Biotech Module 1 1
Biotech Module 1 1
Science
Biotechnology
Technology & Quarter 1 - Module 1
Engineering
Program INTRODUCTION TO
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Science Technology and Engineering Program
Alternative Delivery Mode
Biotechnology- Grade 8
Science Technology and Engineering Program
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 1: Introduction to Biotechnology
First Edition, 2020
Advanced Subject
for
Science Technology & Engineering Program
(STEP)
Table of Contents
COVER PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY NOTES
LEARNING FROM THE MODULES
References 49
4
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master cell
theory and cell structure and function. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in
which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
This module contains:
Lesson 1 – Cell Theory
Lesson 2 – Cell Structure and Function
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Explain the cell theory
2. Identify the parts and organelles of the cell
3. Explain the different cell functions
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Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. The cell theory is one of the unifying themes of biology. Which of the following statements is
not part of the cell theory?
A. All life is made of cells.
B. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
C. Cells are the smallest units of life.
D. Cells arise from non-living entities.
2. Who was the first scientist to see cells under the microscope and give them a name?
A. Robert Hooke
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
3. He discovered that all plants were made of cells, which contributed to the development of the
cell theory
A. Robert Hooke
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
4. Which technology was essential for the development of the cell theory?
A. telescopes
B. antiseptics
C. microwaves
D. microscopes
5. Which of the following is not a postulate of cell theory?
A. The cell is the basic unit of life.
B. Cells arise from organic matters.
C. All cells come from already existing cells.
D. All organisms are made of one or more cells.
6. What do you call the organelles that are found outside a eukaryotic cell and usually involved
in movement of the cell or movement of substances past the cell?
A. cilia and flagella
B. nucleus and nucleolus
C. cytoplasm and endoplasm
D. cell walls and plasmodesmata
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7. Which of the following describes the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
A. synthesizes lipids
B. contains ribosomes for protein synthesis.
C. creates an enormous surface area for cell metabolism
D. contains a compartment to transfer and modify products of metabolism
8. Which of the following is a function of the mitochondria ?
A. photosynthesis.
B. intracellular digestion
C. intracellular transport of proteins
D. cellular respiration (ATP synthesis)
9. Which one of the following is not a function of the plasma membrane?
A. involves in self-recognition
B. it is the control center of the cell
C. plays a role in signal transduction
D. forms a selective barrier around the cell
10. Which of the following describes the nucleus of a cell?
A. it is contained inside the nucleolus.
B. it contains DNA and controls cell activities
C. it is surrounded by a single layer of membrane
D. it is the region of the cell where ribosomes are degraded
11. Which of the following is not a part of the endomembrane system?
A. mitochondrion
B. golgi apparatus
C. rough endoplasmic reticulum
D. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
12. You are told that the cells on a microscope slide are either plant, animal, or bacteria. You
look at them through a microscope and see cell walls and membrane-bound organelles. You can
conclude that the cells in the microscope slide_______.
A. are plant cells
B. are animal cells
C. could be either plant or bacterial
D. could be plant, animal, or bacterial
13. Which of the following is the range of most animal and plant cells in diameter?
A. 1.0 to 10 microns.
B. 10 to 100 microns.
C. 0.01 to 0.1 microns.
D. 100 to 1000 microns.
14. What do you call cells that do not have a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane systems
in the cytoplasm?
A. fungi
B. protist
C. eukaryote
D. prokaryote
15. Which of the following is not found in prokaryotic cells?
A. a capsule B. a cell wall C. a ribosomes D. a membrane-bound nucleus
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Lesson
Cell Theory
1
Biology is the scientific study of life, its name is derived from the Greek words "bios" (life)
and "logos" (study). Biology has many branches, one of which is biotechnology. Biotechnology
is the manipulation (as through genetic engineering) of living organisms or their components to
produce useful usually commercial products (such as pest resistant crops, new bacterial strains,
or novel pharmaceuticals). Before you understand the processes of biotechnology, you first need
to understand the basic and fundamental lesson-the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution
and distribution of living organisms. All organisms are made of cells. A cell is the simplest
collection of matter that can be alive.
Life, in order to exist, must have these properties:
1. Order—the highly ordered structure that typifies life, oorganisms are highly organized,
coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled
organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these in turn
make up cell organelles and other cellular inclusions.
2. Reproduction—the ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind,
3. Growth and development—consistent growth and development controlled by inherited
DNA. Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their genes.
These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring
that a species’ young (Figure 3) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its
parents.
4. Energy processing— All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities.
Some organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food
(photosynthesis); others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food (cellular
respiration).
5. Response to the environment—an ability to respond to environmental stimuli, For example,
plants can bend toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch
(Figure 2). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process
called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive
response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.
6. Regulation— Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory
mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental
stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an organism are nutrient transport
and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together) perform specific functions, such
as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell,
and cooling the body
7. Evolutionary adaptation—adaptations evolve over many generations as individuals with
traits best suited to their environments have greater reproductive success and pass their traits
to offspring
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Activity 1
InstagLife
Directions: Using your cellular phone or any device, capture or picture any scenario in your
surrounding or environment that depicts the characteristics of life. Paste your photo
in the picture sample column. Give your explanation on your chosen picture sample
in the last column.
