Overtraining in Classical Conditioning:

A Comparison of Motor and Cardiac Systems

in Dogs*
JAMES J. LYNCH
Pavlovian Laboratory, lohns Hopkins University Medical School

Abstract--Data from the analysis of the Overlearning Reversal Effect

(ORE) noted in a simultaneous, visual discrimination task, and the lack
of this effect in a position habit discrimination, led to the prediction that
the ORE would not be noted in classical conditioning. It was further
noted that very little work on discrimination learning had been reported in
Pavlovian conditioning. The idea of schizokinesis, as observed by Gantt
and others in classical conditioning, has been elaborated using the simple
conditioning paradigm, and no data were available to test whether this
same split would occur on a more complex level of conditioning, such
as a discrimination task.
To test these ideas, nine dogs were trained to a criterion of minimum
discrimination, and then divided into three groups and given varying
amounts of overtraining (OT). The discrimination task given the animal
was to flex its paw during the CS-F signalling the onset of a brief shock.
After the varying amounts of OT all groups were placed in extinction,
followed by reversal training until each dog reached a criterion of
minimum reversal.
The results indicated 1) that the cardiac discrimination did not form
before the motor discrimination; 2) extinction of differentiation was not
significantly affected by the amount of OT given; 3) the mean level of
responding in the motor system during extinction was highly correlated
with the mean level of responding during the initial discrimination train-
ing; 4) OT had no effect on the speed of reversal of either the motor or
the cardiac systems; 5) the speed of reversal learning in the motor system
was highly correlated with the speed of initial discrimination.

THE EXPERIMENT contained in this report was designed w i t h

two purposes in mind. The first of these was to ascertain if varying
amounts of overtraining influence the rate of extinction and reversal
learning in a classical conditioning, successive discrimination para-
digm. The second purpose was to evaluate the comparative speed
of formation, extinction and reversal of the motor and cardiac
systems in a classical conditioning discrimination task.

* This study is based upon a doctoral dissertation submitted to The Cath-

olic University of America. The author wishes to thank John C. Townsend,
James Youniss, and W. Horsley Gantt, for their advice and support. This
study was conducted at the Pavlovian Laboratory, Veterans Administration
Hospital, Perry Point, Maryland.
266
Volume 1
Number 4 MOTOR AND CARDIAC SYSTEMS IN DOGS 267

In 1953 Reid, while studying simultaneous discrimination in

instrumental conditioning, noted that overtrained rats could reverse
a black-white discrimination habit far quicker than animals who
had been taught the discrimination but not given any overtraining
(OT). This finding, called the Overlearning Reversal Effect (ORE),
was confirmed by Capaldi and Stevenson (1957), Komaki (1961),
Mackintosh (1962, 1963) and Pubols (1956), all of whom used
some variation of the original black-white discrimination task
initially used by Reid (1953).
During this same period, a number of investigators, using a posi-
tion habit discrimination instead of a black-white discrimination in
studying simultaneous discrimination, were not able to confirm the
ORE (Clayton, 1963; D'Amato & Jagoda, 1962; D'Amato & Schiff,
1964; Hill, Spear & Clayton, 1962; Komaki, 1969.).
Lovejoy (1966) in an attempt to explain the difference between
the ORE found in a visual discrimination task and the lack of the
ORE in a simple position problem, has postulated that the ORE is
"found only when the animal's initial probability of attending to
the relevant stimuli is low." He further notes that in such a situ-
ation "the nonovertrained animals may stop attending to the relevant
stimuli during reversal and so will learn the reversal slowly." This
hypothesis is similar to Sutherland's idea of the "switching in of
the relevant stimulus analyzer." Sutherland (1959) argued that
in order for an animal to solve a discrimination problem, it must
first learn to attend to the relevant stimulus dimension and then,
and only then, can the animal learn to make the appropriate
response.
One of the conclusions of this analysis is that the ORE should
not occur in a successive discrimination task, since the probability
of responding to the relevant stimulus is high (Paul, 1965). Since
the typical method of discrimination training in classical condition-
ing is that of single stimulus presentation, OT should have no effect
on the speed of reversal learning. No studies have yet been reported
testing this prediction in classical conditioning.
In their monograph discussing Pavlovian conditioning, Black,
Carlson and Solomon (1962) noted that very few parametric
analyses of the phenomena of classical conditioning similar to those
done in instrumental conditioning had yet been completed. A
major reason for this seems to be that the experimental approach
used by those involved in Pavlovian research has not been to
investigate in a parametric fashion isolated environmental factors,
such as OT, but rather, has been to investigate the physiological
systems within the organism to study how they are involved in
the formation of the conditional reflex. Thus smaller numbers of
268 LYNCH Conditional Reflex
Oct.-Dee. 1966

