1.

1 Problem Solving
Objectives
1. Understand Polya’s problem-solving method.
2. State and apply fundamental problem-solving strategies.
3. Apply basic mathematical principles to problem solving.
4. Use the Three-Way Principle to learn mathematical ideas.

My goal in writing this section is to introduce you to some practical techniques and princi-
ples that will help you to solve many personal and professional problems in your life—
such as whether to buy or lease a car, borrow money for graduate school, or organize a
large class project. You will find that although real-life problems are often more complex
than those found in this text, by mastering the techniques presented here, you will increase
your ability to solve problems throughout your life. It is important to remember that you
cannot rush becoming a good problem solver. Like anything else in life, the more you prac-
tice problem solving, the better you become at it.
Much of the advice presented in this section is based on a problem-solving process
developed by the eminent Hungarian mathematician George Polya (see the historical high-
light at the end of this section). We will now outline Polya’s method.

KEY POINT George Polya’s Problem-Solving Method

George Polya developed a Step 1: Understand the problem. It would seem unnecessary to state this obvious
four-step problem-solving advice, but yet in my years of teaching, I have seen many students try to solve
method.
a problem before they completely understand it. The techniques that we will
explain shortly will help you to avoid this critical mistake.
Step 2: Devise a plan. Your plan may be to set up an algebraic equation, draw a
geometric figure, or use some other area of mathematics that you will learn in this
text. The plan you choose may involve a little creativity because not all problems
succumb to the same approach.
Step 3: Carry out your plan. Here you do what many often think as “doing mathematics.”
However, realize that steps 1 and 2 are at least as important as the mechanical
process of manipulating numbers and symbols to get an answer.
Step 4: Check your answer. Once you think that you have solved a problem, go back
and determine if your answer fits the conditions originally stated in the problem.
For example, if you are to find the number of snowboarders who participate

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 1.1 y Problem Solving 3

Math in Your Life

Problem Solving and Your Career
It may seem to you that some of the problems that we ask is hired for an attractive, well-paying job and who is not.
you to solve in this book are artificial and of no practical What is important about this question is not the answer,
use to you. However, consider the following question that but rather the applicant’s ability to display creative
was asked of a prospective employee during a job inter- problem-solving techniques in a pressure situation.
view. “How many quarters—placed one on top of the If you are interested in learning more about how
other—would it take to reach the top of the Empire State your ability to think creatively in solving puzzles can
Building?” This question may strike you as strange and affect your future job prospects, see the book How
unrelated to your qualifications for getting a job. How- Would You Move Mount Fuji? Microsoft’s Cult of the
ever, according to an article at monster.com, such puzzle- Puzzle—How the World’s Smartest Company Selects
type questions can play a critical role in determining who the Most Creative Thinkers by William Poundstone.

in the Winter X Games, 19 12 people is not an acceptable answer. Or, in an

investment problem, it is highly unlikely that your deposit of $1,000 would earn
$334 interest in a bank account. If your solution is not reasonable, then look for
the source of your error. Maybe you have misunderstood one of the conditions of
the problem, or perhaps you made a simple computational or algebraic mistake.

KEY POINT Problem-Solving Strategies

Problem solving relies on Problem solving is more of an art than a science. We will now suggest some useful
several basic strategies. strategies; however, just as we cannot list a set of rules describing how to write a novel, we
cannot specify a series of steps that will enable you to solve every problem. Artists,
composers, and writers make creative decisions as to how to use their tools, and so you
also must be creative in using your mathematical tools.
Mathematics is not as rigid as you may believe from your past experiences. It is
important to use the strategies in this section to keep your focus on understanding concepts
rather then memorizing formulas. If you do this, you may be surprised to find that a given
problem can be solved in several different ways.

STRATEGY
Draw Pictures
Problems usually contain several conditions that must be satisfied. You will find it useful to
draw pictures to understand these conditions before trying to solve the problem.

EXAMPLE 1 Visualizing a Condition in a Word Problem

Four architects are meeting for lunch to discuss preliminary plans for a new performing
arts center on your campus. Each will shake hands with all of the others. Draw a picture to
illustrate this condition, and determine the number of handshakes.

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4 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

Quiz Yourself 1 * S O L U T I O N : We will use points labeled A, B, C, and D, respectively, to represent the
people, and join these points with lines representing the handshakes, as in Figure 1.1.
How might your diagram change
in Example 1 if we were counting 1
the ways the architects could A B
send text messages to each other?
2
Realize now that a message sent
from A to B is not the same as a 3 4
message sent from B to A. 5
Hint: Consider putting
arrowheads on the edges.
D C
6
FIGURE 1.1 Visualizing handshakes.