Order
reproduction
Growth and
development
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Energy
processing
Response to
the
environment
Regulation
Evolutionary
adaptation
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Level of Organization
Organization is the arrangement of smaller components of any structure, system or situation
into larger ones and larger ones into still larger ones in hierarchy, where components of each
level coordinate with one another towards a common goal. Organization is sort of hierarchy
or pyramid of levels where each level is made of components of lower level and itself becomes a
component of higher level.
1. Atomic Level
The basic unit or component of organization in both living and non-living object is an atom.
An atom is, of course further made of still smaller particles like electrons, protons and neutrons.
2. Molecular Level
Atoms combine with one another to form molecules Examples are pure water (H2O), sodium
chloride (NaCl – also called table salt), glucose ( C6H12O6).
3. Cellular Level
The subcellular components coordinate their activities to produce living cells. Living beings
are made of one cell (unicellular organisms) or numerous cells (multicellular organisms).
Unicellular organisms are more appropriately called acellular organisms. They are the most
abundant of all the living creatures. Unicellular or acellular organisms possess protoplasmic
organization. Multicellular organisms have higher levels of organization like cellular
organization (sponges), tissue organization (coelenterates), organ organization and organ system
organization.
4. Tissue Level
In multicellular organisms the cells may be similar (colonial organisms) or organized into
distinct functional units called tissue. A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure
performing the same function. There are four basic types of tissue found in the human body:
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Neural.
5. Organ Level
Two or more tissues are organized into distinct structures called organs. Organs are
specialized for performing one or more functions e.g. Pumping by the heart and photosynthesis
by the leaves.
6. Organ System Level
Two or more organs coordinate their activities towards a common activity e.g. digestive
system, respiratory system.
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7. Organismic Level or Individual Level
Living beings are called organisms because they possess high level of organization. They
are called individuals as each organism has a distinct interact or individuality.
8. Population Level
All the individuals of a species found in an area where they can interact with one another is
called population.
9. Community Level
The populations of different species found in an area also interact with one another, they
constitute a biotic community.
10. Ecosystem Level
The biotic community of an area and its abiotic environment together form an ecosystem.
11. Biosphere Level
All the ecosystems of the world interact further and form biosphere or livable space of the
earth. An organism is, therefore, not only an individual but also a part of population, community,
ecosystem, and biosphere. Biosphere has the highest level of organization. Organizations at level
of individual and above are known as higher levels of organization. It represents ecological
hierarchy. Organizations below the level of individual (organ system, organ, tissue, cell,
molecules, and atoms) are called lower level of organization.
Activity 2
Label Me!
Directions: Below are pictures of the different levels of biological organization. Label the
picture with the right level of organization. Write your answer in the blanks space
provided.
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3.) ___________ 8.) _______________
Now that you have learned the different levels of organization, it is time to focus on the basic
unit of life, which is the cell.
Discovery of cells, how it all started?
When Romans discovered they were able to make glass in the 1 st century BC, things changed
for the better. Antone van Leeuwenhoek figured how to grind glass together and decided to
experiment. Leeuwenhoek made his own 270x magnification compound microscope. Today,
microscopes magnifications range from 200x-10,000,000x magnification.
There are 6 contributors to the cell theory:
1. Robert Hooke
He was one of the earliest scientists to study living things under a microscope.
The microscopes of his day were not very strong, but Hooke was still able to
make an important discovery. When he looked at a thin slice of cork under his
microscope, he was surprised to see what looked like a honeycomb. A cork is the
outer bark (outermost layer) of the cork tree. Hooke made the drawing (shown in
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figure 1). As you can see, the cork was made up of many tiny units which
prompted him to think of small rooms (cells) in a monastery, so he gave them the
same name cell.
Figure1. (a) Illustration of the microscope used by Robert Hooke (b) a drawing
of a cork under a microscope.
a.) b.)
Source: Leyden, Robert Hooke’s Micrographia, www.commons.wikimedia.org/.
Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International
He studied new approaches for creating lenses to observe cloth. His microscope
was more powerful than Hooke’s compound microscope. From investigating and
experimenting with his microscope, he became one of the first scientists to refer
to living cells when he observed an abundant number of single-celled organisms,
which he called animalcules, swimming in a drop of pond water.
Figure 2. a.) illustration of the microscope used by Anton van Leeuwenhoek b.)
Leeuwenhoek’s observation
a.) b.)
Source: Layden, Leeuwenhoek Simple Microscope. www.commons.wikimedia.org/.
Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International
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3. Matthias Schleiden
Fascinated with plant cells, he used the compound microscope and studied plant
cells.
From investigating and experimenting with plants, he theorized that plant parts
are made of cells.
He discussed what he observed with his dear friend, German scientist Theodor
Schwann.
4. Theodor Schwann
He studied plant & animal cells, and was intrigued by the similarities between the
two.
From investigating and experimenting with plant and animal cells, Schwann was
able to determine that all animals are made of cells.
Schwann published the 1st statement of the cell theory: All living things are
made of cells and cell products.
