University of Mustansiriyah Subject: Engineering Hydrology

College of Engineering Class: 4th year

Civil Eng. Dept. 2018-2019 Asst. Prof. Dr. Rasul M. Khalaf

Groundwater
1. INTRODUCTION
The surface water hydrology that deal with surface runoff have been discussed. The study of
subsurface flow is equally important since about 30% of the world’s fresh water resources exist in
the form of groundwater. Further, the subsurface water forms a critical input for the sustenance of
life and vegetation in arid zones. Due to its importance as a significant source of water supply,
various aspects of groundwater dealing with the exploration, development and utilization have been
extensively studied by workers from different disciplines, such as geology, geophysics,
geochemistry, agricultural engineering, fluid mechanics and civil engineering and excellent
treatises are available, (Ref. 1, 2 and 4 through 10).
2. FORMS OF SUBSURFACE WATER
Water in the soil mantle is called subsurface water and is considered in two zones (Fig. 1):
1. Saturated zone, and
2. Aeration zone.
Saturated Zone
This zone, also known as groundwater zone, is
the space in which all the pores of the soil are
filled with water. The water table forms its
upper limit and marks a free surface, i.e.
surface having atmospheric pressure.

Zone of Aeration
In this zone the soil pores are only partially
saturated with water. The space between the land
surface and the water table marks the extent of
this zone. The zone of aeration has three Fig. 1 Classification of Subsurface Water
subzones:
i) Soil water zone : This lies close to the ground surface in the major root band of the vegetation
from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration.
ii) Capillary fringe: In this the water is held by capillary action. This zone extends from the water
table upwards to the limit of the capillary rise.
iii) Intermediate zone : This lies between the soil water zone and the capillary fringe.
The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent subzones depend upon the soil texture
and moisture content and vary from region to region. The soil moisture in the zone of aeration
is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering. The only saturated zone
was considered herein.
Saturated Formation
All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore spaces. Although these pores are completely
saturated with water below the water table, from the groundwater utilization aspect only such
material through which water moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease are significant. On
this basis the saturated formations are classified into four categories:
1. Aquifer, 2. Aquitard , 3. Aquiclude , and 4. Aquifuge.
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Aquifer: An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material which not only stores water but yields
it in sufficient quantity. Thus an aquifer transmits water relatively easily due to its high
permeability. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers.
Aquitard: It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield is
insignificant compared to an aquifer. It is partly permeable. A sandy clay unit is an example of
aquitard. Through an aquitard appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it.
Aquiclude: It is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of water. It
may be considered as closed to water movement even though it may contain large amounts of water
due to its high porosity. Clay is an example of an aquiclude.
Aquifuge: It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable. There are no
interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water. Massive compact rock without any
fractures is an aquifuge.
The definitions of aquifer, aquitard and aquiclude as above are relative. A formation which
may be considered as an aquifer at a place where water is at a premium (e.g. arid zones) may be
classified as an aquitard or even aquiclude in an area where plenty of water is available. The
availability of groundwater from an aquifer at a place depends upon the rates of withdrawal and
replenishment (recharge). Aquifers play the roles of both a transmission conduit and storage.
Aquifers are classified as Unconfined aquifers and Confined aquifers on the basis of their
occurrence and field situation. An unconfined aquifer (also known as water table aquifer) is one in
which a free water surface, i.e. a water table exists (Fig. 2). Only the saturated zone of this aquifer
is of importance in groundwater studies. Recharge of this aquifer takes place through infiltration of
precipitation from the ground surface. A well driven into an unconfined aquifer will indicate a static
water level corresponding to the water table level at that location.