animals have been studied in greater detail, and physiological

rather than environmental factors have been given more attention.
In studying the physiological systems involved in the condi-
tional reflex, Gantt noted that the cardiac system often formed a
conditional reflex before the motor system, and paradoxically took
much longer to extinguish than the motor component of that con-
ditional reflex. This split was called schizokinesis (Gantt, 1944,
1948, 1953, 1956, 1957a, 1957b, 1960; Dykman & Gantt, 1951, 1952;
Pinto, Newton & Gantt, 1957; Stephens & Gantt, 1956). All of this
work has, however, investigated this split between the cardiac
and motor systems only in the simple conditioning paradigm, and
has not indicated whether this same split would manifest itself in
a similar fashion in a more complex conditioning process such as
discrimination.
Method
Subjects
The Ss were nine adult, male mongrel dogs. None of the animals
had had any previous laboratory experience.

lpparatv
A commercial (Industrial Acoustics Company, New York)
soundproof room, 8 x 6 feet with sound attenuation of 40 db at 800
cycles was held at 68 ~ F by a central air-conditioning unit. Observa-
tion of the animal could be made through an 18 x 24 inch acoustic
window and one-way mirror. The dog was confined in a standing
position on a three foot high table by a neck leash and a rear sling
harness, which were fastened to an L-shaped tubular standard
which went behind and above the dog. To the front of this standard
was fastened a jack panel into which could be inserted plugs from
EKG leads, shocker and respirometer. From the front of this jack
panel, wires ran back and down the tubular standard, under a
rubber mat on the floor, to a double jack panel at the front of the
camera, so that all electric signals could be easily rearranged. On
the front half of the table was a fiat grid for recording the latency
of the foot flexion responses.
An Offner "Type T" was the basic instrument used for the
recording of physiological data. Two "200 C" Hewlett-Packard
audio oscillators were used to deliver the two conditional stimuli,
each oscillator was individually controlled by the programmer.
The electric shocker used was a transistorized, battery powered,
modified Harfley-type oscillator, operating at a frequency of
approximately 120 volts peak at 20 ma, or 100 row. The intensity
of the shock could be manually controlled at its source on the
Volume I
Number 4 M O T O R AN D CARDIAC SYSTEMS I N DOGS 269

instrument panel. The shock was delivered through two electrodes

placed on the animal's front paw. The programmer consisted of
three timing units.
1. The first controlled the duration of the CS.
2. The second controlled the delay between the onset
of the CS and the US.
3. The third controlled the duration of the US.
Each cycle was manually begun by a switch. Alternations between
reinforced and nonreinforced trials were automatic, as well as
manually controllable through a switch.

Procedure
The procedure used in this study consisted of five parts or
stages as follows: habituation training, orienting, conditioning,
extinction and reversal.
Habituation Training. Basal cardiac and respiratory rates, as
well as motor activity, were recorded in a Pavlovian Camera.
(Camera is the word used to indicate the sound-proof room in
which the experiment was conducted. ) These measures were taken
for a four-day period, 40 minutes each day, after each of the nine
dogs had acclimatized to the environmental situation. During the
remainder of the time the animals were housed in kennels adjacent
to the laboratory.
Orienting Training. During this period two tones, one 630
cycles/sec., and the other 480 cycles/sec., were each presented in
a random sequence at a variable interval, ten times a day, for five
days. Each tone was sounded for six seconds, the entire twenty
tones being presented over a forty-minute period. This schedule
of tone sequences was the same used in the remaining three phases
of the experiment-conditioning, extinction and reversal. The
numbers in the table in parentheses refer to the numerical sequence
in which the tones were presented, while the numbers in the
column refer to the temporal sequence in which they were presented.