If we represent the handshake between A and B by AB, then we see that there are six
handshakes; namely, AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, and CD.
Now try Exercises 7 to 10. ] 1

In later chapters, you will often be interested in determining all the possibilities that
can occur when a series of things are occurring. For example, in Chapter 14, you will be
solving probability problems involving the flipping of coins and the rolling of dice. The
next example illustrates one way to visualize such situations.

EXAMPLE 2 Drawing a Tree Diagram

Draw a diagram to illustrate the different ways that you can flip three coins.
S O L U T I O N : We can draw the following diagram (Figure 1.2), which is called a tree
diagram, to show the different possibilities. To keep straight in our mind what each coin is

Penny Nickel Dime

Penny shows a head

Dime shows a head

Nickel shows a tail

FIGURE 1.2 A tree diagram shows the eight ways to flip three coins.

*Quiz Yourself answers begin on page 778.

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 1.1 y Problem Solving 5

doing, we will assume that the three coins are a penny, a nickel, and a dime. The third
branch of the tree (shown in red) illustrates that one possibility is that the penny shows
a head, the nickel shows a tail, and the dime shows a head. By tracing through this dia-
gram, you can see that there are eight different ways that the three coins can be flipped.
Now try Exercises 19 and 20. ]

STRATEGY
Choose Good Names for Unknowns
It is a good practice to name the objects in a problem so you can remember their meaning
easily.

Example 3 combines good naming with the drawing strategy mentioned earlier.

EXAMPLE 3 Combining the Naming Strategy

and the Drawing Strategy
Assume that one group of dance students is taking swing lessons and another is taking
Latin dance lessons. Choose good names for these groups, and represent this situation with
a diagram.
S O LU T I O N : In Figure 1.3, the region labeled S represents students taking swing dance
lessons and region L represents the students taking Latin dance lessons.

Quiz Yourself 2

Describe the students who are S L

represented by region r3. What
about r4? r2 r3 r4

r1

Taking Taking swing

neither but not Latin
Quiz Yourself 3 FIGURE 1.3 Representing several
groups of people in a diagram.
Choose meaningful names for
the objects mentioned in the
following situation.
As you can see from Figure 1.3, the region marked r2 indicates students who are taking
Two amounts are invested—
swing lessons, but are not taking Latin dance lessons. Region r1 represents students who
one at a high interest rate, the
are taking neither type of lesson.
other at a low rate.
Now try Exercises 25 and 26. ] 2 3

STRATEGY
Be Systematic
If you approach a situation in an organized, systematic way, frequently you will gain insight
into the problem.

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6 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

EXAMPLE 4 Systematically Listing Options

Javier is buying an iPhone and is considering which optional features to include with his
purchase. He has narrowed it down to three choices: extended-life battery, deluxe ear buds,
and 8 gigabytes of memory. Depending on price, he will decide how many of these options
he can afford. In how many ways can he make his decision?
SOLUTION: In making his decision, we see that there are four cases.

Choose none or one or two or all three of the options.

We organize these possibilities in Table 1.1.

Battery Ear Buds 8 Gigabytes

choose none e No No No
Yes No No
choose one e No Yes No
? ? ?
Yes Yes No
choose two e Yes No Yes
? ? ?
choose three e Yes Yes Yes

TABLE 1.1 Systematic listing of choices of iPhone options.

Quiz Yourself 4
We see that there are eight ways that Javier can make his decision.
Complete Table 1.1.
Now try Exercises 17, 18, 21, and 22. ] 4

STRATEGY
Look for Patterns
If you can recognize a pattern in a situation you are studying, you can often use it to answer
questions about that situation.

EXAMPLE 5 Finding Patterns in Pascal’s Triangle

You will encounter the pattern that we show in Figure 1.4, called Pascal’s triangle, in later
chapters.

Row
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1

FIGURE 1.4 Pascal’s triangle.

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 1.1 y Problem Solving 7

Notice how each number is the sum of the two numbers immediately above it, which
are a little to the right and a little to the left. Suppose we want to find the total of all the
numbers that will be in the ninth row of this diagram.

SOLUTION: (It will be convenient when we discuss this diagram in later chapters to begin
numbering rows with 0 instead of 1.)
Notice that in the zeroth row, the total is 1; in the first row, the total is 2; in the
second row, the total is 4; and in the third row, it is 8. We continue this pattern in
Table 1.2.

Quiz Yourself 5
Row 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a) List the numbers in the sixth Total 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512
and seventh rows of Pascal’s
triangle. TABLE 1.2 The sum of the numbers in each row of Pascal’s triangle.
b) What are the first two
numbers in the 100th row of
Pascal’s triangle?
We now easily see that the desired total is 512. ] 5

STRATEGY
Try a Simpler Version of the Problem
You can begin to understand a complex problem by solving some scaled-down versions
of the problem. Once you recognize a pattern in the way you are solving the simpler
problems, then you can carry over this insight to attack the full-blown problem.