Fig. 2 Confined and Unconfined Aquifers

A confined aquifer, also known as artesian aquifer, is an aquifer which is confined between two
impervious beds such as aquicludes or aquifuges (Fig. 2). Recharge of this aquifer takes place only
in the area where it is exposed at the ground surface. The water in the confined aquifer will be
under pressure and hence the piezometric level will be much higher than the top level of the
aquifer. At some locations: the piezometric level can attain a level higher than the land surface and
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a well driven into the aquifer at such a location will flow freely without the aid of any pump. In
fact, the term artesian is derived from the fact that a large number of such free flow wells were
found in Artois, a former province in north France. Instances of free-flowing wells having as much
as a 50-m head at the ground surface are reported. A confined aquifer is called a leafy aquifer if
either or both of its confining beds are aquitards.

Water Table
A water table is the free water surface in an unconfined aquifer. The static level of a well
penetrating an unconfined aquifer indicates the level of the water table at that point. The water table
is constantly in motion adjusting its surface to achieve a balance between the recharge and outflow
from the subsurface storage. Fluctuations in the water level in a dug well during various seasons of
the year, lowering of the groundwater table in a region due to heavy pumping of the wells and the
rise in the water table of an irrigated area with poor drainage, are some common examples of the
fluctuation of the water table. In a general sense, the water table follows the topographic features of
the surface. If the water table intersects the land surface the groundwater comes out to the surface in
the form of springs or seepage.
Sometimes a lens or localized patch of impervious stratum can occur inside an unconfined
aquifer in such a way that it retains a water table above the general water table (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Perched Water Table

Such a water table retained around the impervious material is known as perched water table.
Usually the perched water table is of limited extent and the yield from such a situation is very
small. In groundwater exploration a perched water table is quite often confused with a general
water table.
The position of the water table relative to the water level in a stream determines whether the
stream contributes water to the groundwater storage or the other way about. If the bed of the stream
is below the groundwater table, during periods of low flows in the stream, the water surface may go
down below the general water table elevation and the groundwater contributes to the flow in the
stream. Such streams which receive groundwater flow are called effluent streams (Fig. 4 (a) ).
Perennial rivers and streams are of this kind. If, however, the water table is below the bed of the
stream, the stream-water percolates to the groundwater storage and a hump is formed in the
groundwater table (Fig. 4 (b) ). Such streams which contribute to the groundwater are known as
influent streams. Intermittent rivers and streams which go dry during long periods of dry spell (i.e.
no rain periods) are of this kind.

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 Fig.4 Effluent and Influent Streams

3. AQUIFER PROPERTIES
The important properties of an aquifer are its capacity to release the water held in its pores and
its ability to transmit the flow easily. These properties essentially depend upon the composition of
the aquifer.

Porosity: is the amount of pore space per unit volume of the aquifer material is called porosity. It is
expressed as:

= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
Where; n = porosity, Vv = volume of voids and Vo= volume of the porous medium. In an
unconsolidated material the size distribution, packing and shape of particles determine the porosity.
In hard rocks, the porosity is dependent on the extent, spacing and the pattern of fracturing or on the
nature of solution channels. In qualitative terms porosity greater than 20% is considered as large,
between 5 and 20% as medium and less than 5% as small.

