SUDHARSAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SATHIYAMANGALAM, PUDUKKOTTAI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

EC3311– ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

LABORATORY

LAB MANUAL

II Year - III Semester

Regulation 2021

2
 EC3311 – ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Characteristics of Semiconductor diode, Zener diode , photo diode , and photo

transistor,
2. Characteristics of NPN Transistor under common emitter , common collector and
common base configurations
3. Characteristics of JFET and draw the equivalent circuit
4. Characteristics of UJT and generation of saw tooth waveforms
5. Design and frequency response characteristics of a Common Emitter amplifier
6. Characteristics of light activated relay circuit
7. Design and testing of RC phase shift and LC oscillators
8. Characteristics of Single Phase half-wave and full wave rectifiers with inductive and
capacitive filters
9. Design of Differential amplifiers using FET
10. Measurement of frequency and phase angle using CRO
11. Realization of passive filters
.

3
Block Diagram of CRO

Observation

Vertical Amplitude Horizontal Time/ Time

Volt/div Freq.
Function Division (p-p) Div. div (Period)
(b) F=1/T
(a) V=a*b (c) (d) T=c*d

Sine wave

Square
Wave

Triangular
Wave

4
Ex. No.: 1
STUDY OF CRO FOR FREQUENCY AND PHASE
MEASUREMENTS
AIM:

To observe sine wave, square wave and triangular waveforms on the

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope and to measure amplitude, frequency and Phase of
the waveforms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 CRO-Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz 1
2 Function Generator 1MHz 1
3 BNC CRO Probes 3

THEORY:

CRO-(Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) is the instrument which is used to observe

signal waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude
of the signal with respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen. X-axis represents
time and Y-axis represents amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude,
frequency and phase of the waveforms. It is also used to observe shape of the
waveform. C.R.O. is useful for troubleshooting purpose. It helps us to find out
gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits.
A CRO is a versatile instrument that can be used to measure voltage, time
intervals, and the phase angle between two sinusoidal voltages of the same
frequency. There are 8 vertical divisions and 10 horizontal divisions indicated with
grid lines or graticules. A standard screen size is 8 cm by 10 cm. The screen is
coated with phosphor that emits light when struck by the electron beam. We can
measure following parameters using the CRO:
 AC or DC voltage.
 Time (t=1/f).
 Phase relationship
 Waveform calculation: Rise time; fall time; on time; off-time Distortion, etc.
Latest digital storage oscilloscope display voltage and frequency directly on
the LCD and does not require any calculations. It can also store waveform
for further analysis.

5
Draw observed waveforms
Sine wave: (Amplitude: Frequency _ )

Square Wave: (Amplitude: Frequency _ )

Triangular Wave: (Amplitude: Frequency _ )

6
Major blocks:

 Cathode ray tube (CRT)

 Electron gun assembly
 Deflection plate unit
 Screen.
 Vertical amplifier
 Horizontal amplifier
 Sweep generator
 Trigger circuit
 Associated power supply.

7
FORMULA:

Amplitude = No. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.

Time period = No. of horizontal divisions * Time/div.
Frequency= (1/T) Hz
Measurement of Phase
The calibrated time scales can be used to calculate the phase shift
between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. If a dual trace or beam CRO
is available to display the two signals simultaneously (one of the signals is used
for synchronization), both of the signals will appear in proper time perspective and
the amount of time difference between the waveforms can be measured. This, in
turn can be utilized to calculate the phase angle θ, between the two signals.

Referring to figure.1, the phase shift can be calculated by the formula;

Phase shift in cm x 360
  . One period in
cm .
The frequency relationship between the horizontal and vertical inputs is given by;
fh No. of tangencies (vertical )
fv  No. of tangencies (horizontal )
from which fv, the unknown frequency can be calculated.

8
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect function generator output at the input of C.R.O. at channel 1 or

at channel 2.
2. Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 select CH1 and
if signal is connected to channel 2 select CH2.
3. Adjust Time /Div. knob to get sufficient time period displacement of
the wave on the CRO screen.
4. With fine tuning of time/Div. make the waveform steady on screen.
5. Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable.
6. Keep volt/div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen
without clipping.
7. Measure P-P reading along y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/div
gives peak to peak amplitude of the ac i/p wave.
8. Measure horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied
by time/div gives time period of the i/p wave.
9. Calculate frequency using formula f = 1/T.
10.Note down your readings in the observation table.
11.Draw waveforms of sine, square, ramp and triangular in the given space.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is the use of CRO & mention the Manufactures.

2. Define the terms offset error, peak value and peak to peak value.
3. What is the highest frequency that can be measured by CRO available in your
laboratory?
4. What is highest voltage that can be measured by CRO available in your
laboratory?
5. What you will do to measure voltage which is greater than voltage limit of
the CRO?
6. What do you mean by dual channel CRO?
7. What type of deflection mechanism used in CRO to deflect electron beam?
8. How to test whether CRO probe is in working condition or not?
9. How do you measure the frequency and phase angle in CRO?
10.What is the use of AC/DC input coupling push-button switch, Volt/Div.
and Time/Div. knob in CRO?

RESULT:

Thus the operation of CRO has been studied along with the measurement of
frequency and phase of a signal.

9
SYMBOL & PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

10
Ex. No.: 2(a)

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR PN DIODE

AIM:

To Plot the Volt Ampere Characteristics of PN Junction Diode under

Forward and Reverse Bias Conditions, and to find the Cut-in voltage, Static
Resistance, Dynamic Resistance under Forward and Reverse Bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Diode- PN IN4007 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ 1
3 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Voltmeters MC (0-1)V, (0-15)V Each One
MC (0-500)µA, (0-20)
5 Ammeters Each One
mA
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

A diode is a PN junction formed by a layer of P type and layer of N type

Semiconductors. Once formed the free electrons in the N region diffuse across the
junction and combine with holes in P region and so a depletion Layer is developed.
The depletion layer consists of ions, which acts like a barrier for diffusion of
charged beyond a certain limit. The difference of potential across the depletion layer
is called the barrier potential. At 2.5degree the barrier potential approximately equal
0.7v for silicon diode and 0.3v for germanium diode.
When the junction is forward bias, the majority carrier acquired sufficient
energy to overcome the barrier and the diode conducts. When the junction is reverse
biased the depletion layer widens and the barrier potential increases. Hence the
Majority carrier cannot cross the junction and the diode does not conduct. But there
will be a leakage current due to minority carrier. When diode is forward biased,
resistance offered is zero, and when reverse biased resistance offered is infinity.
It acts as a perfect switch.

