guided by a paradigm (prevailing model) paradigm,
which is a set of theories, assumptions, and ideas that contribute to your worldview or
create the framework from which we operate every day.

- Nakakabuo ng bagong ideas, paraas and bagong theories bagong ways of

thinking, in order to resolve between

INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR PERSPECTIVES

• Wilhelm Wundt & Edward B. Titchener – focused on the “what” of human experience

- Anong klaseng sensation emotions thought perception and actions

• Functionalist, behavioural, and cognitive psychologists began to include the “how” of

human experience

• Influenced by Charles Darwin’s theories, William James and others later began to
consider the “why” of human experience

- why, does with things like evolution, environment and culture.

- Example bakit nagkakaroon ng evolutions, Charles Darwin physical aspects
meron syang function or purpose kaya sya nagevolve or nagdevelop
- Pagdating din sa mga environment and cultures, pinapakita dito yung mga
questions nila William james and Charles Darwin. Bakit sya andyan bakit
nakakaapekto sa environment
- Mga goals nila
Figure 2.1 Long Description – Major Psychological Perspectives Timeline

2.1 BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Biological psychologists

• are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic variables in an attempt to

relate them to psychological or behavioural variables

• Early structural and functional psychologists believed that the study of conscious
thoughts would be the key to understanding the mind. Kaya nabuo ang introspection.

• Introspection / Retrospection

- Introspection: Looking in at/into one's self. Retrospection: Looking back at/into

the past
- introspection, which involves training people to concentrate and report on their
conscious experiences as they react to stimuli. Asking the participants, to tell
them na kung ano ang nafifeel nila. Kung anong nararamdamanan nila pag
nagawa ng mga kahit anong bagay.
- Critics argued that self-analysis is not feasible, and that introspection can yield
different results depending on the subject. 
- Critics concerned in about the possibility of Retrospection, is memory of
sensation rather than sensation itself, so possible na akala mo intro pero retro
pala ang nangyayari sayo.
- Dahil merong cognitive biases, yung certain mental tasks ay hindi pala ayun ung
sensation yung nararamdaman nya at the moment, nagkataon lang na baka may
memory lang sya na same sa ginagawa nyang mental tasks
 • Autoethnography

- Parang Kind of method ng introspection analysis

• narrative approach to introspective analysis (Ellis, 1999), to study the

phenomenological experience of the prison world and the consequent adaptations
and transformations that it evokes

- is a research method that uses personal experience (“auto”) to describe and
interpret (“graphy”) cultural texts, experiences, beliefs, and practices (“ethno”).
- include journaling, looking at archival records - whether institutional or
personal, interviewing one's own self, and using writing to generate a self-
cultural understanding.

➢ William James’s functionalist approach

➢ less concerned with the composition of the mind than with examining the ways in
which the mind adapts to changing situations and environments

- kung paano nagaadopt ung mind ng tao when it comes sa kanyang environment
or situation.

➢ Functionalism

➢ brain is believed to have evolved for the purpose of bettering the survival of its
carrier by acting as an information processor.

➢ In processing information the brain is considered to execute functions similar to

those executed by a computer

(ang behavior naten ay pwede pang mabago dahil magaadapt pa ito sa mga changes base sa
environment.)

Structuralism is for introspection, more on nakafocus sya sa conscious thoughts

Functionalism is word from adaptation.

Figure 2.3 Complex Adaptive System. Behaviour is influenced by information gathered
from a changing external environment

Reductionist -the simple is the source of the complex

- Ang mental illness ay madalas reductionist, yung genetics nitong chemical

imbalances is nagiging main cause
- kailangan mareduce yung mawalak na complex ng behavior sa isang simple set
ng variables para magkaroon ng possibility na malaman yung cause and effect.