Specific Yield: While porosity gives a measure of the water-storage capability of a formation, not
all the water held in the pores is available for extraction by pumping or draining by gravity. The
pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface tension. The actual volume of
water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from a unit volume of aquifer material is known
as the specific yield, Sy . The fraction of water held back in the aquifer is known as specific
retention, Sr Thus porosity
= + − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)
The representative values of porosity and specific yield of some common earth materials are given
in Table 1.
Table 1 Porosity and Specific Yield of Selected Formations
Formation Porosity, % Specific yield, %
Clay 45-55 1-10
Sand 35-40 10-30
Gravel 30-40 15-30
Sand stone 10-20 5-15
Shale 1-10 0.5-5
Lime stone 1-10 0.5-5
It is seen from Table 1, that although both clay and sand have high porosity, the specific yield of
clay is very small compared to that of sand.
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Darcy’s Law
In 1856 Henry Darcy, a French hydraulic engineer, on the basis of his experimental findings
proposed a law relating the velocity of flow in a porous medium. This law, known as Darcy s law,
can be expressed as;
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
where V= Apparent velocity of seepage = Q/A in which Q = discharge and A = cross sectional area
of the porous medium. V is sometimes also known as discharge velocity. = − = hydraulic
gradient, in which h = piezometric head and s = distance , measured in the general flow direction;
the negative sign emphasizes that the piezometric head drops in the direction of flow. K = a
coefficient, called coefficient of permeability, having the units of velocity. The discharge Q can be
expressed as;
∆
= = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (4)
∆
where ( - ΔH) is the drop in the hydraulic grade line in a length Δs of the porous medium. Darcy’s
law is a particular case of the general viscous fluid flow. It has been shown valid for laminar flows
only. For practical purposes, the limit ofthe validity of Darcy’s law can be taken as Reynolds
number of value unity, i.e.;
= ≅ 1 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (5)
ʋ
where ; Re = Reynolds number
d = representative particle size, usually d =dl0 where d10 represents a size such that 10 % of
the aquifer material is of smaller size,
ʋ = kinematic viscosity of water
It may be noted that the apparent velocity V used in Darcy’s law is not the actual velocity of
flow through the pores. Owing to irregular pore geometry the actual velocity of flow varies from
point to point and the bulk pore velocity (v j which represents the actual speed of travel of water in
the porous media is expressed as

= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (6)
where n = porosity. The bulk pore velocity is the velocity that is obtained by tracking a tracer
added to the groundwater.

Hydraulic Conductivity
The coefficient of permeability is related to porous media effects, where as the hydraulic
conductivity reflects the combined effects of the porous medium and fluid properties. The
coefficient of permeability K can be expressed as
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(7)
Where; dm = mean particle size of the porous medium, γ = ρg = unit weight of fluid, ρ= density of
the fluid, g = acceleration due to gravity, μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid and C =a shape factor
which depends on the porosity, packing, shape of grains and grain-size distribution of the porous
medium. Thus for a given porous material ∝ where ʋ= kinematic viscosity which is a function
ʋ
of temperature =μ/ρ. The laboratory or standard value of the hydraulic conductivity (Ks) is taken as
that for pure water at a standard temperature of 20oC. The value of Kt the hydraulic conductivity at
any temperature, t can be converted to Ks by the relation ;
ʋ
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (8)
ʋ
Where;

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ʋ and ʋ represent the kinematic viscosity values at 20oC and t oC respectively. At 20oC, for
water, ʋ = 0.01 cm2/s .
If = . The parameter Ko is called specific or intrinsic permeability which is a function of
the medium only.

Transmissibility, T
Consider an aquifer of unit width and thickness B. (i.e. depth of a fully saturated zone). The
discharge through this aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient is ;
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(9)
This discharge is termed transmissibility, T and has the dimensions of [L2/T] . Its units are m2/s or
liters per day/meter width (lpd/m) . Typical values of T lie in the range 1 ×106 lpd/m to 1 ×104
lpd/m . A well with a value of T= 1 ×105 lpd/m is considered. The hydraulic conductivity is
determined in the laboratory by a permeameter. For coarse-grained soils a constant-head
permeameter is used. In this the discharge of water percolating under a constant head difference
(ΔH) through a sample of porous material of cross-sectional area A and length L is determined. The
hydraulic conductivity at the temperature of the experiment is found as
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (10)
∆ /
Injection of a tracer, such as a dye and finding its velocity of travel is another way of determining
the hydraulic conductivity under field conditions.

Example 1:
At a certain point in an unconfined aquifer of 3 km2 area, the water table was at an elevation of
102.00 m. Due to natural recharge in a wet season, its level rose to 103.20 m. A volume of 1.5 Mm3
of water was then pumped out of the aquifer causing the water table to reach a level o f 101.20 m.
Assuming the water table in the entire aquifer to respond in a similar way, estimate
(a) The specific yield of the aquifer, and
(b) The volume of recharge during the wet season.