11
TABULATION:
FORWARD BIAS: REVERSE BIAS:

Vf(volts) If(mA) Vr(volts) Ir(mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

12
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS:

1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to anode of the diode
and negative terminal to cathode of the diode.
3. Forward voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
forward current is noted.
4. The readings are tabulated. A graph is drawn between V f and I f.

REVERSE BIAS:

1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to cathode of the diode
and negative terminal to anode of the diode.
3. Reverse voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
Reverse current is noted.
4. The readings are tabulated. A graph is drawn between V r and I r.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. How a PN junction is formed?

2. In what way the width of depletion region can be varied?
3. What is potential barrier?
4. In forward bias condition the current condition is due to
5. What is reverse saturation current Ico?
6. How diodes act as switch?
7. What is Dynamic Resistance?
8. Why it is called as Diode?
9. What are the majority carriers of P-type and N-type semiconductor?
10.What is an ideal diode? How does it differ from a real diode?

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of PN diode were drawn and the necessary

parameters are calculated from the graph.

13
SYMBOL & PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

14
Ex. No.: 2(b)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To Obtain the Forward Bias and Reverse Bias characteristics of a Zener

diode, and to find the Zener Break down Voltage from the Characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Diode- Zener FZ3.2 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ 1
3 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Voltmeters MC (0-1)V, (0-10)V Each One
5 Ammeters MC (0-20)mA 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

Zener diodes have many of the same basic properties of ordinary

semiconductor diodes. When forward biased, they conduct in the forward direction
and have the same turn on voltage as ordinary diodes. For silicon this is about
0.6 volts.
In the reverse direction, the operation of a Zener diode is quite different to
an ordinary diode. For low voltages the diodes do not conduct as would be expected.
However, once a certain voltage is reached the diode "breaks down" and current
flows. Looking at the curves for a Zener diode, it can be seen that the voltage is
almost constant regardless of the current carried. This means that a Zener diode
provides a stable and known reference voltage. Hence they are used as Voltage
regulators.

15
TABULATION:

FORWARD BIAS: REVERSE BIAS:

Vf(volts) If(mA) Vr(volts) Ir(mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

16
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS:

1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to anode of the diode and
negative terminal to cathode of the diode.
3. Forward voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
forward current is noted.
4. The readings are tabulated. A graph is drawn between V f and I f.

REVERSE BIAS:

1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to cathode of the
diode and negative terminal to anode of the diode.
3. Reverse voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
Reverse current is noted.
4. The readings are tabulated. A graph is drawn between V r and I r.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. How Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator?

2. Explain working of a Zener Diode.
3. What is the cut-in voltage of Zener diode?
4. Differentiate between Zener Breakdown and Avalanche breakdown.
5. Why Zener diode is often preferred than PN diode?
6. List the application of Zener diode.
7. Define Zener breakdown voltage.
8. List the other Zener diode with different breakdown voltages.
9. Can we use Zener diode as a switch?
10.What will happens if PN regions are heavily doped in Zener diode?

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of Zener diode were drawn and the necessary
parameters are determined from the graph.

17
PIN DIAGRAM OF BC107

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: COMMON EMITTER CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS:

MODEL GRAPH:

18
Ex. No.: 3(a)

CHARACTERISTICS OF NPN TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON

EMITTER CONFIGURATION
AIM:
To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in
Common Emitter Configuration and to find the dynamic resistance and
amplification factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

Max Rating : 50V 1A,
1 Transistor BC107 1
3W
2 Resistors 1kΩ, (or) 470Ω 2
3 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Voltmeters MC (0-2)V, (0-10)V Each One
MC (0-25)mA,
5 Ammeters Each One
(0-100)µA
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor or BJT is a three terminal device having

two PN-junctions connected together in series. Each terminal is given a name to
identify it and these are known as the Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). There
are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, NPN and PNP, which
basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials from which they are made. Bipolar Transistors are
"CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating devices that control the amount of
current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing current
applied to their base terminal. The principle of operation of the two transistors
types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the only difference being in the biasing
(base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type. In CE
configuration, Emitter is common to both the input and output as shown in figure.
The direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the base
and emitter terminal, pointing from the positive P-type region to the negative N-
type region, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol. For normal
operation, the emitter-base junction is forward- biased and the collector-base
junction is reverse-biased.

19
TABULATION:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

20
DESCRIPTION:
Input Characteristics: The variation of the base current IB with the base-
emitter voltage VBE keeping the collector-emitter voltage V CE fixed, gives the
input characteristic in CE mode.
Input Dynamic Resistance (ri): This is defined as the ratio of change in base
emitter voltage (∆VBE) to the resulting change in base current (∆IB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This is dynamic and it can be seen from the
input characteristic, its value varies with the operating current in the transistor:

The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand ohms.
Output Characteristics: The variation of the collector current IC with the collector-
emitter voltage VCE is called the output characteristic. The plot of IC versus VCE for
different fixed values of IB gives one output characteristic. Since the collector current
changes with the base current, there will be different output characteristics
corresponding to different values of IB.
Output Dynamic Resistance (ro): This is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the change in collector current (∆I C) at a constant
base current IB.

The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the order of 100 kW) is due to the
reverse biased state of this diode.
Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input
and output currents (IB versus IC). Both IB and IC increase proportionately.
Current amplification factor (β)
This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in
base current at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the transistor is in active state.

This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large. The ratio
of IC and
IB we get what is called dc of the transistor. Hence,

Since IC increases with IB almost linearly, the values of both dc and ac are nearly
equal.

21
22
PROCEDURE:
TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VBB and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCE = 1 volt by varying V CC and vary the VBB smoothly with fine control
such that base current IB varies in steps of 5μA from zero up to 100μA,
and note down the corresponding voltage VBE for each step in the tabular
form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCE =1 volt and 2 volts.
5. Draw a graph between VBE vs. IB against VCE = Constant.

TO FIND THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Start VEE and VCC from zero Volts.
2. Set the IB = 20μA by using VBB such that, VCE changes in steps of 0.2 volts
from zero up to 10 volts, note down the corresponding collector current I C
for each step in the tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for IE = 20μA and IE = 40μA, tabulate the readings.
4. Draw a graph between VCE Vs IC against IB = Constant.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Why BJT is called current controlled device?

2. Why CE configuration is commonly used for amplifier circuits?
3. Why IB vs. VBE plots move outwards for higher values of VCE in CE input
characteristics?
4. What is indicated by B, C and 107 in BC107?
5. What are the regions of operation of a transistor?
6. Can transistor be replaced by two back to back connected diodes?
7. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased and
collector junction is reverse biased. Why?
8. What is the relation between α, β and γ and mention the range of β for BJT?
9. List the current components of BJT in CE configuration.
10.Why the doping of collector is less compared to emitter?
11.What is the difference between CE and emitter follower circuit?
12.What is the phase relation between input and output?
13.Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?
14.What is the power gain of CE configuration?
15.What are the applications of CE configuration?

RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristic of BJT in Common Emitter
configuration were plotted and the dynamic resistance and amplification factor were
obtained.

23
PIN DIAGRAM OF BC107

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: COMMON COLLECTOR CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

MODEL GRAPH:

24
Ex. No.: 3(b)

CHARACTERISTICS OF NPN TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON

COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
AIM:
To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in
Common Collector Configuration and to find the dynamic resistance and
amplification factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transistor BC107 Max Rating : 50V 1A, 3W 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ, (or) 470Ω 2
3 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Voltmeters MC (0-10)V 2
5 Ammeters MC (0-100)µA, (0-25)mA Each One
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor or BJT is a three terminal device having

two PN-junctions connected together in series. Each terminal is given a name to
identify it and these are known as the Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). There
are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, NPN and PNP, which
basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials from which they are made. Bipolar Transistors are
"CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating devices that control the amount of
current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing current
applied to their base terminal. The principle of operation of the two transistors
types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the only difference being in the biasing
(base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type. In CC
configuration, Collector is common to both the input and output as shown in
figure. The direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the
base and emitter terminal, pointing from the positive P-type region to the
negative N-type region, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol. For
normal operation, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the collector-
base junction is reverse-biased.

25
TABULATION:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

26
DESCRIPTION:
Input Characteristics: The variation of the base current IB with the base-collector
voltage VBC keeping the collector-emitter voltage V CE fixed, gives the input
characteristic in CC mode.
Input Dynamic Resistance (ri): This is defined as the ratio of change in base
collector voltage (∆VBC) to the resulting change in base current (∆I B) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This is dynamic and it can be seen from the
input characteristic, its value varies with the operating current in the transistor:

The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds ohms to a few hundred
kilo (750KΩ) ohms.
Output Characteristics: The variation of the emitter current IE with the collector-
emitter voltage VCE is called the output characteristic. The plot of I E versus VCE for
different fixed values of IB gives one output characteristic. Since the emitter current
changes with the base current, there will be different output characteristics
corresponding to different values of IB.
Output Dynamic Resistance (ro): This is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the change in emitter current (∆I E) at a constant
base current IB.

The output resistance of the common collector is very low in the order of 50Ω. This
circuit arrangement is mainly used for impedance matching.

27
Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input
and output currents (IB versus IE). Both IB and IE increase proportionately.

Current amplification factor (γ)

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change in output current
or emitter current IE to the change in input current or base current IB. It is
expressed by the γ.

The current gain of a common collector amplifier is high. The ratio of IE and IB we
get what is called dc of the transistor. Hence,

28
PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set VCE, vary VBC in regular interval of steps and note down the
corresponding IB reading. Repeat the above procedure for different values
of VBC.
3. Plot the graph: VBC vs. IB for a constant VCE.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set IB, Vary VCE in regular interval of steps and note down the corresponding
IE reading. Repeat the above procedure for different values of IB.
3. Plot the graph: VCE vs. IE for a constant IB.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What are the various configurations of NPN transistor?

2. Why collector of a transistor is the largest region?
3. What is meant by thermal run away?
4. Why amplifier is known as emitter follower?
5. Mention the applications of CC amplifier.
6. What are the differences between CE, CB and CC amplifier?
7. Mention the characteristics of CC amplifier.
8. What is gain BW product?
9. Can we use CC configuration as an amplifier?
10.What is the need for analyzing the transistor circuits using different
parameters?
11.What is the significance of hybrid model of a transistor?
12.Is there any phase shift between input and output in CC configuration?
13.Compare the voltage gain and input and output impedances of CE and
CC configurations.
14.Which BJT configuration is suitable for impedance matching application?
Why?
15.What is the use of heat sink?

RESULT:

Thus the input and output characteristic of BJT in Common Collector

configuration were plotted and the dynamic resistance and amplification factor were
obtained.

29
PIN DIAGRAM OF BC107

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: COMMON BASE CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

MODEL GRAPH:

30
Ex. No.: 3(c)

CHARACTERISTICS OF NPN TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON

BASE CONFIGURATION
AIM:
To plot the Input and Output characteristics of a transistor connected in
Common Base Configuration and to find the dynamic resistance and amplification
factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transistor BC107 Max Rating : 50V 1A, 3W 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ, (or) 470Ω 2
3 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Voltmeters MC (0-2)V, (0-10)V Each One
5 Ammeters MC (0-25)mA 2
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor or BJT is a three terminal device having

two PN-junctions connected together in series. Each terminal is given a name to
identify it and these are known as the Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). There
are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, NPN and PNP, which
basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials from which they are made. Bipolar Transistors are
"CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating devices that control the amount of
current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing current
applied to their base terminal. The principle of operation of the two transistors
types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the only difference being in the biasing
(base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type. In CB
configuration, base is common to both the emitter and collector terminal. The
direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the base and
emitter terminal, pointing from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type
region, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol. For normal operation,
the emitter-base junction is forward- biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased.

31
TABULATION:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

32
DESCRIPTION:

Input Characteristics: Voltage across Base Emitter junction VBE vs IE, where VCB
constant.

Input Dynamic Resistance (ri) this is defined as the ratio of change in base emitter
voltage (∆VEB) to the resulting change in emitter current (∆IE) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCB). This is dynamic as its value varies with the
operating current in the transistor.

Output characteristics: Voltage across Collector Emitter junction VBC vs IC where

IE constant
Output Dynamic Resistance (ro): This is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-base voltage (∆VCB) to the change in collector current (∆IC) at a constant
base current IE.

Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input
and output currents (IE versus IC).
Current amplification factor (α)
This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in emitter
current at a constant collector-base voltage (VCB) when the transistor is in
active state.

This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large. The ratio
of IC and
IE is called dc of the transistor. Hence,

Since IC increases with IE almost linearly, the values of both dc and ac are
nearly equal.

33
34
PROCEDURE:
TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.
2. Keep VEE and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCB = 1 volt by varying VCC. and vary the VEE smoothly with fine control
such that emitter current IE varies in steps of 0.2mA from zero up to
25mA, and note down the corresponding voltage VEB for each step in the
tabular form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCB =2 volts and 3 volts.
5. Draw a graph between VEB vs. IE against VCB = Constant.

TO FIND THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Start VEE and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the IE = 1mA by using VEE such that, VCB changes in steps of 1.0 volts
from zero up to 20 volts, note down the corresponding collector current I C
for each step in the tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for IE = 3mA and IE = 5mA, tabulate the readings.
4. Draw a graph between VCB Vs IC against IE = Constant.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Give the relation of Ebers moll equation.