5. Rudolf Virchow
Based on his investigations and experiments, he stated that all cells come from
preexisting cells, which is the 2nd part of the cell theory: All existing cells are
produced by other living cells.
The ideas of all three scientists — Schwann, Schleiden, and Virchow — led to the cell
theory, which is one of the fundamental theories unifying all of biology. Cell theory states that:
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Activity 3
Fill it up!
Directions: Supplement the three postulates of cell theory in the first box. For the second part,
read the question and write your statement in the box below the names of the scientists.
Postulates of Cell
Theory
How did the following scientists help provide evidence and information for the
development of the cell theory?
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There are two basic types of cells.
1. Prokaryotic cells
They were the first to evolve, they are evolutionarily ancient and are simpler, and
are usually smaller than eukaryotic cells.
They were here first and for billions of years were the only form of life.
All bacteria and bacteria-like Archaea are prokaryotic organisms.
Pro = “before”, karyon = “nucleus” Prokaryotes are primarily distinguished by
the fact that they lack the eukaryotic feature of a membrane-bound nucleus.
In fact, the only membrane in prokaryotic cells is the plasma membrane--the outer
boundary of the cell itself. Their genetic material is naked within the cytoplasm;
ribosomes are their only type of organelle.
Modern prokaryotes, represented by the domains Archaea and Eubacteria, are
single celled organisms that reproduce through binary fission, duplicating their
genetic material and then essentially splitting to form two daughter cells identical
to the parent.
2. Eukaryotic cells
They contain membrane-enclosed organelles, including a nucleus containing
DNA, and are found in plants, animals, and fungi.
Eu = “true”, karyon = “nucleus” Eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex and
more evolutionarily recent than prokaryotes.
.Eukaryotes also have specialized energy producing organelles called
mitochondria and plants also have chloroplasts. Both mitochondria and
chloroplasts are believed to have evolved from prokaryotes that began living
symbiotically within eukaryotic cells long ago.
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Activity 4
Debunking the Myth!
Directions: Read the statements below. List down your observations and answer the following
questions.
Aristotle believed in spontaneous generation theory, the notion that life can arise from non-
living matter. Aristotle proposed that life arose from non-living material if the material
contained pneuma (“vital heat”). As evidence, he noted several instances of the appearance of
animals from environments previously devoid of such animals, such as the seemingly sudden
appearance of fish in a new puddle of water.
Francesco Redi performed an experiment that was one of the first to refute the idea that
maggots spontaneously generate on meat left out in the open air. He predicted that preventing
flies from having direct contact with the meat would also prevent the appearance of maggots.
Redi left meat in each of six containers. Two were open to the air, two were covered with gauze,
and two were tightly sealed.
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2. What are your observations based from the experimental set up?
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4. Are you convinced with postulate of spontaneous generation theory? Why or why not?
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Activity 5
What does it take to be alive?
Directions: Read the statements below about the general characteristics of virus. With your
knowledge about the postulates of cell theory, write a short argumentative essay
about your point of view whether viruses are living or non-living things.
The most controversial virus for this year is the novel strain of coronavirus — SARS-
CoV-2 which was first detected in December 2019 in Wuhan, a city in China’s Hubei province.
The virus has now spread to over 200 countries and territories across the globe, and was
characterized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020.
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the novel strain of coronavirus —SARS-CoV-2.
A virus is a sub-microscopic particle that can infect living cells. Viruses are much smaller
than prokaryotes. If a virus was about the size of three soccer balls lying side-by-side, then a
bacteria would be about the size of soccer field. That is how small the virus is. An individual
virus is called a virion. Viruses do not consist of cell membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
other cell organelles. Without these structures, they are unable to make proteins or even
reproduce on their own. Instead, they must depend on a host cell to synthesize their proteins and
to make copies of themselves. Viruses have genetic material, and they can evolve. Viruses infect
and live inside the cells of living organisms. When viruses infect the cells of their host, they may
cause disease. For example, viruses cause AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome),
influenza (flu), chicken pox, and the common cold.
Source: “Virus Characteristics”. Biology Libre Text Website, August 15, 2020,
www.bio.libretext.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Bilogy.
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SCORING RUBRIC FOR WRITTEN RESPONSES
Traits 4 3 2 1
Focus & There is one clear, well There is one clear, well There is one The topic and
Details focused topic. Main focused topic. Main topic. Main main ideas are not
ideas are clear and are ideas are clear but are ideas are clear.
well supported by not well supported by somewhat clear.
detailed and accurate detailed information.
information.
Organization The introduction is The introduction states The There is no clear
inviting, states the main the main topic and introduction introduction,
topic, and provides an provides an overview of states the main structure, or
overview of the paper. the paper. A conclusion topic. A conclusion.
Information is relevant is included. conclusion is
and presented in a included.
logical order. The
conclusion is strong.
Voice The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s The author’s
writing is very clear, and writing is somewhat purpose of purpose of writing
there is strong evidence clear, and there is some writing is is unclear.
of attention to audience. evidence of attention to somewhat clear,
The author’s extensive audience. The author’s and there is
knowledge and/or knowledge and/or evidence of
experience with the experience with the attention to
topic is/are evident topic is/are evident audience. The
author’s
knowledge
and/or
experience with
the topic is/are
limited.