Reductionism - which instead tries to break things down into their smallest parts. Likes to
divide explanations of behaviour into separate components

Holist -the whole is more than the sum of the parts

- Basta tinitignan nito as a whole hindi lang sya, pati sa mga nakapaligid dito.
- Paano nagiinteract ang bawat factors at paano naiimpluwensyahan ang bawat
isa

Holism - is an approach to understanding the human mind and behavior that focuses on
looking at things as a whole. It is often contrasted with reductionism. Likes to look at the
picture as a whole
• Cognitive Psychologists

• rely on the functionalist insights in discussing how affect, or emotion, and

environment or events interact and result in specific perceptions

- Naka focus sa areas or sa mga studies about internal mental state and processes
of a human

1. • Studies have shown NEUROGENESIS (the growth and development of nervous

tissue) in the hippocampus (thought to be the center of emotion, memory, and the
autonomic nervous system.)

• the growth and development of nervous tissue

• human brain is not a static mass of nervous tissue

NEUROGENESIS – is an ability to process the brain by which yung mga new neurons
are formed in the brain

Kahit matanda na is patuloy pa rin ang growth and development ng neurons sa

brain.

❖Stem cells and adult neurogenesis

Youtube Link: https://youtu.be/o98crZWauPI

❖People Grow Brain Cells Well Into Their 80s

Youtube Link: https://youtu.be/UERaHA9dXkk

The Brain’s Four Lobes

1. Frontal lobe: also known as the motor cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in
motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language.

2. Occipital lobe: also known as the visual cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in
interpreting visual stimuli and information

3. Parietal lobe: also known as the somatosensory cortex, this portion of the brain is
involved in the processing of other tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and
pain

4. Temporal lobe: also known as the auditory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in
the interpretation of the sounds and language we hear
VISUAL ATTENTION

• According to biologically oriented psychological research:

• VISUAL ATTENTION diminishes with age, leaving older adults less capable of
filtering out distracting or irrelevant information

- The ability of our brain to selectively filtered the unwanted or unattended

information from reaching our limits.

sinabi sa mga participants na mag pay attention lang sila sa mga faces. Pinakita yung
overlapping picture or ung magkakapatong na mukha at places. ang kailangan lang po
nilang gawin is magfocus lang sila dapat sa mukha and i-identify nila kung ilang taon base
don sa mukha na nakita nila.

Findings:

In young adults, the brain region for processing faces was active while the brain region for
processing places was not. However, both the face and place regions were active in older
people.
This means that even at early stages of perception, older adults were less capable of
filtering out the distracting information. Moreover, on a surprise memory test 10 minutes
after the scan, older adults were more likely to recognize what face was originally paired
with what house.

- Kapag tumatanda ang tao ang nangyayari kahit yung mga irrelevant information
ay natandaan nya kahit hindi mahalaga sa memory.

2.2 Psychodynamic Psychology

Sigmund Freud

About SIGMUND FREUD

Ex. of disorder are nail biting, perfectionist (need to be balance/even number), sexual
disorder

Psychodynamic Perspective

 proposes that there are psychological forces underlying human behaviour, feelings,
and emotions
- A 20-year old, well-built and healthy, has a seemingly irrational fear of mice. The
fear makes him tremble at the sight of a mouse or rat. He often finds himself in
embarrassing situations because of the fear.

PSYCHODYNAMIC

- focuses on the psychological roots of emotional suffering. Its hallmarks are self-
reflection and self-examination, and the use of the relationship between
 therapist and patient as a window into problematic relationship patterns in the
patient's life.
- It talks about past life, the reason of disorder why the person became like that
(tinitignan as a whole reasons)

Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis

assumes that much of mental life is unconscious, and that past experiences, especially in
early childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life

In response to the more reductionist approach of biological, structural, and functional

psychology movements, the psychodynamic perspective marks a pendulum swing back
toward more holistic, systemic, and abstract concepts and their influence on the more
concrete behaviours and actions.

PSYCHODYNAMIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS (HOPING MECHANISM)

Repression – experiences regarding abuse that it causes trust issues.