In these days of identity theft, it is important when you send personal information, such
as your Social Security number or bank account numbers, to another party that the infor-
mation cannot be intercepted and your identity stolen. In Example 6, we consider a prob-
lem similar to the handshake problem you saw earlier.
Recall that in Example 1, by drawing a diagram of the possible handshakes among four
people, you could see that there were six possibilities. If we had asked the same question
for 12 people, it would be very cumbersome to draw a picture to count the handshakes, so
we would have to have used another technique.

EXAMPLE 6 Secure Communication Links

Suppose that 12 branches of Bank of America need secure communication links among
them so that financial transfers can be made safely. How many links are necessary?

S O L U T I O N : Instead of considering all 12 branches, we will look at much smaller

numbers of bank branches, count the links, and see if we recognize a pattern. Let’s call the
branches A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, and L. In Table 1.3, we will write AB for the link
between A and B, AC for the link between A and C, etc.
From looking at these smaller examples, we see an emerging pattern. We notice that as
we add new branches, the number of links increases first by 1, then by 2, then by 3, and
then by 4, etc.
You can easily see why this is the case if you imagine establishing the branch offices of
the banks one at a time. First A is established, so no links are required. Then when B is

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8 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

Number of Number of
Branches Branches Links Links
1 A None 0
2 A, B AB 1 — add 1 link
3 A, B, C AB, AC, BC 3 — add 2 links
4 A, B, C, D AB, AC, AD, 6 — add 3 links
BC, BD,
CD
5 A, B, C, D, E AB, AC, AD, AE, 10 — add 4 links
BC, BD, BE,
CD, CE,
DE

TABLE 1.3 Looking for a pattern in the links between Bank of America branches.

built, one link is required between A and B. When C is built, two additional links are
needed, namely, AC and BC. When branch D is added, we will need three additional
links—AD, BD, and CD. If we continue this pattern as in Table 1.4, we can solve the orig-
inal problem.

Quiz Yourself 6
Number of Branches 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Determine the number of ways Number of Links 0 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 55 66

e-mail can be sent between the
TABLE 1.4 Counting the links.
various branches. Notice now
that e-mail from A to B, written
AB, is not the same as e-mail We now see that for 12 branches, there will be 66 links.
from B to A, written BA.
Now try Exercises 33 to 38. ] 6

STRATEGY
Guessing Is OK
One of the difficulties in solving word problems is that you can be afraid to say something
that may be wrong and consequently sit staring at a problem, writing nothing until you have
the full-blown solution. Making guesses, even incorrect guesses, is not a bad way to begin.
It may give you some understanding of the problem. Once you make a guess, evaluate it to
see how close you are to meeting all the conditions of the problem.

Imagine that in a few years, when you have graduated, you decide to purchase a brand-
new house. At first you are happy with your decision, but then one day when you open
your mail, you are shocked to find a school real estate tax bill for $5,200. You are not
alone, because in some areas of the country,* both young homeowners and senior citizens
are struggling with excessive property taxes. As a result, taxpayer groups have urged
politicians to consider other ways of funding public education. We consider a hypothetical
case in our next example.

*As I was writing this fourth edition, a bitter controversy was going on in Pennsylvania, where property owners
both young and old alike were losing their homes, in large part, due to rising property taxes.

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 1.1 y Problem Solving 9

EXAMPLE 7 Solving a Word Problem by Guessing

Suppose that you own a house in a school district that has a yearly budget of
$100 million. In order to reduce the portion of the budget borne by property owners,
your local taxpayers’ organization has negotiated the following political agreement:

1. The amount funded by the state income tax will be three times the amount funded by
property taxes.
2. The amount funded by the state sales tax will be $15 million more than the amount
funded by property taxes.

How much of the budget will be funded by property taxes?

SOLUTION: In a later chapter, we will discuss how to solve problems algebraically, but
for now, all we want to do is make several educated guesses and then keep adjusting them
until we get an acceptable answer. Let us call the amount of the budget due to property
taxes p, the amount due to income taxes i, and the amount due to sales taxes s. We will
organize our guesses in the following chart.

