NOTES: 3I’S

WEEK 5
INTERPRETING DATA IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DATA PROCESSING
 is dealing with editing, coding, classifying, tabulating and presenting data through
chart or diagram.
 It is a series of actions or steps performed on data to verify, organize, transform,
integrate, and extract data in an appropriate output form for subsequent use.
STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Step 1: Preparing the Data
1. Coding System
 Converting the words, images, or pictures into numbers, they
become fit for any analytical procedures requiring knowledge
of arithmetic and mathematical computations.
2. Data Tabulation
 For easy classification and distribution of numbers based on
a certain criterion, you have to collate them with the help of a
graph called Table.
 Used for frequency and percentage distribution, this kind of
graph is an excellent data organizer that researchers find
indispensable.
Step 2: Analyzing the Data
1. Descriptive Statistical Technique
 This quantitative data-analysis technique provides a
summary of the orderly or sequential data obtained from the
sample through the data-gathering instrument used.
i. Frequency Distribution – gives you the frequency of
distribution and percentage of the occurrence of an item
in asset of data. In other words, it gives you the number
of responses given repeatedly for one question.
ii. Measure of Central Tendency – indicates the different
positions or values of the items, such that in a in a
category of data, you find an item or items serving as the:
a. Mean – average of all the items or scores
Example: 3 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 3 + 10 +
3 = 38
38 7 = 5.43 (Mean)
 b. Median – the score in the middle of the set
of items that cuts or divides the set into two
groups
Example: The numbers in the
example for the Mean has 2 as
the Median.
c. Mode – refers to the item or score in the
data set that has the most repeated
appearance in the set.
Example: Again, in the given
example above for the Mean, 3 is
the Mode.
d. Standard Deviation – shows the extent of
the difference of the data from the mean.
An examination of this gap between the
mean and the data gives you an idea about
the extent of the similarities and differences
between the respondents.
2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods
 An analysis of quantitative data that involves the use of more
complex statistical methods needing computer software like
the SPSS, STATA, or MINITAB, among others, occurs
among graduate-level students taking their MA or PhD
degrees.
i. Correlation – uses statistical analysis to yield results that
describe the relationship of two variables. The results,
however, are incapable of establishing causal
relationships.
TYPES OF CORRELATION:
 Pearson’s r
 A parametric statistical method used for
determining whether there is a linear
relationship between variables.
 There are three possible outcomes after
analyzing data using the Pearson’s r test.
These are positive correlation, negative
correlation and no correlation.
● Positive Correlation- means that when
the numerical value or one variable
increases or decreases, the other
variable increases or decreases as well.
 ● Negative Correlation- indicates that as
the numerical value of one variable
increases, the other variable decreases,
and vice-versa.
● No Correlation- means that the two
variables have no relationship with each
other.
 Scatter Plot-
o a set of points that displays the
relationship between two variables.
o Typically used by researchers to
visually present the results of
Pearson’s r.
o Each dot represents the relationship
between two variables according to
one observation. The series of dots,
in turn, represents the relationship
between two variables according to
the successive observations made
throughout the study.
 Spearman’s rho
 A non-parametric statistical technique that
tests the relationship between ordinal
variables.
 It uses rankings instead of actual values.
LESSON 2: EXPLORING THE DIFFERENT WAYS ON HOW TO PRESENT
QUANTITATIVE DATA
A. Bar Graph
● A diagram in which the numerical values of variables are represented by the
height or length of lines or rectangles of equal width.
B. Histogram
● A diagram consisting of rectangles whose area is proportional to the frequency
of a variable and whose width is equal to the class interval.
C. Pie Chart
● A type of graph in which a circle is divided into sectors that each represent a
proportion of the whole.
D. Scatter Plot
● A scatter plot is a graph in which the values of two variables are plotted along
two axes, the pattern of the resulting points revealing any correlation present.
______________________________________________________________________
WEEK 6
LESSON 2: IDENTIFYING MEANINGFUL PATTERNS AND THEMES IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

 Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and
interpretation of patterns and themes in textual data and determines how these
patterns and themes help answer the research questions at hand.
 The National Science Foundation (1997) describes qualitative analysis as
“unguided by universal rules; has a fluid process that is greatly dependent on the
evaluator and to the context of the study; and adaptable to progressing studies
and data.”
IDENTIFYING MEANINGFUL PATTERNS AND THEME
A. Content Analysis
 This technique could be used when qualitative data had been collected through
interviews, focus groups, observations, and documentary analyses.
 This procedure is used to categorize oral or spoken words, or a person’s conduct
or behavior, sorting, grouping, codification, and tabulation.
 Content analysis also involves coding and classifying of the data, also referred to
as categorizing and coding or indexing, The aim of content analysis is to make
sense of data and to make inferences about the messages or findings.
B. Thematic Analysis
 This is a form of pattern recognition within the data.
 It provides a simple interpretation and concise description of themes and patterns
in the data set.
 The general procedure involves a careful review of the raw data. You identify the
themes after coding and categorizing the data.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONTENT ANALYSIS AND THEMATIC ANALYSIS
1. Content analysis focuses more on how frequently various categories appear or occur
while thematic analysis is involved in identifying themes and analyzing each theme to
build up the whole picture of the data.
2. Thematic analysis can be more in-depth and broader in analysis and understanding.
3. Content analysis can be used in both qualitative and quantitative data while thematic
analysis is mainly used for qualitative research.
4. Content analysis is focused on codes while thematic analysis is more focused on
themes.
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE APPROACHES TO CODING
Inductive coding (Ground up coding)
 Inductive coding is a ground-up approach where you derive your codes from the
data.
 You don’t start with preconceived notions of what the codes should be but allow
the narrative or theory to emerge from the raw data itself.
 This is great for exploratory research or times when you want to come up with a
new theories, ideas or concepts.
Deductive Coding (Top down coding)
 Deductive coding is a top down approach where you start by developing a
codebook with your initial set of codes.
 This set could be based on your research questions or an existing research
framework or theory.
 You then read through the data and assign excerpts to codes. At the end of your
analysis, your codes should still closely resemble the codebook that you started
off with.
 This is good when you have a pre-determined structure for how you need your
final findings to be.
EXAMPLES OF CODING
1. In Vivo Coding (Using the participant’s own words)
 With In Vivo coding, you code an excerpt based on a participant’s own words,
and not your own interpretation as a researcher.
2. Process Coding (Capturing an action)
 With Process coding, you use codes to communicate an action in the data.
Codes will typically be gerunds that end with “ing”.
3. Open Coding (An initial round of loose and tentative coding)
 With Open coding, you break down the data into discrete excerpts. The codes
represent a label, description, definition, or category name.
4. Descriptive Coding
 With Descriptive coding, you summarize the content of the text into a description.
The code name should be a word or a noun that encapsulates the contents of the
data.
5. Structural Coding
 With structural coding, you categorize sections of your text according to a
specific structure with the intent to continue analyzing within these structures.
 It’s a way to break your data into smaller increments.
6. Values Coding
 With Values coding, you code excerpts that pertain to the participant’s values,
attitudes, and beliefs.
DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
1. Getting to know the data.
 This is done by reading and re-reading the text. The taped recordings should be
played and listened to several times. Impressions should be written down.
 The purpose of this process is to assess the quality of the data before the
analysis.
2. Focusing the analysis.
 This can be done using two approaches:
o Focus by question or topic, time period, or event.
o Focus by case, individual, or group.

3. Coding.
 This is the process of categorizing the data. This process reduces the data into
smaller groupings so that they are more manageable.
 Codes can be developed using predefined ones and those that emerge from the
data.
Predefined codes refer to codes that are formulated by the researcher based his
or her knowledge through the reviewed literatures.
o Emergent codes refer to codes that become apparent as one reviews the
data.
4. Entering and organizing the data.
 This can be done manually by using a piece of paper or through computers.
Upon deciding the use of a word processing program, such as Microsoft Word,
the recording will be easier to accomplish.
5. Cleaning the data.
 This is a process of checking data for errors. The “dirty” data when not eliminated
can negatively influence the results of the study.
  There are three common ways of cleaning qualitative data (Washington County,
1996):
o Spot-checking.
 This technique involves comparing the raw data to the electronically
entered data to check for data entry and coding errors.
o Eye-balling.
 This technique involves reviewing the data for errors that may have
resulted from a data entry or coding oversight.
o Logic check.
 This technique involves a careful review of the electronically
entered data to make sure that the answers to the different
questions “make sense.”
6. Identifying meaningful patterns and themes
 This is the core process of qualitative data analysis.There are two primary ways
to do perform this:
o Content Analysis
o Thematic Analysis