2. In a bipolar transistor which region is wider and which region is thinner?
Why?
3. State the relation between α and β of a transistor?
4. Express Ic in terms ICE0 and ICB0.
5. What does arrow in the transistor symbol indicate?
6. Why emitter of a transistor is highly doped?
7. Which configuration is good as a constant current source? Why?
8. Why α is less than unity?
9. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?
10.What is the importance of Fermi level?

RESULT:

Thus the input and output characteristic of BJT in Common Base

configuration were plotted and dynamic resistance and amplification factor were
obtained.

35
PIN DIAGRAM OF BFW10

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH:

36
Ex. No.: 4
CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET AND ITS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

AIM:
To plot the Drain and Transfer characteristics of JFET and to find Drain
resistance, Transconductance, Amplification factor, Drain saturation current IDSS
and Pinch off voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

BFW10 or 11
1 FET 1
Idss> 8 mA, Vp<8V
2 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
MC (0-10)V, MC (0-
3 Voltmeters Each One
20)V
4 Ammeters MC (0-50) mA 1
5 Bread Board 1
6 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

The Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three terminal device. Three

terminals are Drain (D), Source (S), Gate (G) and fourth terminal is
substrate/body/shield/Bulk but it is not used. In FET, current flow is due
to only one type of charge particles, either electrons or holes. So FET is
known as unipolar device. The name “field effect” is derived from the fact
that the current is controlled by an electric field set up in the device by an
externally applied voltage. Thus FET is a voltage controlled device while
bipolar transistor is current controlled device.

JFET AC Equivalent Circuit:

37
TABULAR COLUMN:

Drain characteristics
VGS = 0V VGS = -2V VGS = - 4 V
VDS (V) ID(mA) VDS (V) ID(mA) VDS (V) ID(mA)

Transfer characteristics

VDS = 2V VDS = 4V VDS = 6V

VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)

38
PROCEDURE:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram and start with VGG and
VDD keeping at zero volts.
2. Keep VGG such that VGS = 0 volts, Now vary VDD such that VDS
Varies in steps of 1 volt up to 10 volts. And Note down the corresponding
Drain current ID.
3. Repeat the above experiment with VGS = -2V and -4V and tabulate the
readings.
4. Draw a graph VDS Vs ID against VGS as parameter on graph.
5. From the above graph calculate rd and note down the corresponding
diode current against the voltage in the tabular form.
6. Draw the graph between voltages across the Diode vs. Current through
the diode in the first quadrant as shown in model graph.

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Set VGG and VDD at zero volts .keep VDS = 2Volt.

2. Vary VGG such that VGS varies in steps of 0.5 volts. Note down the
corresponding
3. Drain current ID, until ID = 0mA and Tabulate the readings.
4. Repeat the above experiment for VDS = 4 Volts and 6 Volts and tabulate
the readings.
5. Draw graph between VGS Vs ID with VDS as parameter.
6. From the graph find gm.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Check the wires for continuity before use.

2. Keep the power supply at zero volts before starting the experiment.
3. All the contacts must be intact.
4. For a good JFET ID will be ≥ 11.0 mA at VGS = 0.0 volts if not
change the JFET.
5. Make sure while selecting the source, drain and gate terminals of the FET.

39
MODEL GRAPH:

CALCULATIONS:
Calculation of rd :

Construct a Triangle on one of the output characteristic for a particular VGS in the
active region and find ΔVDS and ΔID.
Drain resistance rd = ΔVDS/ ΔID (VGS = constant)

Calculation of gm :

Construct a Triangle on one of the Transfer characteristics for a particular VDS

find ΔVGS and ΔID.

Transconductance gm = ΔID/Δ VGS (VDS = constant).

Calculation of μ:
Amplification factor μ = gm x rd.

40
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Why it is called by name “Field Effect Transistor”?

2. What are the advantage of FET over BJT?
3. What are the disadvantages of FET?
4. What is the significance of arrowhead in FET symbol?
5. Why FET is called unipolar device?
6. Define VVR.
7. What are the applications of FET?
8. Why FET is called us voltage controlled device?
9. What are the characteristics of JFET?
10.Why input resistance in FET amplifier is more than the BJT amplifier?
11.What is pinch off voltage?
12.What is Enhancement mode and Depletion mode?
13.Draw the Equivalent circuit of JFET for low frequencies.
14.Write the mathematical equation for gm in terms of gmo.
15.Write equation of FET ID in terms of VGS and Vp.

RESULT:

Thus the drain and transfer characteristic of JFET is drawn and following
parameters are observed.

Drain resistance (rd) =

Trans conductance (gm) =

Amplification factor (μ) =

41
PIN DIAGRAM

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH

42
Ex. No.: 5

CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT AND GENERATION OF SAWTOOTH

WAVEFORM
AIM:

To plot VI Characteristics and generate sawtooth waveform using UJT.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 UJT 2N2646 1
2 Resistors 330 , 3.3k Each One
3 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Voltmeters MC (0-10)V 1
5 Ammeters MC (0-25) mA 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few
THEORY:
Unijunction transistor is a negative resistance silicon controlled device. UJT
has three terminals emitter (E), base1 (B1) &base2 (B2).The UJT finds its main
application in switching circuits and in relaxation oscillators. It consists of an n-type
Si semiconductor bar, which is lightly doped connected between two ohmic contacts
B1 and B2. A heavily doped P-region is diffused into the n-type bar forming a
pn junction in the middle of the base bar. A terminal is taken out of this region &
named as emitter. The emitter is always forward biased with respect to the base 1
and base 2 is kept at a higher +ve potential with respect to base 1.

INTRINSIC STAND-OFF RATIO:

We know that, from the equivalent circuit,

VB1= VBB.Rb1= ηVBB
RB1+RB2
The diode firing takes place when VE> (VB1+VD)
Where VD is voltage drop across diode. The emitter firing potential is given by,
Vp= η VBB+VD
where VD is 0.7V
𝑉𝑃−𝑉𝐷
η= 𝑉𝐵𝐵

43
TABULATION:

Design for sawtooth signal

generation: VC = VEBBE (1 - e – t/ R C
)
VP = ηVBB = VBB (1 - e – t/ R ECE )
Consider η = 1 - e – t/ RECE
e –t/ RECE = 1 - η
t = RECE loge(1/ (1- η))
t = 2.303 RECE log10 (1/ (1- η))

44
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The voltage across B1and B2 (VB1B2) is kept constant (say 5v), emitter
voltage VB1E is varied insteps & the corresponding IE values are tabulated.
3. The above procedure is repeated for VB1B2=10V.
4. Graph is plotted between VB1E and IE for a constant value of VB1B2.
5. From the graph, peak voltage & valley voltage is obtained.