T~mLE1. Schedule of Tone Sequence

480 cps 630 cps 480 cps 630 cps

(I) 2:00" (3) 5:00 (12) 21:00 (11) 20:00

(2) 4:00 (4) 7:00 (13) 23:00 (14) 25:00
(6) 9:15 (5) 8:30 (15) 29:00 (16) 31:00
(9) 16:00 (7) 11:00 (17) 32:00 (19) 37:00
(10) 17:00 (8) 14:00 (18) 35:00 (20) 38:00

* 2:00 indicates that after the animal was in the camera for two minutes, the first
480 cps tone was sounded.
 Conditional Reflex
270 LYNCH Oct.-Dec. 1966

Conditioning. After orienting training, conditioning was initi-

ated. This consisted of pairing the six-second, 480 cps tone ( C S + )
with a one-second shock (US) at the end of the tone, while the
six-second, 630 cps tone (CS--) was not followed by the US. Each
of the two tones was presented ten times in each daily experimental
session. The shock presented varied according to the reaction of
the individual dog, being of s-ff~cient intensity to elicit a "4" uncon-
ditional leg flexion, a reaction usually elicited by a mild to moderate
shock (3-4 ma) to the foreleg. Motor responses (foot flexion)
were judged on an interval scale as being either 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.
A motor response judged as 0 would be one in which no observable
foot flexion was noted to the shock, a 1 when the foot was barely
lifted off the table, etc., up to a 4, which would be a full leg flexion
to the shock. This interval scale for judging foot flexion was main-
rained for both the conditional response (that foot flexion elicited
by the CS) as well as the response evoked by the US. The degree
of foot flexion was estimated by two independent raters (E and a
technician) who then compared their observations. A high degree
of inter-rater reliability was attained. Thus, throughout the experi-
ment, two raters were constantly and independently rating the
amount of conditional and unconditional foot flexion.
The criterion for having obtained minimum discrimination
between the two tones was the accumulated difference of +15 to
the CS+, i.e., in the 20 trials on any given day the dog had to lift
his leg more to the reinforced tone than to the nonreinforced tone,
the difference being +15. Since the maximum possible score a dog
could receive for any flexion during the CS was 4, the maximum
possible score the animal could receive for the ten trials on any
given day was 40. Thus ff an animal always completely flexed to
the CS+ and never flexed to the C S - he would be given the maxi-
mum possible discrimination score of 40. If the animal flexed his foot
a total of 35 to the CS+, and a total of 20 to the CS--, he would
have a discrimination score of 15, the criteria for having reached
minimum discrimination. The criteria for having reached minimum
discrimination was an arbitrary one, chosen because a 15 equalled
approximately 405 of maximum possible differentiation.
After having reached the criteria for minimum discrimination,
the experimental animals were then split into three groups, all
three groups being equated on the speed of initial discrimination
learning. Group A was trained to minimum discrimination learning
and then placed in extinction. Group B was given four days (40
trials on each tone) of additional discrimination training after
having reached the criterion for minimum discrimination, and Group
C was given ten days (100 trials on each tone) of additional dis-
Volume 1
Number 4 M O T O R A N D CARDIAC SYSTEMS I N DOGS 271

crimination training after having reached the minimum discrimi-

nation criterion.
Extinction. After the differential amounts of overtraining had
been given, all groups were placed in extinction. The extinction
consisted of presenting both tones, shock reeinforcement having
been eliminated, for seven experimental sessions.
Reversal. After extinction, all animals were given reversal train-
ing, i.e., the 480 cps tone, originally followed by the US was not
reinforced, while the 630 cps tone was followed by shock reinforce-
ment. Each animal was run in this condition until he reached the
minimum criterion of discrimination established for conditioning,
i.e., a difference of +15 motor response to the reinforced stimulus.
It should be noted that in the initial discrimination, overtrain-
ing, and reversal, the US followed the +CS regardless of whether
the animal flexed its leg or not.