Solution:
(a) Volume pumped out : area × drop in water table × specified yield Sy
1.5 × 106 =3 × l06 × (103.20 - 101.20) × Sy
Sy = 0.25
(b) Recharge volume 0.25 × (103.20 - 102.00) × 3 × 106 = 0.9 Mm3

Example 2:
A field test for hydraulic conductivity consists in observing the time required for a tracer to travel
between two observation wells. A tracer was found to take 10 hrs to travel between two wells 50m
apart when the difference in the water-surface elevation in them was 0.5 m. The mean particle size
of the aquifer was 2 mm and the porosity of the medium 0.3 . If ʋ = 0.01 cm2/s; estimate (a) the
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer and (b) the Reynolds number of the flow.

Solution:
(a) The tracer records the actual velocity of water
×
= = 0.139 /
× ×
Discharge velocity V= n Va = 0.3 × 0.139 = 0.0417 cm/s

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 .
Hydraulic gradient = = 1 × 10
The hydraulic conductivity(K);
4.17 × 10
= = 4.17 /
1 × 10
(b) Reynolds number =
ʋ
Taking da = mean particle size = 2 mm
. × /
= = 0.834
.

Example 3:
Three wells A, B and C tap the same horizontal aquifer The distances AB = 1200 m and BC = 1000
m. The well B is exactly south o f well A and the well C lies to the west of well B. The following
are the ground surface elevation and depth of water below the ground surface in the three wells.
Surface Elevation Depth of water table
Well
(meters above datum) (m)
A 200 11
B 197 7
C 202 14
Determine the direction of groundwater flow in the aquifer in the area ABC of the wells.
Solution:
Let H = elevation of water table.
HA = 200-11=189
HB = 197-7=190
HC = 202-14=188
Let BA = North direction, designated as Y direction.
The West direction will be called X direction.
The layout of the wells is shown in Figure
Along BA: ΔHy = HB – HA = 189 – 190 = – 1.00 m
iy= –ΔHy / LAB= – (–1/1200)=1/1200
Vy =K . iy = K/1200 m/s
where K = the hydraulic conductivity.
Along BC, (X direction):
ΔHx = HC – HB = 188 – 19 0 = – 2.00 m
Ix= –ΔHx / LBC= – (–2/1000)=1/500
Vx=K. ix = K/500 m/s
/ 1 1 /
= + = + = 2.167 x 10 K /
100 25 144
500 1
tan = = × =
1200 2.4
θ = 22.62° = 22° 37' 11.5"
where θ = inclination of V to X-axis (west direction). The groundwater flow will be in a direction
which makes 22.62° with line BC and 67.38° with BA. Thus, the direction of groundwater flow is N
67° 21' 48.5" W.
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4. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Confined Groundwater Flow
For the steady confined aquifer flow:
ℎ ℎ
+ =0

;
∇ ℎ = 0 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (11)
This equation is known as Laplace equation and is the fundamental equation of all potential flow
problems. Being linear, the method of superposition is applicable in its solutions. Equation (11) can
be solved for suitable boundary conditions by analytical, numerical or analog methods to yield
solutions to a variety of groundwater flow problems.
An application of the Laplace equation (Eq. 11) a simple situation of steady state one-dimensional
confined porous media flow is given below.