- occurs when trauma is too severe to be kept in conscious memory, 

- For example, a young child is bitten by a dog. They later develop a severe phobia
of dogs but have no memory of when or how this fear originated. 

Denial – refusing he/she is okay

Reaction Formation – being plastic, hiding his/her true feelings, making new reaction,
(tinatago nya na galit pala sya dito sa taong to at gumagawa sya ng bagong reaction na
masaya tuwing nakikita nya ito)

Sublimation – a person is expressing his/her emotion through somewhere safe without

someone knowing it. Ex. painting, poetry, poem etc.

Projection – misattributing feelings ex. Sinabi mo sa kanya na may nagkakagusto sa kanya

pero ikaw pala yon.

- projection refers to unconsciously taking unwanted emotions or traits you don't

like about yourself and attributing them to someone else. A common example
is a cheating spouse who suspects their partner is being unfaithful.

Displacement – ex. a teacher gets mad to her student and the student have no choice but to
not response because that teacher has a position or authority in order to someone will
never stop her from doing those. And then later on, the student let his anger out to his
brother without knowing his feeling deep inside, that’s what we call displacement.

- is a defense mechanism that involves an individual transferring negative feelings

from one person or thing to another. For example, a person who is angry at their
boss may “take out” their anger on a family member by shouting at them.

Regression –someone or something you want to rely on, like cuddle, you want to be always
safe with someone or something beside you, or maybe your comfort with that thing. Hindi
mo kayang di makita or di mahawakan just to say you want to be safe. (ex. teddy bear gusto
mo lagging katabi sa pagtulog kasi di ka makatulog pag wala ang teddy bear mo)

Fantasy – drawing back to your imagination.

- associated with scenarios that are absolutely impossible

Compartmentalization – positive and negative ex. they agree to have a divorce, but infront
of people surrounds them, they make themselves happy just to say they’re alright. Nandoon
pa rin ang responsibility sa anak.

- is defined as a defense mechanism where someone suppresses their thoughts

and emotions.
- thoughts and feelings that seem to conflict are kept separated or isolated from
each other in the mind.

Intellectualization – you were the one who is adjusting in the situation, your feeling were
being invalidate so it can possibly resulting to repression.

- involves a person using reason and logic to avoid uncomfortable or anxiety-

provoking emotions. Intellectualization can be a useful way of explaining and
understanding negative events. For example, if person A is rude to person B,
person B may think about the possible reasons for person A's behavior.
Consciousness

awareness of the self in space and time; human awareness of both internal and external
stimuli

Three Levels of Awareness/Consciousness

Conscious Level

all those things we are aware of, including things that we know about ourselves and our
surroundings

Unconscious Level

those things that are outside of conscious awareness, including many memories, thoughts,
and urges of which we are not aware

Preconscious Level

preconscious consists of those things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired,

and where many memories are stored for easy retrieval.
PROVINCES OF THE MIND

Blue line – devision of consciousness

 ID –most basic part of our personality, it is the urges aggressive, Pagiging impulsive.
ex. nastuck sa sang traffic, bibilisan takbo walang pakeelam. Baby naiyak nagstop
kasi maprovide. Gusto mo agad makuha yung gusto mo.
 Super-ego – develops last, moral judgements what is right and wrong, nakabase
more on moral values.
 Ego – reality, trying its best to meet, pinagbibigyan nya si id at super ego. Sya yung
nagbabalanse ng dalawa para masatisfy yung wants ng id at superego. Imbis na
magalit hindi na lang itutuloy. Base on what actions at sasabihin ng tao at mga
consquences na mangyayari.

Various School’s Perspectives of Consciousness

• Developmental Psychologists – view consciousness not as a single entity, but as a

developmental process

• Social Psychologists - view consciousness as a product of cultural influence

• Neuropsychologists - view consciousness as ingrained in neural systems and organic
brain structures

• Cognitive Psychologists - base their understanding of consciousness on computer science

- involves the study of internal mental processes—all of the things that go on

inside your brain, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language,
problem-solving, and learning.
- providing help coping with memory disorders, making better decisions,
recovering from brain injury, treating learning disorders, and structuring
educational curricula to enhance learning.