Word Choice The author uses vivid The author uses vivid The author uses The writer uses a
words and phrases. The words and phrases. The words that limited
choice and placement of choice and placement of communicate vocabulary.
words seems accurate, words is inaccurate at clearly, but the Jargon or clichés
natural, and not forced. times and/or seems writing lacks may be present
overdone. variety and detract from
the meaning.
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Sentence All sentences are well Most sentences are well Most sentences Sentences sound
structure and constructed and have constructed and have are well awkward, are
mechanics varied structure and varied structure and constructed, but distractingly
length. The author length. The author they have a repetitive, or are
makes no errors in makes a few errors in similar structure difficult to
grammar, mechanics, grammar, mechanics, and/or length. understand. The
and/or spelling. and/or spelling, but they The author author makes
do not interfere with makes several numerous errors in
understanding. errors in grammar,
grammar, mechanics, and/or
mechanics, spelling that
and/or spelling interfere with
that interfere understanding.
with
understanding.
Score
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1. The spontaneous generation theory proposed by Aristotle states that life can arise from non-
living matter if the material contained pneuma (“vital heat”). Which of the following cell theory
postulates does it violate?
A. All life is made of cells.
B. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
C. Cells are the smallest units of life.
D. Cells arise from non-living entities.
2. Who stated that cells come from pre-existing cells?
A. Rudolph Virchow
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
3. He was one of the first scientists to refer to living cells when he observed an abundant number
of single-celled organisms, which he called animalcules, swimming in a drop of pond water.
Who is this scientist?
A. Robert Hooke
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
4. Which technology was essential for the development of the cell theory?
A. telescopes
B. antiseptics
C. microwaves
D. microscopes
5. Which of the following is not a postulate of cell theory?
A. The cell is the basic unit of life.
B. Cells arise from organic matters.
C. All cells come from already existing cells.
D. All organisms are made of one or more cells.
6. Which of the following is not a property of life?
A. order
B. molecules
C. reproduction
D. growth and development
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7. Which of the following levels of organization refers to the basic unit or component of
organization in both living and non-living object?
A. tissue level
B. atomic level
C. cellular level
D. organ system level
8. Which of the following type of cell contains membrane-enclosed organelles, including a
nucleus containing DNA, and are found in plants, animals, and fungi?
A. eubacteria
B. eukaryotic cell
C. prokaryotic cell
D. Archaebacteria
9. Which of the following scientists studied a thin slice of cork under his microscope?
A. Robert Hooke
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
10. Some organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food
(photosynthesis); others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food (cellular
respiration), these are examples of what property of life?
A. order
B. reproduction
C. energy processing
D. growth and development
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Lesson
Cell Structure and Function
2
As you might have figured out now, all organisms are made up of cells. In
the hierarchy of biological organization, the cell is the simplest collection of
matter that can live. Indeed, there are diverse forms of life existing as single-
celled organisms. More complex organisms, including plants and animals, are
multicellular; their bodies are cooperatives of many kinds of specialized cells
that could not survive for long on their own. However even if they are arranged
into higher levels of organization, such as tissues and organs, cells can be
singles out as the organism’s basic unit of structure and function.
Most cells are between 1 and 100 micrometer in diameter and therefore
visible only under a microscope. Inside the cell are organelles, they are
subcellular structures that have one or more specific jobs to perform in the
cell, just like organs in the body. Some organelles are specific to one particular
type of cell, which means that not all cells have all the types of organelles
inside it. Below is the list of organelles:
1. Plasma membrane is composed of lipids and proteins where the
composition might fluctuate based on fluidity, external environment, and
the different stages of development of the cell.
Structure:
Structurally, it consists of a phospholipid bilayer along with two
types of proteins; integral proteins and peripheral proteins that
function in providing shape and allowing the movement of particles
in and out of the cell.
The most abundant lipid which is present in the cell membrane is
a phospholipid which contains a polar head group attached to two
hydrophobic fatty acid tails.
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Functions:
The cell membrane provides mechanical support that facilitates the
shape of the cell while enclosing the cell and its components from
the external environment.
It regulates what can be allowed to enter and exit the cell through
channels, acting as a semi-permeable membrane, which facilitates
the exchange of essential compounds required for the survival of
the cell.
It generates and distributes signals in and outside of the cell for
the proper functioning of the cell and all the organelles.
2. Cell Wall is an additional non-living layer present outside the cell membrane in some
cells that provides structure, protection, and filtering mechanism.
Structure:
In a plant cell, the cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and proteins
while in a fungal cell, it is composed of chitin.
A cell wall is multi-layered with a middle lamina, a primary cell wall, and a
secondary cell wall.
Middle lamina contains polysaccharides (long chain polymeric carbohydrates
composed of monosaccharide units) that provide adhesion and allows binding of
the cells to one another.
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After middle lamina is the primary cell wall which is composed of cellulose. The
last layer, which is not always present, is the secondary cell wall made of
cellulose and hemicellulose.