Confined Groundwater Flow between Two water Bodies

Figure 5 shows a very wide confined aquifer of depth B connecting to water bodies.
A section of the aquifer of unit width is considered. The piezometric head at the upstream end is
and at a distance x from the upstream end the head is h. As the flow is in x direction only, Eq. (11)
becomes;
ℎ
=0
On integrating twice , h = C1 x + C2
On substitution of the boundary condition h = ho at x = 0, then :
h = C1 x + ho
Also at x = L, h = h1 and hence C1= –
Thus; ℎ=ℎ − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (12)

Fig.5 Confined Groundwater Flow between Two water Bodies

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This is the equation of the hydraulic grade line, which is shown to vary linearly from ho to h1 .
By Darcy law, the discharge per unit width of the aquifer is:
( )
=− =− or;
ℎ −ℎ
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(13)
Unconfined Flow by Dupit’s Assumption
A simplified approach based on the assumptions of Dupit (1863) which gives reasonably good
results is described below. The basic assumptions of Dupit are:
• The curvature of the free surface is very small so that the streamlines can be assumed to be
horizontal at all sections.
• The hydraulic grade line is equal to the free surface slope and does not vary with depth.
The equation is;
ℎ ℎ
+ = 0 − − − − − − − − − − − −−= − − − − − − − − −(14)

(1) For considering a recharge, i.e. infiltration of water from the top ground surface into the
aquifer, at a rate of R (m3/s per m2 of horizontal area) ,the continuity equation is modified to ;
ℎ ℎ 2
+ = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(15)

For one dimensional Dupit’s Flow with Recharge

ℎ 2
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(16)
On integration with respect to x twice,
2
ℎ =− − +

Fig. 6 One Dimensional Dupit Flow with Recharge

The boundary conditions are:
(i) at x = 0, h = ho hence, C2 = ho

(ii) at x = L, h = h1 hence, ℎ − ℎ = − − +

9

ℎ −ℎ −
=−

Thus Eq.(16) becomes;

ℎ − ℎ −
ℎ =ℎ − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (17)

The water table is thus an ellipse represented by Eq. (17). The value of h will in general rise above
ho , reaches a maximum at x = a and falls back to h1 , at x=L as shown in Fig. 6. The value of ’a’ is
obtained by deriving Eq. (17) ,equating to zero, and obtaining the following;
ℎ − ℎ
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (18)
2 2
The location x = a is called the water divide. Fig. 6 shows the flow to the left of the divide will be
to the upstream water body and the flow to the right of the divide will be to the downstream water
body. The discharge per unit width of aquifer at any location x is:

ℎ ℎ − ℎ −
=− ℎ =− − − ;
2

= − + ( ℎ − ℎ ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(19)
2 2
It is obvious the discharge q , varies with x. At the upstream water body x = 0 and
Discharge;
q = q = − + ( ℎ − ℎ )
At the downstream water body x = L ;
q = q = + ( ℎ − ℎ ) = +q
2 2
(2) Flow without recharge; When there is no recharge, R = 0 and the flow simplifies to that of
steady one-dimensional flow in an unconfined aquifer as in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 One Dimensional Unconfined Flow without Recharge

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By putting R =0 in Eq. (17), the equation of the water table is given by;
ℎ − ℎ
ℎ − ℎ = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(20)
The discharge q per unit width of the aquifer is;
ℎ ℎ − ℎ
q=− ℎ = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (21)
2

(3) Tile drain problem : The provision of drains system is one of the most widely used method of
draining waterlogged areas, the object being to reduce the level of the water table. Figure 8 shows
porous tile drains maintaining a constant recharge. An approximate expression to the water table
profile can be obtained by Eq. (17) by neglecting the depth of water in the drains, i.e. ho= h1 =0.
The water table profile will then be
ℎ = ( − ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (22)
The maximum height of the water table occurs at a = L/2 and is of magnitude;
ℎ = / − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(23)
2
Considering a set of drains, since the flow is steady, the discharge entering a drain per unit length of
the drain is;
=2 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(24)
2

Fig. 8 Tile Drains under a Constant Recharge Rate

Example 4:
Two parallel rivers A and B are separated by a land mass as shown in Fig. 9. Estimate the seepage
discharge from River A to River B per unit length of the rivers.