45
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SAWTOOTH WAVEFORM GENERATION
USING UJT

MODEL GRAPH:

46
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of UJT?

2. What are other names for UJT?
3. What is intrinsic standoff ratio?
4. Define valley voltage & peak voltage.
5. Differentiate BJT and UJT.
6. What does UJT stands for? Justify the name UJT.
7. What is the difference between UJT & FET?
8. Why does negative resistance region appears in UJT?
9. What is inter-base resistance?
10.What is relaxation oscillator?

RESULT:

Thus the static emitter characteristics of UJT drawn & the following values
were determined and sawtooth waveform also generated.

Peak voltage =

Valley voltage =

Intrinsic standoff ratio =

Time period of the sawtooth waveform=

47
PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR CE AMPLIFIER:

48
Ex. No.: 6
DESIGN AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
OF A COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To design and construct BJT CE Amplifier using voltage divider bias and to
obtain its frequency response.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

Max Rating : 50V 1A,
1 Transistor BC107 1
3W
56kΩ,12kΩ,2.2kΩ,
2 Resistors Each One
10kΩ,560Ω
3 Capacitor 0.1μF, 22μF 2,1
4 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
5 CRO (0-30 )MHz 1
6 Function Generator (0 – 1 )MHz 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few
9 BNC CRO Probe 2

THEORY:

Common Emitter amplifier has the emitter terminal as the common terminal
between input and output terminals. The emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased, so that transistor remains in active
region throughout the operation. When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at input
terminals of circuit during positive half cycle the forward bias of base emitter
junction VBE is increased resulting in an increase in I B, The collector current Ic is
increased by β times the increase in IB, VCE is correspondingly decreased. i.e.
output voltage gets decreased. Thus in a CE amplifier a positive going signal is
converted into a negative going output signal i.e. 180° phase shift is introduced
between output and input signal and it is an amplified version of input signal.

49
TABULATION:

Vi = 1V

Frequency (Hz) Vo (V) Gain= 20log(Vo/Vi)dB

MODEL GRAPH:

50
DESIGN:

Vcc =12 V, Ic = 2mA, RB = 10kΩ, hfe =1 00, hie =2kΩ

Vce = Vcc /2 = 12/2 = 6V
VE = Vcc /10 =12/10 =1.2 V
IE ≈ Ic = 2mA
RE = VE /IE = 1.cV /2mA = 600Ω
Choose, RE = 560Ω
Vcc = IcRc + Vce +IERE
Rc = (Vcc – Vce – IERE) / Ic
Rc = (12 – 6 – 1.2) / 2mA
Rc = 2.4k Ω
Choose, Rc = 2.7k
Ω VBE = VB – VE
VB = VBE +VE
VB = 0.7 + 1.2 = 1.9V
VB = Vcc (R2/(R1+R2)) =1.9V
R2 /(R1+R2) =1.9V / 12V = 0.158
RB = 10k = R1R2/(R1+R2) =R1(0.158)
R1 =63.157 kΩ
R2 /(R1+R2) = 0.158 => R2 = 11.58kΩ
Choose, R1 =56 kΩ and R2 =
12kΩ XE = RE/10 =600/10 = 60Ω
CE =1/(2πfXE ) = 26.5μF ( for f=1kHz),
Choose Coupling capacitors C1 =C2 =1μF

51
52
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vin = 2V in the signal generator. Keeping input voltage constant, vary the
frequency from 1Hz to 3MHzin regular steps.
3. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Plot the graph: Gain in dB Vs Frequency in Hz.
5. Calculate the Bandwidth from the Frequency response graph.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What are the operating modes of BJT with reference to junction biasing?
2. Why CE configuration is preferred over CB configuration?
3. Write some applications of CE amplifier.
4. What will be the input and output impedance of CE amplifier?
5. What is the voltage and current gain of CE amplifier?

RESULT:

Thus a BJT CE Amplifier with voltage divider bias was designed and plotted
the frequency response curve.

53
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Reverse Reverse current Reverse current

voltage (In darkness) (In illumination)
(V) (mA) (mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

54
Ex. No.: 7(a)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE

AIM:

To study the VI characteristics of a Photo Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Photodiode - 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ 1
3 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Ammeter (0-25)mA 1
5 Voltmeter (0-30) V 1
6 Incandescent Lamp - 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

Photo diode is connected in reverse biased condition. The depletion

region width is large under normal condition. It carries small reverse current. When
light is incident through glass window on PN junction, photons in the light
bombards with the PN junction and some energy is imparted to the valence
electron. Due to this valence electrons are dislodged from the covalent bonds and
become a free electron. Thus total number of minority carriers’ increases thereby
increasing the reverse current.

55
56
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply.

2. Photodiode is subjected to darkness and illumination and the following steps
are followed each time.
3. By varying the supply voltage in steps of 1V, note down the reverse
voltage(Vr) and corresponding reverse current (Ir)
4. Plot the graph between reverse voltage and reverse current.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is Photo diode?

2. What is the output signal of a Photo diode?
3. What happens if the Photo diode is biased with a voltage larger than the
specified maximum reverse bias?
4. What is Photo voltaic effect?
5. Explain the principle of photoconduction.
6. What are the applications of Photo diode?
7. In what sense does the Photo diode differs from a rectifier diode?
8. Why Photo diode works in reverse bias condition only?
9. Differentiate between Photo diode and LED.
10.Between what parameters is the Photo diode characteristics curve plotted?

RESULT:

Thus the VI characteristic of a Photo diode was plotted in the presence and
absence of illumination.

57
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

MODEL GRAPH:

58
Ex. No.: 7(b)

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO TRANSISTOR

AIM:

To study the VI characteristics of a Photo Transistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Photo Transistor - 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ 1
3 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
4 Ammeter (0-25)mA 1
5 Voltmeter (0-10) V 1
6 Incandescent Lamp - 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

Phototransistor helps us to achieve photo multiplication or photo current

enhancement. In phototransistor, pairs are generated on the base region by
illumination and some majority carriers diffuse into the emitter, resulting in an
injection current which is large. The base load can even be left open but still
majority current will cause injection in this structure.

59
60
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply.

2. Photodiode is subjected to darkness and illumination and the following steps
are followed each time.
3. By varying the supply voltage in steps of 1V, note down the voltage(VCE) and
corresponding current (Ic)
4. Plot the graph between voltage and current.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the operation of a phototransistor.

2. Explain photo multiplication effect.
3. What is a Photo Transistor?
4. What are the applications of Photo transistor?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Photo transistor?
6. In which region does the photo transistor operates?
7. Draw the basic arrangement of biasing of a phototransistor.
8. What is meant by dark resistance in photo transistor?
9. Differentiate between photo diode and phototransistor.
10.Define – Photoluminescence and list the various types of luminescence.