Guesses for p, i, s Evaluation of Guess

(in millions of $) Good Points Weak Points
20, 20, 60 Total is 100. Amounts are not different.
20, 30, 60 Amounts are different. Total is not 100.
The amount i is not three
times p.
The amount s is not 15 more
than p.
20, 60, 35 The amount i is three times p. The total is greater than 100,
Quiz Yourself 7 The amount s is 15 more so we have to reduce the
than p. amount p.
The Field Museum in Chicago, 18, 54, 33 The amount i is three The total is still more
which houses Sue, the largest times p. than 100.
preserved T. Rex, has acquired The amount s is 15 more
three more mechanical dinosaurs than p.
for a new exhibit. The combined
17, 51, 32 We have a solution. The
weight of the three new dinosaurs
amount from property
is 50 tons. If the weight of the
taxes is $17 million.
Apatosaurus is seven times the
weight of the Duckbill, and
the Diplodocus is 14 tons more
than the Duckbill, what are the
weights of each dinosaur?
Now try Exercises 65 to 74. ] 7

You may not believe that the guessing approach to problem solving that we sug-
gested in Example 7 is doing mathematics. However, if you are making intelligent
guesses and systematically refining them, you probably have some solid, intuitive,
underlying logical reasons for what you are doing. And, as a result of this thinking,
you are doing legitimate mathematics. The problem with guessing is that it can be
inefficient and, if the answer is complex, you probably will not be able to find it without
doing some algebra. 7

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10 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

STRATEGY
Convert a New Problem to an Older One
An effective technique in solving a new problem is to try to connect it with a problem you
have solved earlier. It is often possible to rewrite a condition so that the problem becomes
exactly like one you have seen before.

EXAMPLE 8 Converting a New Problem to an Older One

Assume that your dear Uncle Trump has died and bequeathed you a large sum of money and
you are considering putting it in the following possible investments: stocks, bonds, mutual
funds, real estate, certificates of deposit, collectibles, and precious metals. How many ways
can you invest your money using these options if you can choose from none to all seven of
these options?
S O L U T I O N : We could solve this problem by doing systematic listing or considering
simpler examples as we have done earlier; however, we will solve this problem by
recognizing that it is a problem that we have solved before. We are just using different lan-
guage. Recall that in Example 2 when we were counting the ways to flip three different
coins we used a tree diagram to list the possibilities. If instead of thinking “coins” we think
“investment options,” and instead of “heads or tails” we think “yes of no,” then we see that
we can draw a similar tree. So consider the tree diagram in Figure 1.5 illustrating the ways
that you can select none to all three of the options: stocks, s, bonds, b, or mutual funds, m.
A “yes” in the tree means that you are taking that option; a “no” means that you are not
taking it. The branch highlighted in red indicates that one possibility is to invest in stocks
and mutual funds, but not bonds.

Take
mutual funds?
Take
bonds?
Take
stocks?
yes
yes

yes no Here you are taking stocks,

yes not taking bonds, and
no taking mutual funds.

no
yes
yes

no no
yes
no
no
FIGURE 1.5 A tree diagram showing the different ways to choose none to all
three investments.
Quiz Yourself 8

How many ways could you

From this diagram you can see that there are eight ways to choose among three
choose to invest your inheritance
investments. If we were to add a fourth investment, such as certificates of deposit, we would
if you had 10 different invest-
add two branches “yes or no” to the existing eight, to give us 16. So each time we add an in-
ments to choose from?
vestment, we double the number of possible ways to select investments. Table 1.5 shows us
how to continue this pattern to solve the problem. ] 8

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 1.1 y Problem Solving 11

Number of Investments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of Selections 2 4 8 16 32 64 128

TABLE 1.5 Counting possibilities for investing.

KEY POINT Some Mathematical Principles

Remembering several We will now discuss some basic mathematical principles that we will refer to frequently
fundamental principles helps throughout this text.
us with problem solving.

The Always Principle

When we say a statement is true in mathematics, we are saying that the statement is true
100% of the time. One of the great strengths of mathematics is that we do not deal with state-
ments that are “sometimes true” or “usually true.”

EXAMPLE 9 An Algebraic Statement That Is Always True

Find an example to illustrate that the statement
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
is true.*
SOLUTION: In algebra, we prove that the statement (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 is true for all
numbers x and y. This means that any number we substitute for x and y should make the
statement true.
Suppose that x = 3 and y = 4. Then, substituting in the given statement we get
Quiz Yourself 9
(x + y)2 2#x#y
Find another example to
show that (3 + 4)2 = 32 + 2 # 3 # 4 + 42 or 49 = 9 + 24 + 16. ] 9

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2. x2 y2

In a similar way, we accept a mathematical argument only if it holds up under every set
of conditions. If we can think of even a single situation in which the argument fails, then
the argument is not acceptable.

The Counterexample Principle

An example that shows that a mathematical statement fails to be true is called a
counterexample. Keep in mind that if you want to use a mathematical property and
someone can find a counterexample, then the property you are trying to use is not
allowable. A hundred examples in which a statement is true do not prove it to be always
true, yet a single example in which a statement fails makes it a false statement. Be careful
to understand that when we say a statement is false, we are not saying that it is always false.
We are only saying that the statement is not always true. That is, we can find at least one
instance in which it is false.

*For a review of the order of operations in arithmetic and algebra, see Appendix A.