Functions:
The critical function of the cell wall is protecting and maintaining the shape of the
cell. It also helps the cell withstand the turgor pressure of the cell.
It initiates cell division by providing signals to the cell and allows the passage of
some molecules into the cell while blocking others.
3. Cytoplasm refers to everything present inside the cell except the nucleus.
Structure:
The cytoplasm consists of a cytosol; a gel-like substance that contains other matter;
cell organelles; smaller cell-like bodies bound by separate membranes; and
cytoplasmic inclusions; insoluble molecules that store energy and are not surrounded
by any layer.
The cytoplasm is colorless and has about 80% water along with various nutrients
required for the cell.
It is known to have the properties of both viscous matters as well as elastic matter.
Under its elasticity, cytoplasm helps in the movement of materials inside the cell by a
process termed cytoplasmic streaming.
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Functions:
Most of the vital cellular and enzymatic reactions like cellular respiration and
translation of mRNA into proteins occur in the cytoplasm.
It acts as a buffer (solution has a capacity to resist the change in pH value) and
protects genetic materials as well as other organelles from damage due to collision or
change in the pH of the cytosol.
The process called cytoplasmic streaming helps in the distribution of various nutrients
and facilitates the movement of cell organelles within the cell.
4. Centriole
Structure:
A centriole consists of a cylindrical structure made with nine triplets microtubules
that surround the periphery of the centriole while the center has a Y-shaped linker
and a barrel-like structure that stabilizes the centriole.
Another structure called cartwheel is present in a centriole which is made up of a
central hub with nine spokes/filaments radiating from it. Each of these
filaments/spokes is connected to the microtubules through a pinhead.
Functions:
During cell division, centrioles have a crucial role in forming spindle fibers which
assist the movement of chromatids towards their respective sides.
They are involved in the formation of cilia and flagella
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5. Nucleus
Structure:
The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that contains the cell’s hereditary
information and controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.
It is the command center of a eukaryotic cell and is commonly the most
prominent organelle in a cell accounting for about 10 percent of the cell’s volume
5 major parts are: (1) Nuclear envelope, surrounds the nucleus, separating it from the
cell's cytoplasm. It is perforated with nuclear pore (tiny pores). These pores regulate the
movements of macromolecules, RNAs and proteins into and out of the nucleus. The inner
nuclear membrane is internally lined by protein filaments meshwork organized in a net-like
fashion, called (2)nuclear lamina which aid in the organization of genetic material,
allowing it to function more efficiently. The DNA of a cell is found within the nucleus. It is
organized into units known as (3)chromosomes, each containing a long DNA molecule
which is associated with various proteins. The DNA coils around protein complexes
called nucleosomes, formed of proteins called histones, making it easier for the
chromosome to fit inside the nucleus. When a nucleus is not dividing, a structure called a
(4)nucleolus becomes visible. In fact, it is the most prominent structure within the nucleus.
It is a mass of granules and fibers attached to chromatin. The nucleolus is important
because it is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) production. Inside the nucleolus, rRNA
molecules are combined with proteins to form ribosomes. (5)Nucleoplasm is similar to the
cytoplasm of a cell, in that it is semi-liquid, and fills the empty space in the nucleus. It is a
form of protoplasm and surrounds the chromosomes and nucleoli inside the nucleus. It also
has various proteins and enzymes dissolved within it.
Functions:
controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism.
responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth, and differentiation.
Storage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatin.
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6. Cytoskeleton
Structure:
Around three different classes of fibers make up the cytoskeleton which is:
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
These are separated based on a protein present in the
Functions:
A number of fibrous structures are present in the cytosol that helps give shape to
the cell while supporting cellular transport.
The critical function of the cytoskeleton is to provide shape and mechanical
support to the cell against deformation.
It allows the expansion and contraction of the cell which assists in the movement
of the cell.
It is also involved in intracellular and extracellular transport of materials.
7. Ribosomes are the site where the cells assemble proteins. Cells that have high rates
of protein synthesis have a particularly great number of ribosomes. For example, a
human liver cell has a few million ribosomes. There are two types of ribosomes; free
ribosomes, suspended in the cytosol and bound ribosomes attached to the outside of a
membranous network called endoplasmic reticulum.
Structure:
The ribonucleoprotein consists of two subunits.
In the case of prokaryotic cells, the ribosomes are of the 70S with the larger
subunit of 50S and the smaller one of 30S.
Eukaryotic cells have 80S ribosomes with 60S larger subunit and 40S smaller
subunit.
Ribosomes are short-lived as after the protein synthesis, the subunits split up and
can be either reused or remain broken up.
Ribosomes are not membrane-bound organelle
Functions:
Ribosomes are the site of biological protein synthesis in all living organisms.
They arrange the amino acids in the order indicated by tRNA and assist in protein
synthesis.
8. Mitochondria are double membrane-bound cell organelles responsible for the supply and
storage of energy for the cell.
Structure:
A mitochondrion contains two membranes with the outer layer being smooth
while the inner layer is marked with folding and finger-like structures called
cristae.
The inner mitochondrial membrane contains various enzymes, coenzymes, and
components of multiple cycles along with pores for the transport of substrates,
ATP, and phosphate molecules.