RESULT:

Thus the VI characteristic of a Photo Transistor was plotted in the presence

and absence of illumination.

61
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

62
Ex. No.: 7(c)

STUDY OF LIGHT ACTIVATED RELAY CIRCUIT

AIM:

To study the working principle of Light activated Relay circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Photo diode - 1
3 PN Diode 1N4007 1
4 Resistors 100Ω 1
5 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
6 Decade Resistance Box - 1
7 Relay 12 V SPST 1
8 LED Red Color 1
9 Incandescent Lamp - 1
10 Bread Board 1
11 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

A photo relay or light activated relay is a circuit which opens and closes
the relay contacts according to the light. Here a photo diode is used to sense the
light. The photo diode offers a high resistance when there is no light falling on
it. Here the photo diode is connected in reverse biased condition. The only current
flowing through it will be due to the minority carriers. When light falls on it, the
current due to the minority carriers increase and the diode offers a low resistance. As
a result the voltage across the diode will not be sufficient to make the transistor
Q1 forward biased and the relay will OFF. When there is darkness the photo
diode resistance increases and the voltage across it will become enough to forward
bias the transistor Q1 making the relay ON. The diode D2 is used as a
freewheeling diode to protect the transistor from transients produced to the
switching of relay. By this way the load connected through the relay contacts
can be switched ON and OFF according to the light falling on the photo diode.

63
64
PROCEDURE:

1. Assemble the circuit on a Bread board.

2. The circuit can be powered from 12V DC.
3. The preset R1 can be used to adjust the sensitivity of the circuit.
4. The Diode D1 can be any general purpose photo diode.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is a light activated relay?

2. Which type of transistor configuration is used in relay circuit?
3. How can the sensitivity of circuit increased?
4. How is the intensity of light related to resistance offered by
LDR/Photodiode?
5. What are the various applications of light sensitive circuits?

RESULT:

Thus the working of Light activated Relay circuit was studied.

65
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

MODEL GRAPH

66
Ex. No.: 8(a)
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM:

To design and construct a RC phase shift oscillator for the given frequency
(f0).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transistor BC107 1
1.2kΩ, 47kΩ, 10kΩ, 3, 1, 1
2 Resistors
2.2kΩ, 620Ω 1, 1
0.01 µF, 10µF, 3, 1
3 Capacitor
15µF 47µF, 1, 1
4 CRO (0 – 30) MHz 1
5 Regulated Power Supply (0 – 30)V 1
6 Function Generator (0-1 )MHz 1
7 Decade Resistance Box - 1
8 Bread Board 1
9 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

In the RC phase shift oscillator, the required phase shift of 180˚ in the
feedback loop from the output to input is obtained by using R and C
components, instead of tank circuit. Here a common emitter amplifier is used in
forward path followed by three sections of RC phase network in the reverse path
with the output of the last section being returned to the input of the amplifier.
The phase shift Ф is given by each RC section Ф=tanˉ1 (1/ωRC). In practice R-
value is adjusted such that Ф becomes 60˚. If the value of R and C are chosen such
that the given frequency for the phase shift of each RC section is 60˚. Therefore
at a specific frequency the total phase shift from base to transistor’s around
circuit and back to base is exactly 360˚ or 0˚. Thus the Barkhausen criterion for
oscillation is satisfied.

67
DESIGN:

Vcc=12v, Ic=1mA, β=100, RE = 560 Ω

Vce=Vcc/2=6V, Vre=0.1Vcc=1.2V

Vb=Vre+0.7=1.9V,

R1=Vcc/10Ib – R2

=12/(10*20μA) – 10 K =47 K Ω

R2=Vb/10Ib = .9/(10*20μA)=9.5K Ω=10 K Ω

Rc=Vcc–Vce– (IeRe/Ic)

=2.4 K Ω =2.2 KΩ

Oscillating frequency fo=1/(2πRC √ (6+4(Rc/R)))

For fo= 3 kHz

C = 1/2πR fo√ (6+4(Rc/R)))

= 0.012 μF

Consider C =0.01 μF

68
PROCEDURE:

1. The circuit is constructed as per the given circuit diagram.

2. The supply voltage of +12 volts and ground are given to the constructed
circuit.
3. The output sine wave generated from the circuit is verified in the CRO
and the theoretical frequency is calculated and verified with the practical
frequency.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is an Oscillator circuit?

2. What are the conditions for sustained oscillator?
3. What are the classifications of Oscillators?
4. What are the advantage and disadvantages of negative feedback?
5. What type of feedback is preferred in oscillators?
6. What is the frequency of oscillation for RC phase shift oscillator?
7. What is the minimum value of hfe for the oscillations in transistorized RC
Phase shift oscillator?
8. Why RC oscillators cannot generate high frequency oscillations?
9. What are the applications of RC phase shift oscillators?
10.Why we need a phase shift between input and output signal?

RESULT:

Thus a sine wave with required phase shift is produced using transistor
phase shift oscillator. Thus,

Theoretical Oscillation Frequency =

Practical Oscillation Frequency =

69
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

MODEL GRAPH:

70
Ex. No.: 8(b)
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

AIM :
To design and construct a Hartley and Colpitts oscillator.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transistor BC107 1
100kΩ, 2.7kΩ, 12kΩ, Each 1
2 Resistors
800Ω
3 Capacitor 0.1μF, 0.2μF, 22μF 2, 2, 1
4 CRO (0-30 )MHz 2
5 Decade Inductance box - 1
6 Regulated Power Supply (0 – 30)V 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY

If gain A of the amplifier is just sufficient to overcome the attenuator

β of the β - network. We get sinusoidal oscillations. Mathematically If Aβ is for
greater than 1 square wave results in however, if Aβ is less than 1 no oscillations
will occur. The Colpitts and Hartley Oscillator is a LC oscillator. Generally, LC
oscillators are designed to operate in the radio – frequency range above 1MHz
however, they can also be designed to produce oscillations in the low audio –
frequency range. But for low frequency operation, the size of the inductors to be
used become larger and larger as the frequency becomes smaller and smaller and
this puts a limit on the low frequency range of oscillators employing LC –
coupling network.