Measurements
Stable cardiac base rates were established before discrimination
training was initiated. Heart Rate (HR) was established by count-
ing the number of R waves in consecutive six-second intervals of
time. Thus, the number of R waves six seconds before the onset of
the CS, the number of R waves during the CS, and the number of
R waves six seconds after the US for each of the trials were counted.
The number of R waves during each of these periods were then
added for all ten trials for each of the two tones. Since each period
was six seconds in duration, and there were ten such periods for
each of the tones, the data were thus converted into beats per
minute (bpm). An illustration of how cardiac discrimination was
evaluated is shown in Tables 2 and 3.

Results
Motor System. In the motor system (as measured by foot
flexion) it was noted that the speed of initial discrimination varied
from four days (or 80 trials) to a maximum of 24 days (480 trials),
the average for all dogs being ten sessions (or 200 trials). Although
in general, OT increased the percentage level of discrimination in
all dogs, all of the animals showed drops in the percentage level
of differentiation on various days during the OT period. Thus the
pattern of discrimination before and during OT was one of a gradual
but irregular increase in differentiation with increased discrimination
training. In Figure 1 this irregular trend can be seen, in spite of
the fact that the data are grouped.
 Conditional Reflex
272 LYI~CH Oct.-Dec, 1966

L A S T 3 DAYS OF OVERTRAININO PERIOD EXTINCTION PERIOD

DISCRIMINATION
TRAINING

I e...d * EXCITATORY STIMULUB

75 --- -- #* J 7 - 9 INHIBITORY 8 T I M U L ~
I

G I

I "

3 2 I I 2 3 4 II 6 7 8 S I0 I Z ,t 4 B 6 9

,oo[-GRoo, . 1

e.%%
O, "[- ~ . l
I., I I I I l
3 2 1 l ~ 3 4 8 6 7 8 S IO I 2 3 4 8 a T

I78
O0I
t~ 5o

tk%

o I I
3 2 I I 2 3 4 B 6 T 8 S IO I 2 qt 4 5 B 9
NUMBER OF EXPERIMENTAL DAYS

Fic. 1. Mean per cent foot flexion to excitatory and inhibitory stimuli
during conditioning, overtraining and extinction for three groups of dogs.

From Figure 1 it can also be seen that the varying amounts of

OT given the groups did not significantly affect the rate of extinc-
tion. Eight of the nine dogs manifested a loss of the minimum
criterion of differentiation within the first ten trials of extinction, i.e.,
extinction of this differentiation was very rapid. The remaining
dog, in Group C, maintained differentiation for two days, and this
spuriously influenced the extinction rate of Group C. This dog's
(Mike) response pattern is shown in Figure 2.
In Figure 2 it can be seen that the response level (not the
percentage level of differentiation) elicited during initial condition-
ing was related to the response level shown during extinction; i.e.,
dogs who tended to respond a great deal to both tones during
initial training tended to respond more during extinction than dogs
who initia]_ly responded very little during initial conditioning. The
rank order correlation for all dogs was .79, significant beyond the
.01 level of confidence.
OT also had no significant effect on the speed of reversal learn-
ing. A Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance on these data
yielded an H-----.051, far from significant at the .05 level of con-
fidence. The speed of reversal learning was, however, highly cor-
Volume 1
~Nurnber 4 M O T O R AND CARDIAC SYSTEMS IN" DOGS 273

Frc. 2. Correlation of motor responsivity in conditioning and extinction

for two dogs. Numbers on ordinate refer to the mean amount of foot flexion
made to each of the stimuli.

related with the speed of initial discrimination learning in all dogs,

i.e., the animal which learned the initial discrimination task the
quickest reversed the quickest, while the animal which took the
longest to learn this discrimination, also took the longest to reverse.
The correlation for these data was .83 (Spearman rho), significant
beyond the .01 level of confidence. The basis for this correlation
can be seen in Figure 3. From this figure it can also be seen that
OT had no significant effect on the speed of reversal learning. Also
shown in Figure 3 is the consistency of the speed of learning within
the individual animal for the two tasks; i.e., an animal that took
ten days to learn the initial task, took about the same amount of
time to learn the reversal task.
Cardiac System. All of the animals showed a generalized car-
diac reaction to both the excitatory and inhibitory stimuli from the
outset of discrimination training. That is, from the first presentation
of the US, there was a tendency for a marked cardiac reaction to
both tones. The magnitude and direction of that change were
quite variable among the animals from .day to day. This variability
within the dogs from day to day, and between the animals from
day to day, made it difficult to analyze group differences in this
system, hence the results will be discussed in terms of the individual
animals.
 Conditional Reflex
274 LYNCH Oct.-Dec. 1966

Fic. 3. Comparison of speed of discrimination to speed of reversal

learning in motor system with three degrees of overtraining.