30
Within the membranes is a matrix that contains various enzymes of metabolic
processes like Kreb’s cycle.
also home to single or double-stranded DNA called mtDNA that is capable of
producing 10% of the proteins present in the mitochondria.
Functions:
The primary function of mitochondria is the synthesis of energy in the form of
ATP required for the proper functioning of all the cell organelles.
Mitochondria in the liver have the ability to detoxify ammonia.
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11. Lysosomes and digestive compartments
A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest
macromolecules
Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic
acids
Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the lysosome
Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a food
vacuole • A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules •
Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy
12. Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles, derived from
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Food vacuoles are formed by
phagocytosis
Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out
of cells
Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and
water
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14. Peroxisomes
Structure:
Peroxisome consists of a single membrane and granular matrix scattered in the
cytoplasm.
They exist either in the form of interconnected tubules or as individual
peroxisomes.
The compartments within every peroxisome allow the creation of optimized
conditions for different metabolic activities.
They consist of several types of enzymes with major groups being urate oxidase,
D-amino acid oxidase, and catalase.
Functions:
Peroxisomes are involved in the production and elimination of hydrogen peroxide
during biochemical processes.
Oxidation of fatty acids takes place within peroxisomes.
Additionally, peroxisomes are also involved in the synthesis of lipid-like
cholesterol and plasmalogens.
15. Lysozymes are membrane-bound organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of animal cells.
These organelles contain an array of hydrolytic enzymes required for the degradation of
various macromolecules.
There are two types of lysozymes:
a. Primary lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes like lipases, amylases, proteases,
and nucleases.
b. Secondary lysozyme formed by the fusion of primary lysozymes containing engulfed
molecules or organelles.
Structure:
The shape of lysozymes is irregular or pleomorphic; however, mostly, they are
found in the spherical or granular structure.
Lysozymes are surrounded by a lysosomal membrane that contains the enzymes
within the lysosome and protects the cytosol with the rest of the cell from the
harmful action of the enzymes.
Functions:
These organelles are responsible for intracellular digestion where the larger
macromolecules are degraded into smaller molecules with the help of enzymes
present in them.
Lysozymes also perform the critical function of the autolysis of unwanted
organelles within the cytoplasm.
Besides these, the lysosome is involved in various cellular processes, including
secretion, plasma membrane repair, cell signaling, and energy metabolism
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ACTIVITY 1
CHALLENGE QUESTIONS
Directions: Read and understand each situation. Write your answers in the space provided.
1. Cells are the basic unit of life. What characteristic/s of cells supports this statement?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. If nucleus is the control center of the cell, why do you think some cells lack nucleus?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
35
Activity 2
Cell riddle
Directions: Read each riddle below. Identify which organelle or cell component the riddle
describes and write the name of that structure in the blank. Note that all possible
answers are listed in the top box below.
Riddle # 1 Riddle # 4
We modify products of the ER. We also
We are found in leaves and other green manufacture certain macromolecules –
organs of plants and in algae. Sort and package materials into
transport vesicles
______________________________________
Riddle # 2 Riddle # 5
I am a membranous sac of hydrolytic In a plant cell, I am made up of
enzymes that can digest macromolecules cellulose, hemicellulose, and proteins
while in a fungal cell I am composed of
chitin
Riddle # 3 Riddle # 6
I am composed of lipids and proteins. I I am involved in the production and
provide mechanical support that facilities elimination of hydrogen peroxide during
the shape of the cell while enclosing the biochemical processes and oxidation of
cell and its components from the external fatty acids.
environment.
36
Activity 3
Complete the table
Direction: Study the chart below, place a check in the box if the cell has that component.
Organelle Eukaryotes Prokaryote
plants animals bacteria
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Peroxisome
Vacuole
Lysosome
Golgi apparatus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosome
Centriole
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
37
Activity 4
The Cell City
DIRECTIONS: (a) Think of a real world system that you could compare to a
cell. Then, compare each cell organelle to a component of this real world
structure. Draw a picture of a system below and label. (b) Fill in the chart to
compare the components of the organelles.
REAL WORLD SYSTEM:_______________________________
a.
38
b. CELL ORGANELLE ANALOGY KEY
Cell Organelle Analogous Structure Explanation
Cell membrane
Cell wall
Nucleus
Nuclear
Membrane
Nucleolus
Cytoplasm
Ribosome
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Golgi bodies
Vacuole
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Lysosomes
39
Activity 5
CLINICAL CONNECTION
Directions: Read the article about a particular study and answer the following questions.
Source: Zhou, Huiping .October 26, 2011. Mechanisms of Alcohol-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum
Stress and Organ Injuries. Article ID 216450.
1. Why is it, that of all organelles, the endoplasmic reticulum is primarily involved
in responding to the alcohol intoxication of the body?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the mechanism of the endoplasmic reticulum in responding to the
alcohol intoxication of the body?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
40
Activity 6
Case study 1
Directions: Read the article and answer the questions below.
This led the researchers to propose that another form of genetic regulation, epigenetic
regulation, may be responsible for the age-associated effects seen in the mitochondria.