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12 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

EXAMPLE 10 Counterexamples to False Algebra Statements

Although the following two statements are false, those who are not secure in working with
algebra often believe them to be true.
a) (x + y)2 = x2 + y2 b) 1x + y = 1x + 1y
Provide a counterexample for each statement.
SOLUTION:
a) Assume that x = 3 and y = 4. Then,
(x + y)2 = (3 + 4)2 = 72 = 49,
which is not equal to
x 2 + y2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25.

Quiz Yourself 10 b) Let x = 16 and y = 9. Then,

1x + y = 116 + 9 = 125 = 5.
Find a counterexample to the
following statement: However,

a+b b 1x + 1y = 116 + 19 = 4 + 3 = 7.
= .
a+c c
Now try Exercises 39 to 48. ] 10

The Order Principle

When you read mathematical notation, pay careful attention to the order in which the
operations must be performed. The order in which we do things in mathematics is as
important as it is in everyday life. When getting dressed in the morning, it makes a differ-
ence whether you first put on your socks and then your shoes, or first put on your shoes and
then your socks. Although the difference may not seem as dramatic, reversing the order of
mathematical operations can also give unacceptable results. Note that we are not saying that
it is always wrong to reverse the order of mathematical operations; we are saying that if
you reverse the order of operations, you may accidentally change the meaning of your
calculations.

Quiz Yourself 11

Consider the equation

EXAMPLE 11 Reversing the Order of Operations Can Change
1x + y = 1x + 1y.
the Result of Mathematical Computations
Explain how Example 10 illustrates the order principle.
a) On the left side of the equa-
tion we are performing two SOLUTION: In Example 10, the problem with statements a) and b) is that in each case we
operations. What are these oper- carelessly changed the order in which we performed the operations.
ations and what is their order? a) In the equation (x + y)2 = x2 + y2, the left side of the equation tells us to first add x and y
b) What is the order of the oper- and then square the resulting sum. The right side of the equation tells us to first square
ations performed on the right x and y separately and then add these two squares. To say this more succinctly, we can say
side of the equation? that to “first add and then square” is not the same as to “first square and then add.”
c) Summarize what is wrong b) The problem here is similar. Test your understanding of the order principle by solving
with this equation, as we did in Quiz Yourself 11.
Example 11(a).
Now try Exercises 49 to 52. ] 11

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 1.1 y Problem Solving 13

Understanding the order principle will be important when you work with set theory in
Chapter 2 and also when you study logic in Chapter 3.

The Splitting-Hairs Principle

You should “split hairs” when reading mathematical terminology. If two terms are similar
but sound slightly different, they usually do not mean exactly the same thing. In everyday
English, we may use the words equal and equivalent interchangeably; however, in
mathematics they do not mean the same thing. The same is true for notation. When you
encounter different-looking notation or terminology, work hard to get a clear idea of exactly
what the difference is. Representing your ideas precisely is part of good problem solving.

Quiz Yourself 12

In your own words, explain the EXAMPLE 12 Identifying Differences in Notation

differences you see in each pair
Notice the difference in the following pairs of symbols. It is not important that you know
of symbols. Do not be concerned
what these symbols mean at this time; all we want you to do is recognize that there are
if you do not know what these
slight differences in the notations.
symbols mean.
a) ) and 9 a) 6 and … . There is an extra line under the 6 symbol on the right.
b) {⵰} and ⵰ b) ¨ and ¿. The symbol on the left is rounded; the symbol on the right is pointed.
c) ª and ¡ c) 僆 and (. The symbol on the left has an extra line.
d) {0} and 0 d) ⵰ and 0. The symbol on the right is the number 0; the symbol on the left is something
else, not a number. ] 12

The Analogies Principle

Much of the formal terminology that we use in mathematics sounds like words that we
use in everyday life. This is not a coincidence. Whenever you can associate ideas from real
life with mathematical concepts, you will better understand the meaning behind the mathe-
matics you are learning.

EXAMPLE 13 Relating Mathematical Terms

to Everyday Language
In Table 1.6, the left column contains formal mathematical terminology. The right column
contains ordinary English words that will help you remember the mathematical concepts.

Quiz Yourself 13
Mathematical Concept Related English Ideas
Which English words are you Union Labor union, marriage union, united
reminded of by the following
Complement Complete
mathematical terminology?
Equivalent Equivalent (in some way the same)
a) intersection
Slope Ski slope, slope of a roof
b) simultaneous (as in
simultaneous equations) TABLE 1.6 Mathematical terms related to words in everyday language.