It was assumed that in order to establish cardiac discrimination

the reaction to the -]-CS would be greater than the reaction to the
--CS. In Table i the mean difference cardiac rate from the pre-CS
to the during CS for both the positive and the negative stimuli are
listed for the last three days to the criterion of minimum discrimina-
tion as established by foot flexion.
From this table it can be seen that on the criterion day, five of
the dogs, Mike, Co-op, Erin, Snowball and Neal showed a greater
cardiac reaction to the inhibitory stimulus, in spite of the fact that
just the reverse was true in their motor system. Only three of the
animals showed a greater cardiac response to the excitatory stimulus,
Henry, Irish and Gene. The remaining dog, Charlie, showed almost
equal responsibility to both tones.
 Volume
Numb~ 14 MOTOR AND CARDIAC S Y S T E M S IN D O G S 275

From this table it can also be noted that none of the animals
formed cardiac differentiation before motor differentiation, although
two of the animals, Henry and Irish, formed the differentiation
almost simultaneously in both systems.
Those animals who formed a cardiac conditional discrimination
and who were given OT improved both the consistency and degree
of discrimination in their cardiac systems.
Two animals, Henry and Gene, maintained cardiac discrimina-
tion throughout the entire extinction period; the remaining seven
animals showed no cardiac differentiation after the first day of ex-
tinction. OT did not effect the cardiac-extinction pattern. Although
discrimination was extinguished quite rapidly in seven of the dogs,
all of the animals continued to respond to the CSi by cardiac changes
(usually a tachycardia of about 15 bpm); that is, they continued
to respond to the conditional stimuli, only the differentiation was
extinguished.
In Table 3 it can be seen that all of the dogs except Neal had
shown evidence of some degree of reversal in their cardiac systems
by the time the motor system was attaining the criterion of minimum
differentiation.

TABLE 2. Mean Cardiac Change* to Positive and Negative Stimuli on Last

Three Days to Discrimination Criteria in Flexion Response

Two Days Before Day Before Day of Motor

Discrimination Discrimination Discrimination
Exp. + - + - + -

Animals 480 cps 630 cps 480 cps 630 cps 480 cps 630 cps

Mike 14 18 18 14 11 21" 9
Henry 2 5 5 2 28 9
Co-op 5 10 --3 --2 0 4~
Irish 19 26 24 16 17 7
Charlie 23 10 19 24 10 9
Erin 29 29 11 30 13 32"*
Snowball 12 13 --1 --2 --1 --13"*
Gene 8 8 18 16 20 12
Neal --6 --4 --3 --7 0 --12"*

a Figures in the column refer to mean beat/min, change to the conditional signal.- That is,
if the mean heart rate before the CS was 60 bpm and the heart rate during the CS was 74
bpm, then the difference score of 14 bpm would be registered in the column.
**Note greater response to the inhibitory signal on the day of motor discrimination
criterion.
276 LYNCH ConditionalReflex
Oct.-Dee. I966

T~ & Mean Cardiac Change to Stimuli on Last Three Days to

Reversal Criteria in Flexion Response

Two Days Before Day Before Day of Motor

Reversal Reversal Reversal
Exp. -- + -- + -- +
Animals 480 cps 630 cps 480 cps 630 cps 480 cps 630 ~ s

Mike 16 21 16 18 12 14
Henry 9 8 --7 6 0 12
Co-op 15 17 13 12 3 7
Irish 4 9~0 6 17 7 17
Charlie 9.2 10 18 2,0 11 17
Erin 14 12 20 17 7 14
Snowball 5 6 4 1 14 15
Gene 13 15 25 9.1 7 13
Neal 5 0 2 --7 9 --5