DESIGN:
Frequency of oscillation 1
𝑓𝑜 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
where , Ceq = (C1C2)/(C1+C2)

Let C1 = 0.2µF , C2 = 0.2µF and L =

10mH

Then , 𝑓𝑜= 5kHz

71
DESIGN:

Vcc =10V, IC =1.2mA, RB =15k Ω

VE = Vcc /10 =10V /10 =1V
IE ≈ Ic =1.2mA
VE = IERE
RE = VE /IE =1V /
1.2mA RE = 833.33Ω

Choose, RE =800 Ω
Vcc = IcRC +VCE + VE
Rc = ( Vcc – VCE – VE) /Ic = (10 – 5 – 1) / 1.2mA
Rc =3.3kΩ
Choose , Rc = 3.9kΩ
VBE = VB – VE
VB = VBE + VE = 0.7 +1 =1.7 V
VB = (Vcc *R2)/ (R1+R2) =15kΩ
R2/(R1+R2) = 1.7 /10 = 0.17
R1 = 15kΩ / 0.17 = 88.24kΩ
Choose, R1 = 100kΩ
R2/(R1+R2) = 0.17
R2 =18kΩ
Choose, R2 =12kΩ
Let C1 =C2 = 0.1μF

72
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. For the Colpitts oscillator adjust the capacitance in the tank circuit to get
a sinusoidal signal of desired frequency
3. Plot the output obtained in the linear graph.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Which oscillator is very suitable for radio frequency range applications?

2. Why are Colpitts oscillators used to generate fixed radio-frequency signals?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Hartley and colpitts
oscillator?
4. Name two high frequency Oscillators.
5. What are the essential parts of an Oscillator
6. How does an oscillator differ from an amplifier?
7. Name two low frequency oscillators?
8. What are the classifications of Oscillators?
9. State the frequency for LC phase shift oscillator?
10.How does a Colpitt‟s oscillator differ from Hartley oscillator?
11.How is frequency of oscillations determined?
12.State few applications of Colpitt‟s oscillator.
13.State the typical operating range of Colpitt‟s oscillator.
14.What is the role of decoupling capacitor?
15.What is the total phase shift that occurs in Colpitt‟s oscillator?

RESULT:

Thus Colpitts oscillator is designed and constructed, and the output sine
wave form is observed and compared with theoretical oscillation frequency.

73
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT
FILTER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

Half-wave Rectifier waveforms without and with Filter

74
Ex. No.: 9(a)
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and
percentage of Regulation in Half wave rectifier with and without Capacitor
filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transformer 230V/(12-0-12) V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
1000µF,16V/470µF/
3 Capacitors 1
25V
Decade Resistance Box/
4 - / 10kΩ 1
Resistor
5 Dual Trace CRO 20MHz 1
6 Multimeter 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY

In half wave rectifier only one diode is used which conducts during positive
cycle. During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive
compared with the cathode. Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the
diode and positive cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During negative
half cycle of input voltage, anode is negative with respected to cathode and
diode is in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode hence output
voltage is zero.
Half wave rectifier without filter capacitor convert AC voltage into pulsating
DC voltage. Filter capacitor is used to obtain smooth DC voltage. For practical
circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
 The voltage can be stepped-down, as needed.
 The AC source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus, preventing
shock hazards in the secondary circuit.

75
TABULATION WITHOUT FILTER:

TABULATION WITH FILTER:

76
PROCEDURE:

Without Capacitor:

1. Test your transformer: Give 230V, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the
transformer and observe the AC waveform of rated value without any
distortion at the secondary of the transformer.
2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the ripple factor r = Vac / Vdc
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.

With capacitor:

1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.
2. Connect CRO across load.
3. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and
adjust it to the X-axis.
4. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.

77
Calculations:

Without Filter:
RF = Forward resistance of diode
=30Ω RL = Load resistance
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
= 𝜋(𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿)
𝑉
𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2(𝑅 +𝑅 )
2 𝐹 𝐿
2 1⁄2
(𝑉 𝑉− )
Ripple factor = 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Average load voltage at no load (VNL) = Vm/π
Average load voltage at full load =𝑉𝐹𝐿 𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
= 2(𝑅𝐹+𝑅𝐿)
With Filter:
f = 50HZ
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1
4𝑓𝐶
+ 𝑅𝐿
𝑉 = ( 1 )( 𝑉𝑚 )
𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
2√3 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
Ripple factor = r = rms / Vdc 𝛾 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑐
V (or)
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑−𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Calculate Percentage of Regulation, %𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

78
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a rectifier? Mention the applications of rectifier.

2. Compare and List the various types of Rectifiers.
3. What are advantages and disadvantages of half-wave rectifier?
4. How Diode acts as a rectifier?
5. What is the significance of PIV? What is the condition imposed on PIV?
6. What is meant by ripple factor (γ)? For a good filter whether ripple factor
should be high or low?
7. What is meant by regulation?
8. What happens to the output wave form if we increase the capacitor value?
9. A half-wave rectifier circuit with a capacitive filter is connected to 200 Volts,
50 Hz ac line. What will be the output voltage across the capacitor?
10.What is the mathematical relationship between rms input AC voltage
and DC output voltage in half wave rectifier with and without filter
capacitor?

RESULT:

Thus the half wave rectifier is designed with and without capacitor filter and
the corresponding dc output voltages and the ripple factors are measured and
verified with the theoretical values.

79
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT
FILTER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WAVEFORMS WITHOUT AND WITH FILTER

80
Ex. No.: 9(b)
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and
percentage of Regulation in Full wave center tapped rectifier with and without
Capacitor filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transformer 230V/(12-0-12) V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 2
1000µF,16V/
3 Capacitors 1
470µF,25V
Decade Resistance Box/
4 - / 10kΩ 1
Resistor
5 Dual Trace CRO 20MHz 1
6 Multimeter - 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY
Full wave rectifier utilizes both the cycle of input AC voltage. Two or
four diodes are used in full wave rectifier. If full wave rectifier is designed using
four diodes it is known as full wave bridge rectifier. Full wave rectifier using two
diodes without capacitor is shown in the figure. Center tapped transformer is
used in this full wave rectifier. During the positive cycle diode D1 conducts and it
is available at the output. During negative cycle diode D1 remains OFF but diode
D2 is in forward bias hence it conducts and negative cycle is available as a positive
cycle at the output. Note that direction of current in the load resistance is same
during both the cycles hence output is only positive cycles.

Advantages of full wave rectifier over half wave rectifier:

 The rectification efficiency is double than half wave rectifier
 Ripple factor is less and ripple frequency is double hence easy to filter out.
 DC output voltage and current is higher hence output power is higher.
 Better transformer utilization factor
 There is no DC saturation of core in transformer because the DC currents
in two halves of secondary flow in opposite directions.

Disadvantages:
 Requires center tap transformer
 Requires two diodes compared to one diode in half wave rectifier.