Now try Exercises 61 to 64. ] 13

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14 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

Verbally
The Three-Way Principle
We conclude this section with a method for approaching mathematical concepts that we
Mathematical illustrate in Figure 1.6.
Ideas
Whether you are learning a new concept or trying to gain insight into a problem, it is
Gr
m ple ap helpful to use the ideas we have discussed in this chapter to approach mathematical situa-
xa hic
E all tions in three ways.
By y
• Verbally—Make analogies. State the problem in your own words. Compare it with
FIGURE 1.6 The Three-Way situations you have seen in other areas of mathematics.
Principle. • Graphically—Draw a graph. Draw a diagram.
• By example—Make numerical or other kinds of examples to illustrate the situation.
Not every one of these three approaches fits every situation. However, if you get in
the habit of using a verbal-graphical-example approach to doing mathematics, you will
find that mathematics is more meaningful and less dependent on rote memorization. If
you practice approaching mathematics using the strategies and principles that we have
discussed, you will find eventually that you are more comfortable and more successful in
your mathematical studies.

¶ ¶ ¶ HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHT
George Polya
We could argue that George Polya (1887–1985) is the father wife-to-be, Stella, were walking in a garden in Switzerland,
of problem solving as we teach it in so many of today’s they encountered another young couple six times. Polya
mathematics textbooks (including this one). As a youth, wondered what the likelihood was that they would meet
Polya decided to study law but because of his dislike for the same couple so many times on the same walk. His
memorization, he found it tedious and eventually chose a attempts to answer that question eventually led him to
career in mathematics. While working as a mathematics publish research papers on the topic of the random walk
tutor, he began to develop a problem-solving method that problem.
led him to write a book called How to Solve It. This book, In the 1940s, due to their concern about the increasing
which has sold more than 1 million copies, discusses many influence of Nazism in Europe, George and Stella emigrated
of the approaches to problem solving that you will learn in to the United States. Polya eventually accepted a position
this section. at Stanford University in California, where he conducted
Polya loved to solve problems, and it seemed that he research and worked on problem solving until he was well
could find them everywhere. One day while he and his into his nineties.

Exercises 1.1 3. Give an example of a situation in which you might use

Looking Back*
each problem-solving strategy that you mentioned in
These exercises follow the general outline of the topics presented in
Exercise 2.
this section and will give you a good overview of the material that
you have just studied. 4. List the six principles that we discussed in this section. Give an
1. List the four steps in Polya’s problem-solving method. example of how each principle is used.

2. Name the seven problem-solving strategies that we have 5. What well-known book on problem solving did Polya
presented in this section. write?

*Before doing these exercises, you may find it useful to review the note How to Succeed at Mathematics
on page xix.

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 1.1 y Exercises 15

6. What is the point of the Mathematics in Your Life highlight on D

page 3?
A E H
Sharpening Your Skills B I
In Exercises 7–10, draw a picture to illustrate each situation. You Begin End
C F J
are not being asked to solve any problems—just draw a picture.
7. Five liters of a 10% sugar solution are mixed with pure water
G
to get a 5% solution.
8. Six people clink each other’s glasses in a toast. 23. Some role playing games, such as Dungeons and Dragons, have
9. Messages are being sent among three spies: (A)ustin Powers, dice with other than six sides. Assume that you are rolling two
James (B)ond, and (C)hloe O’Brien. four-sided dice—with faces numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. Draw a tree
10. The Democratic, Republican, and Green political parties have diagram and then list all of the possible ordered pairs of numbers
no members in common. that can be obtained when the two dice are rolled.

In Exercises 11–16, choose names that would be meaningful for 24. Repeat the previous problem, but now only list pairs of numbers
each item. Again, you are not being asked to solve the problem— that are different.
just make a recommendation for some good names. 25. Consider the following diagram, which represents various
11. A solar panel is three times as long as it is wide. groups of people. G is the group of people who are good
singers, and A is the group of people who have appeared as
12. In order to reduce dependence on foreign oil, a presidential
contestants on American Idol. Describe the people who are in
commission is considering increasing funding for research in
regions r3 and r4.
the development of hybrid automobiles, windmill turbines, and
solar energy.
13. Meredith, Christina, Izzie, and Alex are planning a party for
Derek. G A
14. Two pathways in the brain cross.
15. A person makes two investments—one in stocks, the other in r2 r3 r4
bonds.
16. Lance Armstrong wants to include calcium and protein in his r1
diet.
In Exercises 17 and 18, list the items mentioned. Try to organize 26. Redraw the diagram in Exercise 25, except now label the two
your list in a systematic way. groups of people as W, those who are working to reduce global
17. List the different combinations of heads and tails that can warming, and H, those who are striving to reduce world
occur when a penny and a nickel are flipped. hunger. Describe the people who are in regions r2 and r4.
18. Using the numbers 1, 2, and 3, form as many ordered pairs
of numbers as you can. For example, (2, 3) is one such pair;
(3, 2) is a different one. You are allowed to repeat numbers,
so (1, 1) is an allowable pair.
W H
19. If you draw a tree, as we did in Example 2, to show the num-
r2 r3 r4
ber of ways to flip four coins, how many possibilities would
there be?
r1
20. If you draw a tree, as we did in Example 2, to show the number
of ways to roll two dice (one red and one green), how many
possibilities would there be? (Hint: Draw the branches for the In Exercises 27–32, continue the pattern for five more items in the
roll of the first die and then attach more branches to correspond list. (There may be more than one way to continue the pattern. We
to the roll of the second die.) will provide only one solution.)
21. Choose two recording artists to host the Grammy Awards. Your 27. 7, 14, 21, 28, . . .
choices are Kanye West, Beyonce Knowles, Christina Aguilera,
28. 1, 3, 9, 27, . . .
and Carrie Underwood. (Represent the artists by the first letter
of their last name. One pair would be Kanye West and Beyonce 29. ab, ac, ad, ae, bc, bd, be, . . .
Knowles, which you would represent by WK. Note that KW is 30. (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2),
the same as WK.) (2, 3), . . .
22. Follow the arrows in the given diagram to travel from “Begin” 31. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . .
to “End.” 32. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, . . .