Discussion of Results
The fact that OT had no significant effect on the speed of
reversal learning of the flexion response in a classical condition-
ing situation supports the hypotheses of Lovejoy (1966), Paul
(1965), and Sutherland (1959). Somewhat surprising is the fact
that OT had no significant effect on the speed of extinction of this
foot flexion task, and that the speed of extinction was so rapid. (In
one dog the flexion response disappeared after the first omission of
the US.) The rapidity of extinction of a classically conditioned
response has also been noted by Sheffield (1965), in research he
reported, using the salivary system. The finding that the manipu-
lation of an environmental parameter such as OT had no significant
effect on the rate of extinction is similar to the research findings
that have indicated that partial reinforcement in a classical condi-
tioning situation often has little effect on the rate of extinction
(Gonzales et al., 1961; Gonzalez et al., 1962, Longo et al., 1962;
Thomas and Wagner, 1964). This lack of effect of OT and partial
reinforcement on the rate of extinction in classical conditioning
is quite different from the results obtained in instrumental condi-
tioning. What is striking, at least in the present experiment, is the
importance of typology, or the animal's innate response tendencies,
in determining what the "rate of extinction" or the "speed of re-
versal" will be. Thus, while the manipulation of environmental
parameters did not seem to be reflected in this classical conditioning
task, individual differences in the speed of acquisition and level of
responding were reflected in the speed of reversal learning, and the
response level in extinction. This notion, that typology may be of
more importance in determining response strength in classical con-
Volume 1
Number 4 M O T O R AND CARDIAC SYSTEMS I N DOGS 277

ditioning than it is in instrumental conditioning, needs more

empirical validation.
The lack of a parallel in the learning patterns during initial dis-
crimination between the motor and cardiac system of dogs may
have arisen out of the fact that the responsiveness of the cardiac
system is subiect to more variable influence than the motor system,
e.g., via the respiratory system, motor movement, etc. These factors,
ff all controlled trial to trial (e.g., via curare paralysis), would
possibly indicate the development of cardiac discrimination in a
dearer fashion, but this would eliminate the possibility of compar-
ing the two systems (motor and cardiac) in any meaningful fashion.
What is clearly pointed out by these results, however, is that the
cardiac discrimination does not form long before the motor dis-
or/ruination, nor does the cardiac discriminatory response (once it
has developed) usually take longer to extinguish. This is clearly
different from the situation noted by Gantt (1953) and elaborated
at length in the concept of schizokinesis. One possible explanation
of the difference is that while the cardiac system has a tendency to
react very quickly to emotional stimuli, it does not have the ability
to differentiate any more quickly than the motor system. Since the
difference between simple conditioning and discrimination learn-
ing rests primarily in the involvement of inhibition, i.e., simple
conditioning is primarily an excitatory process, while discrimination
involves both excitation and inhibition, it may be that, while the
motor and cardiac systems differ in their excitatory potential," they
are much more alike in their ability to inhibit a response. Support
for this premise also is seen in the extinction patterns; i.e., while
the foot flexion response was completely extinguished within the
first three days of extinction in the maiority of the dogs, marked
cardiac reactions continued to occur to both tones throughout the
entire extinction period. Thus while cardiac discrimination ex-
tinguished very rapidly (primarily dependent on the inhibition),
cardiac responding was maintained throughout the entire extinc-
tion period (primarily dependent on excitation). This notion, that
the cardiac system is much more dependent on excitatory processes
than it is on inhibitory mechanisms, also needs further research for
its empirical validation.
The fact that all of the dogs (except Neal) manifested a simul-
taneous reversal of the discrimination in both their cardiac and
motor systems is difficult to explain, in light of the fact that only
three of the animals had shown a simultaneous discrimination of
their cardiac and motor systems in the initial task. A future coun-
terbalancing of the presentation of the initially reinforced stimulus
is needed. This is necessary in order to determine whether the
 Conditional Reflex
278 LYrCC~ Oct.-Dee. 1966

cardiac discrimination w h i c h occurs in reversal learning is t h e

result of some quality of the stimulus itself, or w h e t h e r such a f a c t o r
as autonomic learning set is occurring. In any case, b o t h in initial
discrimination and in reversal learning, the cardiac discrimination
did not occur before the m o t o r discrimination. Thus the relative
speed of formation of t h e differentiation of these t w o systems is
unlike the formation w h i c h occurs in the simple conditioning
paradigm.

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Number 4

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