Solution:
The aquifer system is considered as a composite of aquifers 1 and 2 with a horizontal impervious
boundary at the interface. This leads to the assumptions:
(a) aquifer 2 is a confined aquifer with K2 = 10 m/day
(b) aquifer 1 is an unconfined aquifer with Kx = 25 m/day
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Consider a unit width of the aquifers.

Fig. 9 Schematic Layout of Example 4

For the confined aquifer 2, from Eq. (13):

ℎ −ℎ
=
Here ho = 35 m, h1=15m
L = 3000 m, K2=10m/day , and B=10m
35 − 15
= 10 × 10 × = 0.667 / ℎ
3000
For the unconfined aquifer 1, from Eq. (21):
ℎ − ℎ
=
2
Here ho= (35 - 10) = 25 m, h1 = (15 - 10) = 5 m
L = 3000 m, K1= 25 m/day
25 − 5
= 25 = 2.5 /
2 × 3000
Total discharge from River A to River B is :
= + = 0.667 + 2.500 = 3.167 /

Example 5:
An unconfined aquifer (K = 5 m/day) situated on the top of a horizontal impervious layer connects
two parallel water bodies M and N which are 1200 m apart. The water surface elevations of M and
N, measured above the horizontal impervious bed, are 10.00 m and 8.00 m. If a uniform recharge at
the rate of 0.002 m3/day per m2 of horizontal area occurs on the ground surface, estimate ; (i) the
water table profile (ii) the location and elevation of the water table divide (iii) the seepage
discharges into the lakes and (iv) the recharge rate at which the water table divide coincides with
the upstream edge of the aquifer and the total seepage flow per unit width of the aquifer at this
recharge rate.

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Solution:
Consider unit width of the aquifer Referring to Fig.10
ho= 10 m, h1 = 8 m,
R = 0.002 m3/day/m2, L = 1200 m , and K= 5 m/day.

Fig. 10 Schematic Layout—Example 4

(i) The water table profile :by Eq.(17):

0.002 1 0.002(1200)
ℎ = 10 − − 10 − 8 −
5 1200 5

ℎ = −0.0004 + 0.45 + 100
(ii) Location of water table divide; From Eq.(18)
:
1200 5 10 − 8
= − = 562.5
2 0.002 2 × 1200
At x = a = 562.5 m, h = hm = height of water table divide;
ℎ = −0.0004 (562.5) + 0.45(562.5) + 100 = 226.56
ℎ = √226.56 = 15.05
(iii) Discharge per unit width of the aquifer: From Eq. (19) ;
1200 5
= 0.002 − + ( 10 − 8 )
2 2(1200)
= −1.125 / ℎ
= 1.275 . / ℎ ■

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5. HYDRAULICS OF WELLS
Drawdown in Wells
Wells form the most important mode of groundwater extraction from an aquifer. While wells are
used in a number of different applications, they find extensive use in water supply and irrigation
engineering practice.
Consider the water in an unconfined aquifer being pumped at a constant rate from a well. Prior
to the pumping, the water level in the well indicates the static water table. A lowering of this water
level takes place on pumping. If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and the water table
horizontal initially, due to the radial flow into the well through the aquifer the water table assumes a
conical shape called cone of depression.
The drop in the water table elevation at any point from its previous static level is called drawdown.
The areal extent of the cone of depression is called area of influence and its radial extent radius of
influence (Fig. 11). At constant rate of pumping, the drawdown curve develops gradually with time
due to the withdrawal of water from storage. This phase is called an unsteady flow as the water
table elevation at a given location near the well changes with time. On prolonged pumping, an
equilibrium state is reached between the rate of pumping and the rate of inflow of groundwater
from the outer edges of the zone of influence. The drawdown surface attains a constant position
with respect to time when the well is known to operate under steady flow conditions. As soon as the
pumping is stopped, the depleted storage in the cone of depression is made good by groundwater
inflow into the zone of influence. There is a gradual accumulation of storage till the original (static)
level is reached. This stage is called recuperation or recovery and is an unsteady phenomenon.
Recuperation time depends upon the aquifer characteristics.