7. Interpreting the data.

 In this process, the results are synthesized into a coherent whole.
 Meaning and significance is attached to the analysis of data.
 The themes and patterns serve to explain the findings
CODING FOR GROUNDED THEORY QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Open Coding
 Open coding is a common first step in the analysis of your qualitative research
and is often used as the initial coding pass in Grounded Theory.
 At this point, you will have started collecting qualitative data, such as
transcriptions from interviews.
 With open coding, you break your data into discrete parts and create “codes” to
label them.
Axial Coding
 Axial coding in grounded theory is the second step of coding that follows open
coding.
 In contrast to open coding where you break the data into discrete parts, with axial
coding you begin to draw connections between codes.
 With axial coding, you organize the codes you developed in open coding.
 With axial coding in qualitative research, you read over your codes and the
underlying data to find how your codes can be grouped into categories.
  A category could be created based on an existing code, or a new more abstract
category can be developed that encompasses a number of different codes.
Selective Coding
 Selective coding is the last step in Grounded Theory, where you connect all your
categories together around one core category. In doing so you define one unified
theory around your research.
 Selective coding occurs later on in your research and connects categories you
have developed from your qualitative data in previous coding cycles, such as
axial coding.
 The core category you develop in selective coding may come from elevating one
of the categories from the axial coding stage or may be a new category that you
derive based on your other categories.
 The core category ultimately represents the central thesis of your research.
LESSON 2: FOLLOWING THE GUIDELINES FOR THE ANALYSIS PROCESS
FORMAT OF THE DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS
Major Elements
1. Presentation of the data.
 This showcases the data for easy understanding of the reader. They can be
displayed using tables, diagrams, or other figures for easy comprehension.
2. Analysis.
 In this part, the knowledge and logical understanding of the researcher is
required. The important data are given enough attention as it will be the basis of
the final results of the study.
3. Interpretation.
 In this part, comprehensible statements are included after analyzing and
synthesizing the patterns and categories that are derived from the findings.
4. Discussion.
 After the analysis and interpretation of the data, the discussions and
explanations of the results are needed to give a more logical and empirical basis
for the conclusion.

WEEK 7
LESSON 1: DRAWING LOGICAL CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
 This section serves as a brief restatement of the components of the research
paper
 This section includes summarized statements for the overall purpose and
objective of the study, the type of research used, the nature and size of the
sample, the locale of the study, the main and sub-problems, and the major
findings of the research. However, the restatements should be straightforward
but still meaningful.
 Below are some strategies that you can use when writing the summary section:
o 1. Refrain from providing detailed figures or elaborating your major
findings.
o 2. Avoid making interpretations and conclusions from findings when
writing the summary. Note that the summary is the condensed version of
your results.
o 3. Be direct and brief in writing your summary.
o 4. Refrain from introducing new data in your summary.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
 Essentially, the conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each
problem.
 These insights answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research
paper.
 The implications that you need to discuss can be classified as practical,
theoretical, and methodological.
o ▪ Practical Implications
 relate to the issues concerning the support, refutation, and
supplementation of existing models and concepts in your field of
study.
o ▪ Theoretical Implications
 can also point out how your findings can pave the way for new
studies in the field.
o ▪ Methodological Implications
 relate to the issues concerning materials and processes in
research.
 Here are some important points to consider when writing the conclusion
subsection:
o 1. Avoid merely summarizing your findings; instead, use your findings in
making inferences.
 o 2. Ensure that each conclusion is supported by the evidence or data that
you have gathered. Refrain from making speculations not backed by your
data.
o 3. State your conclusions briefly, and clearly, as these shall already apply
to your study as a whole and not on a particular piece of evident.
o 4. Limit your conclusion to your participants, and refrain from claiming that
it applies to other populations or contexts
o 5. Refrain from using numerals and figures in your conclusion. Remember
that this portion of your paper is not focused on introducing data or
explaining your findings.
o 6. Avoid using terms in your conclusions that imply doubts. These words
include maybe, perhaps, and possibly. Instead, you may use the phrase
“the evidence suggests…” in stating your conclusions.

LESSON 2: MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON CONCLUSIONS

MAKING RECOMMENDATION
 Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, recommendations serve as
practical suggestions for future research in similar fields.
 They are envisioned to further improve the pertinent variables that were the
subject of the investigation undertaken.
 The general recommendations may also be stated giving suggested measures to
concerned agencies, institutions, or to the government that may lead towards the
betterment of society in general.
 Take note of the following guidelines in writing your recommendations:
o 1. Make sure that your recommendations are in accordance with the
conclusions and limitations of your study. Furthermore, align your
recommendations with the purpose and scope of your research.
o 2. Make your recommendations as specific as possible for them to
become workable and practical.
o 3. Write your recommendations concisely and clearly. This will help the
readers immediately recognize the impact of your study
o 4. As much as possible, refrain from offering recommendations that could
have been easily addressed as you were conducting your study.
Otherwise, these might be constructed only as an after-thought.