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16 CHAPTER 1 y Problem Solving

In Exercises 33–38, we state a problem. Instead of trying to solve In Exercises 53–60, explain the differences you see in each pair
that problem, state a simpler problem and solve it instead. of symbols.
33. Ten people are being honored for their work in reducing pollution. 53. 5 and {5}
In how many ways can we line up these people for a picture? 54. A and A¿
34. If you guess at 10 true–false questions, how many different 55. U and u
ways can you fill in the 10 answers?
56. (1, 2) and [1, 2]
35. Using all the letters of the alphabet, how many two-letter codes
can we form if we are allowed to use the same letter twice? For 57. {1, 2} and (1, 2)
example, ah, yy, yo, and bg are all allowable pairs. (Note: bg is 58. (2, 3) and (3, 2)
different from gb.) 59. ⵰ and 0
36. A family has seven children. If we list the genders of the chil- 60. { } and ⵰
dren (for example, bbggbgb, where b is boy and g is girl), how
In later chapters, we will use the following mathematical terminology.
many different lists are possible?
Of what common English usage do these terms remind you? Explain.
37. An electric-blue Ferrari comes with seven options: run flat tires, 61. path, circuit, bridge, directed
front heated seats, polished rims, front parking sensor, carbon
62. dimension, reflection, translation, transform
interior trim, fender shields, and a custom tailored cover. You
may buy the car with any combination of these options (including 63. intercept, best fit, compounding
none). How many different choices do you have? 64. median, deviation, central tendency, correlation
38. In printing your résumé, you have 10 different colors of paper
to use and 20 different font styles. How many different ways Applying What You’ve Learned
can you print your résumé? In Exercises 65–74, do not try to solve each problem algebraically.
In Exercises 39–48, determine whether each statement is true or Instead, make a guess that satisfies one or more conditions of the
false. If a statement is true, give two examples to illustrate it. If it is problem and then evaluate your guess, as we did in Example 7.
false, give a single counterexample. Keep adjusting your guesses until you have a solution that fits all
39. Months of the year have 31 days. the conditions of the problem.
40. All past presidents of the United States are deceased. 65. The local historical society wants to preserve two buildings. The
a c a+c total age of the buildings is 321 years. If one building is twice as
41. b + d = b + d old as the other, what are the ages of the two buildings?
66. To celebrate Dunder Mifflin’s 40th anniversary, Michael Scott
42. If a 6 b, then a + c 6 b + c.
has made a 40-foot-long sandwich. The sandwich is cut into
43. If A is the father of B and three unequal pieces. The longest piece is three times as long as
B is the father of C, then the middle piece, and the shortest piece is 5 feet shorter than the
A is the father of C. middle piece. What are the lengths of the three pieces?
44. If X is acquainted with 67. Janine worked 15 hours last week. One job as a clerk in
Y and Y is acquainted a sporting goods store paid her $7.25 per hour, while her
with Z, then X is ac- job giving piano lessons paid $12 per hour. If she earned
quainted with Z. $137.25 between the two jobs, how many hours did she work
45. If a 6 b, then a2 6 b2. at each job?
46. x + y - z = x + z - y 68. Vince worked 18 hours last week. Part of the time he worked
47. If the lengths of the sides of a square are doubled, then the area in a fast-food restaurant and part of the time he worked
of the square is also doubled. tutoring a high school student in mathematics. He was paid
$7.25 per hour in the restaurant and $15 per hour tutoring.
48. If the price on a Blu-ray player is increased by 10% and
If he earned $161.50 total, how many hours did he work at
then later reduced by 10%, the price will be the same as the
each job?
original price.
69. Last season, LaDainian Tomlinson carried the football two times
In Exercises 49–52, decide whether the two sequences of operations
more than Steven Jackson and 68 times less than Larry Johnson.
will give the same results.
If the three running backs carried the ball 1,110 times, how
49. Squaring a number, then adding 5 to it; adding 5 to a number many times did each carry the ball?
and then squaring that sum.
70. In 2007, Alex Rodriguez of the New York Yankees and
50. Squaring two numbers x and y, then subtracting the results; Magglio Ordoñez of the Detroit Tigers had a total of 295 runs
subtracting x and y, then squaring the difference. batted in. If Rodriguez had 7 more than Ordoñez, how many
51. Adding two numbers x and y, then dividing the result by 3; did each have?
dividing x and y by 3, then adding the results. 71. Heather has divided $8,000 between two investments—one
52. Multiplying two numbers x and y by 5, then adding the results; paying 8%, the other 6%. If the return on her investment
adding x and y, then multiplying the result by 5. is $550, how much does she have in each investment?