Fig. 11 Well Operating in an Unconfined Aquifer, (definition sketch)]

Changes similar to the above take place to a pumping well in a confined aquifer also but with
the difference that it is the piezometric surface instead of the water table that undergoes drawdown
with the development of the cone of depression. In confined aquifers with considerable piezometric
head, the recovery into the well takes place at a very rapid rate.

6. STEADY FLOW INTO A WELL

Steady state groundwater problems are relatively simpler. Expressions for the steady state radial
flow into a well under both confined and unconfined aquifer conditions are presented below.

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 Confined Flow
Figure 12 shows a well completely penetrating a horizontal confined aquifer of thickness B.
Consider the well to be discharging a steady flow, Q. The original piezometric head (static head)
was H and the drawdown due to pumping is indicated in Fig. 12. The piezometric head at the
pumping well is hw and the drawdown sw.

Fig.12 Well Operating in a Confined Aquifer

At a radial distance r from the well, if h is the piezometric head, the velocity of flow by
Darcy’s law is:
ℎ
=
The cylindrical surface through which this velocity occurs is 2π r B . Hence by equating the
discharge entering this surface to the well discharge, yields:
ℎ
= = 2 ; = ℎ
2

Integrating between limits r1 and r2 with the corresponding piezometric heads being h1 and h2 ,
respectively,

= (ℎ − ℎ ) ;
2
2 (ℎ − ℎ )
= − − − − − − ( ℎ ) − − − − − − − (25)

This is the equilibrium equation for the steady flow in a confined aquifer. This equation is
popularly known as Thiem’s equation.
If the drawdown s1, and s2 at the observation wells are known, then by noting that ;
s1 = H - h1 , s2 = H - h2 and T=KB
Equation (25) will read as;
2 ( − )
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (26)

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Further, at the edge of the zone of influence, s =0, r2= R, and h2 = H ; at the well wall r1 = rw ,
h2 = hw , and s1= sw . Equation (26) would then be;
2
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(27)
ln ( / )
Equation (26) or (27) can be used to estimate T, and hence K. from pumping tests.
For use of the equilibrium equation, Eq. (25) or its alternative forms, it is necessary to consider
the assumption that complete penetration of the well into the aquifer and steady flow are satisfied.

Example 6:
A 30-cm diameter well completely penetrates a confined aquifer of permeability 45 m/day. The
length of the strainer is 20 m. Under steady state o f pumping the drawdown at the well was found
to be 3.0 m and the radius o f influence was 300 m. Calculate the discharge.
Solution:
In this problem, referring to Fig. 12, rw = 0.15 m , R = 300 m, s=3 m , B = 20 m
K = 45/(60 × 60 × 24) = 5.208 × l0-4 m/s,
T = KB = 10.416 × l0-3 m2/s
By Eq. (27) :
2 2 × 10.416 × l0 × 3
= = = 0.02583 m /s = 25.83 Lps = 1550 Lpm
ln ( / ) ln ( 300 /0.15)

Example 7:
For the well in the previous example, calculate the discharge if:
(a) the well diameter is 45 cm and all other data remain the same as in Example 6.
(b) the drawdown is increased to 4.5 m and all other data remain unchanged as in Example 6.
Solution:
(a) From Eq.(27) ,and as T and s are constants, then:
ln ( / )
=
ln ( / )
Putting R = 300 m Q1 = 1550 Lpm, rw = 0.15 m and rw =0.225 m.
ln ( 300 /0.15)
= = 1637
ln ( 300 /0.225)
Note: discharge has increased by about 6% for 50% increase in a well diameter: [ × 100 ].
(b) From Eq.(27) ,and Q ∝ sw for constant T, R and rw , thus:
=

4.5
= = 1550 = 2325
3.0
Note: discharge increases linearly with the drawdown when other factors remain constant.