Epigenetic regulation refers to changes, such as the addition of chemical structures or proteins,
which alter the physical structure of the DNA, resulting in genes turning on or off. Unlike
mutations, these changes do not affect the DNA sequence itself. If this theory is correct, then
genetically reprogramming the cells to an embryonic stem cell-like state would remove any
epigenetic changes associated with the mitochondrial DNA.
41
In order to test this theory, the researchers reprogrammed human fibroblast cell lines
derived from young and elderly people to an embryonic stem cell-like state. These cells were
then turned back into fibroblasts and their: mitochondrial respiratory function examined.
Incredibly, the age-associated defects had been reversed -- all of the fibroblasts had respiration
rates comparable to those of the fetal fibroblast cell line, irrespective of whether they were
derived from young or elderly people. This indicates that the aging process in the mitochondrion
is controlled by epigenetic regulation, not by mutations. The researchers then looked for genes
that might be controlled epigenetically resulting in these age-associated mitochondrial defects.
Two genes that regulate glycine production in mitochondria, CGAT and SHMT2, were found.
The researchers showed that by changing the regulation of these genes, they could induce defects
or restore mitochondrial function in the fibroblast cell lines. In a compelling finding, the addition
of glycine for 10 days to the culture medium of the 97 year old fibroblast cell line restored its
respiratory function. This suggests that glycine treatment can reverse the age-associated
respiration defects in the elderly human fibroblasts.
These findings reveal that, contrary to the mitochondrial theory of aging, epigenetic
regulation controls age associated respiration defects in human fibroblast cell lines. Can
epigenetic regulation also control aging in humans? That theory remains to be tested, and if
proven, could result in glycine supplements giving our older population a new lease of life.
Source: Hashizume, Osamu, et al, May 22, 2015. Epigenetic regulation of the nuclear-
coded GCAT and SHMT2 genes confers human age associated mitochondrial
respiration defects. Scientific Reports, 2015; 5: 10434 DOI.
Questions
1. Scientists studied DNA molecules taken from mitochondria in the cells of older people.
These mitochondrial DNA molecules differed from the mitochondrial DNA taken from the
cells of younger people.
a. What is the function of mitochondria in a healthy cell?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. In view of this cellular function, why does it make sense that mitochondria might be different
in the cells of older people?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
42
2. There are more mitochondria in cells that need a lot of energy, such as heart muscle cells.
Some researchers have begun to study mitochondrial DNA in the heart cells of different age
groups. What do you think researchers discovered in the mitochondrial DNA taken from the
heart cells of older adults?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Researchers have found mutated mitochondrial DNA in people suffering from Kearns-Sayre
syndrome. The syndrome causes paralysis of the eye muscles, difficulty in walking and heart
problems. What is the connections between Kearns- Sayre syndrome and the role of
mitochondria in cell function?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 7
Case Study 2
Directions: Read the article and answer the questions below.
Lysosomes May Contribute to Alzheimer’s disease
New research from Yale University shows lysosomes, the “garbage
disposal” systems of cells, can fail and perhaps contribute to Alzheimer’s
disease. Lysosomes, the “garbage disposal” systems of cells, are found in great
abundance near the amyloid plaques in the brain that are a hallmark of
Alzheimer’s disease. Scientists have long assumed that their presence was
helpful — that they were degrading the toxic proteins that trigger amyloid
plaque formation. However, in Alzheimer’s patients, these lysosomes lack the
ability to do their jobs properly, and instead of helping, the accumulation of
lysosomes may even contribute to the disease, Yale University researchers
report the week of June 29 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. The new findings raise the possibility that coaxing lysosomes to do
their jobs could help to prevent the toxic processes that eventually destroy the
minds of Alzheimer’s patients.
Scientists first noted the presence of large numbers of lysosomes at
amyloid plaques more than a half century ago. This new study suggests the
lysosomes that build up in neurons that contact amyloid plaques are
abnormally enriched with β-secretase, the enzyme that initiates the production
of the toxic amyloid β peptide. These dysfunctional lysosomes lack the ability to
degrade β-secretase, the researchers said. “We think this represents a vicious
circle,” said Swetha Gowrishankar, a postdoctoral scientist who led the
43
research in the laboratory of Shawn Ferguson, assistant professor of cell
biology The lysosomes cannot mature because amyloid plaques block the
ability of lysosomes to travel within neuronal axons, which in turn results in
the local accumulation of more β-secretase and the formation of more amyloid
β peptide, the researchers believe. The team will next use genetic strategies to
restore neuronal lysosome maturation and function in mouse models of
Alzheimer’s disease in order to determine whether this protects against the
development of disease pathology. The researchers also note lysosome
dysfunction has been linked to other neurodegenerative diseases including
Parkinson’s disease and frontotemporal dementia. The labs of Pietro De
Camilli, the John Klingenstein Professor of Neuroscience and Professor of Cell
Biology, and Jaime Grutzendler, associate professor of neurology, also
contributed to this study. All these investigators are members of the Yale
Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, and Repair.
Source: Hathaway, Bill et. al, June 29,2015. Massive accumulation of luminal protease-deficient axonal
lysosomes at Alzheimer’s disease amyloid plaques Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 112 no. 28, E3699–
E3708, doi: 0.1073/pnas.1510329112.