Psychoanalysis

type of analysis that involves attempting to affect behavioural change through having
patients talk about their difficulties

PSYCHOANALYSIS (the free association)– Experiences before, trust issues, systematic

centralization (PINAPALAPIT KA SA FEAR MO). Ex. nagkakaron ng trauma dahil sa past
experience. Ayaw mangyfare ulet or nagkakaron ng trust issues sa mga tao, or may
kinakatakutan na bagay.

systematic

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

expanded on Freud’s theories, introducing the concepts of the archetype, the collective
unconscious, and individuation

Personal Unconscious- The personal unconscious embraces all repressed, forgotten, or

subliminally perceived experiences of one particular individual. Individual experiences. Eto
ung mga bagay na kaya ka nagkakatrauma or phobia dahil sa naexperience mo.

COMPLEXES: Contents of the personal unconscious. Emotional. Pag narinig may

response na agad.

Collective unconscious- has roots in the ancestral past of the entire species. Responsible for
people’s many myths. ex. baby, di lang cute but also a responsibility. Attracted by physical
but in mind are . biological traits in impression. Maaactivate once na naranasan.

- Eto naman yung mga Sinabi sayo kunyare about sa ahas, sinabihan ka ng tatay
mo na wag lumapit kasi may poison pag natuklaw ka parang magiging lesson
sayo.

Jung’s Conception of Personality

Carl Jung’s Concepts

Archetypes

Persona - the mask or image a person presents to the world. Side of personality where
people show what they want to show themselves.

Shadow - the side of a personality that a person does not consciously display in public.
Accepting your darkness within yourself. Hiding it in the society.

Great Mother-This preexisting concept of mother is always associated with both positive
and negative feelings. Fertility and neglecting. Nurturing and destructive.

- In this sense, the archetypal image of the mother is nurturing and loving but also
capricious, mysterious, and linked to feelings of vulnerability and seduction 

Wise Old Man- archetype of wisdom and meaning, symbolizes humans’ preexisting
knowledge of the mysteries of life. Sharing something that can benefits others.

Hero- represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person, sometimes part god,
who fights against great odds to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons, monsters,
serpents, or demons.

- defined as a person who is admired or idealized for courage, outstanding

achievements, or noble qualities.

Self- ung believed that each person possesses an inherited tendency to move toward
growth, perfection, and completion, and he called this innate disposition the self.
 - Archetypes of all the archetypes. Makakabuo ng self-realization. Tanngap kung
anong situation kung ano ka.

Chapter 2. Introduction to Major Perspectives

2.3 Behaviourist Psychology

TO UNDERSTAND THE MIND WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE PERSON

BEHAVIOURISM

DEFINITION:

FOCUSES ON OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR AS A MEANS TO STUDYING THE HUMAN PSYCHE

- The primary tenet of behaviourism is that psychology should concern itself with
the observable behaviour of people and animals, not with unobservable events
that take place in their minds. 

BEHAVIORISTS CRITICIZED THE MENTALISTS FOR THEIR INABILITY TO DEMONSTRATE

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THEIR CLAIMS

THE MAIN INFLUENCES OF BEHAVIOURIST PSYCHOLOGY

• IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)

-INVESTIGATED CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THOUGH OFTEN DISAGREEING WITH

BEHAVIOURISM OR BEHAVIORISTS

• EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE (1874-1949)

-WHO INTRODUCED THE CONCEPT OF REINFORCEMENT AND WAS THE FIRST TO APPLY
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES TO LEARNING

• JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958)

-REJECTED INTROSPECTIVE METHODS AND SOUGHT (hinanap) TO RESTRICT

PSYCHOLOGY TO EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

• B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)

-CONDUCTED RESEARCH ON OPERANT CONDITIONING

IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)

Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, actually discovered classical conditioning accidentally while

doing research on the digestive patterns in dogs.