Unconfined Flow
Consider a steady flow from a well completely penetrating an unconfined aquifer. In this case,
because of the presence of a curved free surface, the streamlines are not strictly radial straight lines.
While a streamline at the free surface will be curved, the one at the bottom of the aquifer will be a
horizontal line, both converging to the well.
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 To obtain a simple solution Dupit's assumptions as indicated in page 9 are made. In the present
case these are:
• For small inclinations of the free surface, the streamlines can be assumed to be horizontal and the
equipotentials are thus vertical.
• The hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the free surface and does not vary with depth. This
assumption is satisfactory in most of the flow regions except in the immediate neighborhoods of
the well.
Consider the well of radius rw penetrating completely an extensive unconfined horizontal
aquifer as shown in Fig. 13. The well is pumping a discharge Q. At any radial distance r, the
velocity of radial flow into the well is; = , where h is the height of the water table
above the aquifer bed at that location.

Fig. 13 Radial Flow to a Well in an Unconfined Aquifer

For steady flow, by continuity:

ℎ
= (2 ℎ) = (2 ℎ) ; = ℎ ℎ
2
Integrating between limits r1 and r2 where the water-table depths are h1 and h2 , respectively and on
rearranging:
(ℎ − ℎ )
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (28)

This is the equilibrium equation for a well in an unconfined aquifer. As at the edge of the zone of
influence of radius R. H= saturated thickness of the aquifer, Eq. (28) can be written as:
( −ℎ )
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (29)

where hw = depth of water in the pumping well of radius rw .
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 Equations (28) and (29) can be used to estimate satisfactorily the discharge and permeability of
the aquifer by using field data. Calculations of the water table profile by Eq. (28), however, will not
be accurate near the well because of Dupit’s assumptions. The water table surface calculated by
Eq.(28) which involved Dupit’s assumption will be lower than the actual surface. The departure
will be appreciable in the immediate neighborhood of the well (Fig.13). In general, values of R in
the range 300 to 500 m can be assumed depending on the type of aquifer and operating conditions
of a well. As the logarithm of R is used in the calculation of discharge, a small error in R will not
seriously affect the estimation of Q. It should be noted that it takes a relatively long time of
pumping to achieve a steady state in a well in an unconfined aquifer. The recovery after the
cessation of pumping is also slow compared to the response of an artesian well which is fast.
APPROXIMATE EQUATIONS
If the drawdown at the pumping well sw = (H - hw ) is small relative to H, then:
H2 - h2w = (H + hw ) ( H - hw ) ≈ 2 H sw
Noting that T =KH , Eq. (29) can be written as;
2
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (29 )
ln /
which is the same as Eq. (27). Similarly Eq. (28) can be written in terms of s1 = (H – h1 ) and
s2=(H- h2 ) as;
2 ( − )
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(28 )

which is the same as Eq. (26). Equations (28a) and (29a) are approximate equations to be used only
when Eq.(28) or (29) cannot be used for lack of data. Equation (29a) over estimates the discharge
by [1/2 (H/sw - 1)] % when compared to Eq. (29).

Example 8:
A 30-cm well completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer of saturated depth 40 m. After a long
period of pumping at a steady rate of 1500 Lpm, the drawdown in two observation wells 25 and 75
m from the pumping well were found to be 3.5 and 2.0 m, respectively. Determine the
transmissivity of the aquifer. What is the drawdown at the pumping well?
Solution:
(a)
1500 × 10
= = 0.025 /
60
h2 =40.0 - 2.0 = 38.0 r2 = 75 m
h1=40.0-3.5 = 36.5 m r1=25 m
From Eq. (28),
(ℎ − ℎ ) (38 − 36.5 )
= = = 0.025 ; = 7.823 × 10 /
75

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T = KH = 7.823 ×10-5 × 40 = 3.13 ×10-2 m2/s
(b) Let as Homework; Note: Apply Eq. (28) at the well,( r1= rw; h1= hw) .

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