Question:
Some researchers now believe that Alzheimer’s disease is caused by the
release of destructive enzymes into the cytoplasm of nerve cells. The enzymes
are thought to be released by organelles whose membranes ruptured as they
were trying to digest harmful proteins. Which organelles do you think are
responsible for the release of these destructive enzymes? Why? Explain your
answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
44
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. The spontaneous generation theory proposed by Aristotle states that life can arise from non-
living material if the material contained pneuma (“vital heat”). Which of the following cell
theory postulates does it violate?
A. All life is made of cells.
B. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
C. Cells are the smallest units of life.
D. Cells arise from non-living entities.
2. Who stated that cells come from pre-existing cells?
A. Rudolph Virchow
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
3. He was one of the first scientists to refer to living cells when he observed an abundant number
of single-celled organisms, which he called animalcules, swimming in a drop of pond water.
Who is this scientist?
A. Robert Hooke
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Matthias Schleiden
D. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
4. Which technology was essential for the development of the cell theory?
A. telescopes
B. antiseptics
C. microwaves
D. microscopes
5. Which of the following is not a postulate of cell theory?
A. The cell is the basic unit of life.
B. Cells arise from organic matters.
C. All cells come from already existing cells.
D. All organisms are made of one or more cells.
6. Which of the following is capable of converting light energy to chemical bond energy?
A. Chloroplast B. Ribosome C. Mitochondria D. Lysosomes
7. A biologist ground up some plant cells and then centrifuged the mixture. She obtained some
organelles from the sediment in the test tube. The organelles took up CO2 and gave off O2.
The organelles are most likely?
A. Chloroplast B. Ribosome C. Mitochondria D. Lysosomes
45
8. Cycloheximide is a drug that inhibits protein synthesis on eukaryotic ribosomes.
Chloramphenicol is a drug that inhibits protein synthesis on prokaryotic ribosomes. Which
of the following cells (or parts of cells) would have protein synthesis inhibited if they were
grown in the presence of chloramphenicol?
A. Bacteria C. Bacteria & Mitochondria
B. Mitochondria D. Chloroplast
9. Which of the following statements about bacteria, plant, and animal cell structure is correct?
A. Bacteria are prokaryotic, but animal and plant cells are eukaryotic
B. Plant and animal cells are prokaryotic, but bacteria are eukaryotic
C. Bacteria lack structure, but plants and animals have cell structure
D. Animal cells and bacteria are eukaryotic, but plant cells are eukaryotic
10. An animal secretory cell and a photosynthetic leaf cell are similar in all but one of the
following ways, EXCEPT:
A. They both have chloroplasts
B. They both have mitochondria
C. They both have cell membrane
D. They both have golgi apparatus bacteria and mitochondria only
46
47
Activity 2 Lesson 2 Assessment Lesson 2
1. Chloroplast 1. A 6. A
2. Lysosome 2. A 7. D
3. Plasma membrane 3. C 8. D
4. Golgi apparatus 4. D 9. B
5. Cell wall 5. D 10. B
6. Peroxisome
Activity 3 Lesson1
Postulates of cell theory
1. All organisms are made of one or more
cells.
2. All cells come from already existing cells.
3. The cell is the basic unit of life
Activity 2 Lesson 1
Activity 2 lesson 1
1. Atomic level
1. Atomic level
2. Cellular level
2. Cellular level
3. Organ level
3. Organ level
4. Organism
4. Organism
5. Community level
5. Community level
6. Molecular level
6. Molecular level
7. Tissue level
7. Tissue level
8. Organ system level
8. Organ system level
9. Population level
9. Population level
10. Biosphere level
10 Biosphere level
What I know Assessment Lesson 1
1. D 6. B 11. A 1. B 6. B
2. A 7. C 12. A 2. A 7. B
3. C 8. B 13. C 3. D 8. B
4. D 9. B 14. D 4. D 9. A
5. D 10. C 15. D 5. D 10. C
48
Organelle Eukaryotes Prokaryote
plants animals bacteria
Mitochondria __ __
Nucleus __ __
Chloroplast __
Cytoplasm __ __ __
Peroxisome __ __
Vacuole __
Lysosome __ __
Golgi apparatus __ __
Endoplasmic __ __
reticulum
Ribosome __ __ __
Centriole __ __
Cell wall __ __
Plasma membrane __ __ __
Activity 3
Lesson 2
References:
Books
Audesirk. 2014. Biology: Life on Earth with Physiology. 11th Edition. Pearson Education
Limited, ©2014
Campbell. 2011. Campbell biology. Boston: Benjamin Cummings / PearsoLosos, Jonathan B.,
Kenneth A. Mason, Susan R. Singer, Peter H. Raven, and George B. Johnson.
2008. Biology.
Website
https://www.amybrownscience.com/p/freebies.html
https://ib.bioninja.com.au
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biological-sciences
http://mspasta.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/4/6/23465328/case_study_-
_cell_organelles_and_their_functions.pdf
https://chem.ku.edu/sites/chem.ku.edu/files/docs/CHEM190/lactic_acid.pdf
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