Classical Conditioning

As we learn, we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we interpret the
incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or behave.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) and the Unconditioned Response (UCR)

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and the Conditioned Response (CR)

Example: BELL – MEAT POWDER – DOG - SALIVATION

Stimulus in Response: Anxiety over niddles (condition stimulus), kailangan ng bata ang flu
shot, it will lead to crying. Nagbigay ng presentation sa class, tinawanan (unconditional
stimulus) naglead na napahiya (conditional stimulus).

Examples:

The smell of a cologne (stimulus), the sound of a certain song, or the occurrence of a
specific day of the year can trigger distinct memories, emotions, and associations
(reaction).

When we make these types of associations, we are experiencing classical conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

-another type of learning that refers to how an organism operates on the environment or
how it responds to what is presented to it in the environment

- a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior

EXAMPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

Reinforcement

- means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to any stimulus which strengthens
or increases the probability of a specific response

THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

• Positive Reinforcement - involves adding something in order to increase a response

- For example, adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise
will increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room

• Negative Reinforcement - involves taking something negative away in order to increase a

response

- Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his parents to take out the garbage week
after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day
performs the task and, to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of
this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he
will take out the garbage next week.

• Positive Punishment - refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a

behaviour

- The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g., spanking) a child for
misbehaving. The child begins to associate being punished with the negative
behaviour. The child does not like the punishment and, therefore, to avoid it, he
or she will stop behaving in that manner.
• Negative Punishment -it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the
occurrence of a particular behavior

- Increase the behavior. Remove something, nagbabawas , pagbabawalan lumabas

kasi umaga na nakakauwi. Mawawala ang freedom

TYPES OF REINFORCERS

 Natural reinforcers occur directly as a result of the behavior. – automatic na

nagreresulata ng behaviour ng tao

 Social reinforcers involve expressing approval of a behavior, such as a teacher,

parent, or employer saying or writing, "Good job" or "Excellent work." – pag
nipraise, magpupursigi pa sa kanyang action

 Tangible reinforcers involve presenting actual, physical rewards such as candy,

treats, toys, money, and other desired objects. – actual or physical awards tangible
reinforcer.

EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING (1874-1949)

Thorndike’s Own Theory of Learning (1932)

Kailangan matutunan ng cat na maiangat yung door para makatakas yung cat

• Law of Effect - If an association is followed by satisfaction, it will be strengthened, and if it

is followed by annoyance, it will be weakened
 - Nakareceive ng promotion, dahil masipag sa work, nasatisfy sya para
magcontinue at mag effort.

• Law of Exercise- also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections
or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened.

- Training for development, athlete nageexercise, the more na nagprapractice the

more na nageenhance ka. Practice example oral recitation, sports

• Law of Readiness- which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is
aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude

- Preparation of action. Need to be prepared para magkaron ng progress,

- Pag ready ka mas capable ka to know something new.

JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958) & B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)

Watson conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing, and advertising while
gaining notoriety for the controversial “Little Albert” experiment.

Related example kay little albert: EXAM look for articles

• Radical Behaviourism

-the philosophy of the science of behaviour

- It seeks to understand behaviour as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing

consequences.

- ex. natatakot na makisocial, kinakabhaan, hindi pwedeng walang reason kung bakit
kinakabahan, kung ano ang nararamdaman cause sa environment.
• Operant Conditioning Chamber/ Skinner Box

- used to measure responses of organisms (most often rats and pigeons) and their orderly
interactions with the environment

• Escape Learning

- Goal you want to persuade , para makuryente yung rat, to escape

- May tumalon na aso, kaya tatakas sya

• Avoidance Learning

- Nagkaroon ng signal or cue para mavoid nung rat yung electric shock
- May tumalon na aso don sa nakaraan kaya di ka na pupunta don.

The Skinner box led to the principle of reinforcement

Natutunann ni rat na kaialngan ipull para may lumabas na food.

John B. Watson