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.1 y Exercises 17

72. Carlos has $9,000 in two mutual funds. One fund pays 11% For Extra Credit
interest and the other fund pays 8%. If his income from the two
87. How many ordered triples are possible if we roll three
funds last year was $936, how much did he invest in each
6-sided dice?
fund?
88. How many ordered triples are possible if we roll three
73. The administration at Center City Community College has
12-sided dice?
formed a 26-person planning committee. There are five times
as many administrators as there are students and five more 89. Draw a diagram to show all of the possible routes that a
faculty members than students. How many students are there sales representative for a company could take by starting at
on the committee? Los Angeles, visiting Chicago, Houston, and Philadelphia in
some order, and then returning home. (Describe each route
74. Last week Minxia made 55 phone calls to gather support for the
by listing the first letter of each city visited. For example,
reelection of her local state representative. She contacted three
LHPCL is one route.)
times as many senior citizens as she did young adults. The number
of middle-age adults was one-half the number of senior citizens. 90. Reconsider Exercise 89, but now assume you have 10 different
How many senior citizens did she contact? cities, including Los Angeles. By looking at simpler examples,
find a pattern to determine the total number of routes that
would be possible. Assume that you are always starting at
Communicating Mathematics Los Angeles.
75. What is the benefit of choosing good names for objects in a 91. Continue the following sequence of pairs of numbers by listing
mathematical discussion? the next two pairs in the sequence: (3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13),
76. Explain the advantage of listing items systematically in a (17, 19), (29, 31), . . . .
discussion rather than in a random fashion. 92. Continue the following sequence of pairs of numbers by listing
77. How does the technique of considering simpler examples of a the next two pairs in the sequence: (5, 11), (7, 13), (11, 17),
problem relate to the technique of looking for patterns in solving (13, 19), (17, 23), (19, 29), . . . .
a problem? 93. We will call the fol-
78. Why is guessing a good way to gain insight into a problem? lowing figure a 5-by-
5 square. In this
79. Students often ignore the first and last step of Polya’s problem-
figure, we have high-
solving method. Why do you think that this is so? What are the
lighted a 1-by-1
dangers of ignoring these steps?
square in red and a
80. Explain in your own words the Three-Way Principle. 3-by-3 square in blue.
81. Does using the Three-Way Principle in learning mathematics Find the number of
seem different from the ways you have approached learning all possible squares in
mathematics in the past? Explain. the figure. Try to be
82. The French mathematician Jacques Hadamard wrote a book, systematic in solving
An Essay on the Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical this problem by con-
Field (Dover 1954), that gives insights into how real mathe- sidering all 5 * 5 squares, then all 4 * 4 squares, etc.
maticians use the subconscious mind to solve problems. Write 94. Consider in the following map how many different ways
a brief report on this book. there are to go directly from the Hard Rock Cafe to The
Cheesecake Factory.

Using Technology to Investigate

Mathematics Hard Rock
Cafe
83. Search the Internet for the term problem solving, and write a
brief report on one of the sites that you find interesting.
84. Search the Internet for the terms creativity and mathematics.
Write a brief report on an interesting site that you find.
85. Use a calculator to find the last digit in the number 2 100 .
If you try to do this directly, you will get an answer that
looks something like 1.2676506 E 30, which is the number
written in what is called scientific notation that we discuss
later in Chapter 6. That is not what we are asking you to do.
If you instead consider the sequence of computations
2, 2 * 2, 2 * 2 * 2, 2 * 2 * 2 * 2, etc. until you see a pattern,
that will allow you to predict the last digit in 2100.
86. Proceed as in Exercise 85 and use a calculator to find the last The Cheesecake
digit in the number 7100. Factory

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.