STRUCTURE OF THE CONCLUSION SECTION

 5. Conclusion
o 5.1. Summary of the Findings
  ● Summary of the findings for research question/objective 1
 ● Summary of the findings for research question/objective 2
 ● Summary of the findings for research question/objective 3
o 5.2. Conclusion
 ● Conclusion
 ▪ Conclusion 1
 ▪ Conclusion 2
 ▪ Conclusion 3
 ● Implications
 ▪ Practical implications
 ▪ Theoretical implications
 ▪ Methodological implications
o 5.3. Recommendations
 ▪ Future studies and the current study’s limitations
 ▪ Practical recommendation
 ▪ Theoretical Recommendation
 ▪ Methodological Recommendation
_____________________________________________________________________
WEEK 8
Lesson 1: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

RESEARCH-REPORT WRITING
 Central to this last stage of your research study is sharing information or making
known to people the results of your several-month inquiry of a certain topic.
 Your study is an academic work that has to abide by some rules or standards in
research-report writing.
 Research-report writing is an academic writing, in that, its focus is on reporting or
telling about the results of your investigation of a specific subject matter.
 It is not simply communicating your opinions, but doing this in a controlled way;
that is, you have to follow socially determined and discipline-specific rules in
terms of language, structure, and format or style.
 Governed by several writing rules and standards, research-report writing is the
most challenging and demanding kind of writing among learners in higher
education institutions. (Russell 2013; Corti 2014; Punch 2014).
RESEARCH WRITING VS. RESEARCH REPORTING
 Research writing presents facts and opinions of other people about a particular
subject matter. It also includes your own interpretations, as the researcher, about
these known facts.
  Report writing, too, presents facts and opinions of others; however, it does not
claim that these opinions originally come from the writer, for the reason that
some reading materials like books, journals, magazines, and other reading
materials have already published these facts and opinions.
GUIDELINES IN RESEARCH-REPORT WRITING
 1. Organize the parts of your research report based on the standard research
report structure that consists of the following sequential components:
o a. Title. This part of your research paper gives information and
descriptions of the things focused on by your research study.
o b. Abstract. The abstract concisely discusses the essential aspects of
your paper such as the background of the problem, objectives,
significance, research design, data collection technique, data analysis
method, discussions of the findings, scope, conclusions, among others.
o c. Introduction. This part explains the background of the research
problem, states a set of specific research questions, and of optional
hypotheses or assumptions.
o d. Methodology. This section explains the types and sources of data as
well as the method you used in collecting and analyzing the data you have
gathered.
o e. Results or Findings. There’s no more mentioning of analysis of data or
not yet analyzed data in this section. What it does is to present the
research findings that are expressed through graphics,
o statistics, or words.
o f. Conclusions. This section explains things that will lead you to significant
points, insights, or understanding, or conclusions that derive their validity,
credibility or acceptability from the factual evidence gathered during the
data-collection stage.
o g. Recommendations. Done by some researchers, this section gives
something that will expand or extend one’s understanding of the
conclusions raised earlier, such as suggesting a solution to the problem or
recommending a further research on the subject.
o i. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like
questionnaires, graphs, and letters, among others that you used in all
stages of your academic work, and are, then, part and parcel of your
research study.
 2. Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.
o Here are some ways to maintain an objective and an impersonal tone in
academic texts such as your report about your research study:
 a. Dominantly use passive voice than active voice sentences.
  b. Use the third-person point of view by using words like his or her,
they, or the user, instead of the personalized first-person point of
view like I, We, Me, Our, etc.
 c. De-emphasize the subject or personal nature of the academic
text by avoiding the use of emotive words like dissatisfied,
uninteresting, or undignified.
 d. Use modality (words indicating the degree of the
appropriateness, effectiveness, or applicability of something) to
express opinionated statements that are prone to various degrees
or levels of certainty.
 3. Observe the mechanics of research-report writing which are as follows:
o a. Physical Appearance. Use white bond paper having the size of 8 ½ x 11
in. and provide 1 ½ in. left-right margin, plus 1 in. top-bottom margin.
Unless your teacher instructs you to use a particular font style and size,
use the standard Times Roman, 12 pts.
o b. Quotations. A one-line, double-spaced quotation is in quotation marks;
4- to 5-line, single-spaced quotations are indented further from the margin
to appear as block quotation.
o c. Footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page and are
numbered consecutively stating with number one (1) in each chapter.
o d. Statistics and Graphs. Use tables, charts, bar graphs, line charts,
pictograms, flowcharts, schematic diagrams, etc. in connection with the
objectives of the study.
o e. Final Draft. Subject the final form of the research report to editing,
revising, rewriting, and proofreading.
o f. Index. Alphabetize these two types of index: subject index and author
index.
Lesson 2: TIPS FOR THE RESEARCH DEFENSE
Do’s
 1. Get Ready in Advance
 2. Be the Expert
 3. Get to the Root of the Matter
 4. Know the Guidelines
 5. Rehearse the Defense
 6. Demonstrate Your Knowledge
Don’ts
 1. Read the Presentation Word-for-Word
 2. Have Grammatical and Spelling Errors
 3. Discourage Yourself
 4. Show Nervousness
 5. Forget that You Should Enjoy