81
TABULATION WITHOUT FILTER:

TABULATION WITH FILTER:

82
PROCEDURE:
WITHOUT FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary of the transformer to main supply i.e. 230V, 50Hz
3. Connect the decade resistance box and set the RL value to 100Ω
4. Connect the Multimeter at output terminals and vary the load resistance
(DRB)
5. from 100Ω to 1KΩ and note down the Vac and Vdc as per given tabular form
6. Disconnect load resistance ( DRB) and note down no load voltage Vdc (V no
load)
7. Connect load resistance at 1kΩ and connect Channel – II of CRO at
output terminals and CH – I of CRO at Secondary Input terminals observe
and note down the Input and Output Wave form on Graph Sheet.
𝑉𝑎𝑐
8. Calculate ripple factor 𝛾 =
𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑−𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
9. Calculate Percentage of Regulation, %𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
WITH CAPACITOR FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit as per the circuit Diagram and repeat the above
procedure from steps 2 to 8.

83
Calculations:

Without Filter:
RF = Forward resistance of diode
=30Ω RL = Load resistance
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
= 𝜋(𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿)
𝑉
𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2(𝑅 +𝑅 )
2 𝐹 𝐿
2 1⁄2
(𝑉 𝑉− )
Ripple factor = 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Average load voltage at no load (VNL) = Vm/π
Average load voltage at full load =𝑉𝐹𝐿 𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
= 2(𝑅𝐹+𝑅𝐿)

With Filter:
f = 50HZ
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1
+ 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
𝑉 =( 1 )( 𝑉𝑚 )
𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
2√3 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
Ripple factor = r = rms / Vdc 𝛾 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑐
V (or)
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑−𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Calculate Percentage of Regulation, %𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

84
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a full wave rectifier?

2. Compare capacitor filter with an inductor filter?
3. What is meant by regulation? Why regulation is poor in the case of inductor
filter?
4. What is meant by time constant?
5. What is the frequency of AC component at the output of full wave
rectifier? Give reason.
6. What is the difference in DC output voltage in half wave and full wave
rectifier for the same AC input?
7. What is the PIV necessary for the diode if transformer of 24-0-24 V is
used?
8. What is the mathematical relationship between rms input AC voltage
and DC output voltage in half wave rectifier with and without filter
capacitor?
9. Compare the efficiency of full wave Bridge Rectifier with Half wave
Rectifier.
10.Measure the DC component in the output by varying the C value in
the Filter.

RESULT:

Thus the Full wave rectifier is designed with and without capacitor filter and
the corresponding dc output voltages and the ripple factors are measured and
verified with the theoretical values.

85
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT
FILTER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

Full-wave Rectifier waveforms without and with Filter

86
Ex. No.: 9(c)
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and percentage
of Regulation in Full-wave Bridge rectifier circuit with and without Capacitor filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Transformer 230V/(12-0-12) V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 4
1000µF,16V/
3 Capacitors 1
470µF,25V
Decade Resistance Box/
4 - / 10kΩ 1
Resistor
5 Dual Trace CRO 20MHz 1
6 Multimeter 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an AC voltage to DC voltage

using both half cycles of the input AC voltage. The circuit has four diodes connected
to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends
of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the
bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D2
conduct, whereas diodes D3 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting
diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current
flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D3
and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D2 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D3
and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows
through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional
wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

87
TABULATION WITHOUT FILTER:

TABULATION WITH FILTER:

88
Advantages of bridge rectifier:

 No center tap is required in the transformer secondary hence transformer

design is simple. If stepping up and stepping down not required than
transformer can be eliminated. (In SMPS used in TV and computer, 230V is
directly applied to the input of bridge rectifier). The PIV of the diode is
half than in center tap full wave rectifier.
 Transformer utilization factor is higher than in center tapped full wave
rectifier.
 Smaller size transformer required for given capacity because transformer is
utilized effectively during both AC cycles.

Disadvantages of bridge rectifier:

 Requires Four diodes (But package is low cost)

 Forward voltage drop across two diodes. This will reduce efficiency
particularly when low voltage (less than 5V ) is required.
 Load resistance and supply source have no common point which may be
earthed.

PROCEDURE:
WITHOUT FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary of the transformer to main supply i.e. 230V, 50Hz
3. Connect the decade resistance box and set the RL value to 100Ω
4. Connect the Multimeter at output terminals and vary the load resistance
(DRB)
5. from 100Ω to 1KΩ and note down the Vac and Vdc as per given tabular form
6. Disconnect load resistance ( DRB) and note down no load voltage Vdc (V no
load)
7. Connect load resistance at 1KΩ and connect Channel – II of CRO at
output terminals and CH – I of CRO at Secondary Input terminals observe
and note down the Input and Output Wave form on Graph Sheet.
𝑉𝑎𝑐
8. Calculate ripple factor 𝛾 =
𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑−𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
9. Calculate Percentage of Regulation, %𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
WITH CAPACITOR FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit as per the circuit Diagram and repeat the above
procedure from steps 2 to 8.

89
CALCULATIONS:

Without Filter:

RF = Forward resistance of diode

=30Ω RL = Load resistance
𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝑉𝑚
= 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚
√2
2 1⁄
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑑𝑐 2 2
Ripple factor = 𝑟 = ( 𝑚𝑠
)
𝑉𝑑𝑐2
Average load voltage at no load (VNL) = 2Vm/π
Average load voltage at full load =𝑉𝐹𝐿 2𝑉𝑚𝑅𝐿
= (2𝑅𝐹+𝑅𝐿)

With Filter:

f = 50HZ
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1
4𝑓𝐶
+ 𝑅𝐿
𝑉 =( 1 )( 𝑉𝑚 )
𝑟𝑚𝑠 1
4√3 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
Ripple factor = r = 𝑉
rms / Vdc (Or) 𝛾 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑐
V

90
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What are the advantages of Bridge Rectifier over the center tapped
Rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?
3. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?
4. If the output voltage of a bridge rectifier is 100V, the PIV of diode will be?
5. What does Regulation indicate?
6. What is the Theoretical maximum value of Ripple factor of a Full-wave
Rectifier?
7. What is the PIV requirement of a Diode in a Bridge Rectifier?
8. Explain the operation of Bridge Rectifier.
9. Mention the TUF for the Centre tapped Rectifier.
10.How will you choose the transformer for a rectifier circuit.

RESULT:

Thus the Full wave bridge rectifier is designed with and without capacitor
filter and the corresponding dc output voltages and the ripple factors are measured
and verified with the theoretical values.

91
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

i) For common mode signal:

V1 = volts V2 = volts

Gain Ac = Vo / ((V1+V2)/2)
Ac =
ii) For differential mode signal:
V1 = volts V2 = volts
Gain Ad = Vo / (V1 - V2)
Ad =
CMRR in dB = 20 log10(Ad / Ac).

92
Ex. No.: 10
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS USING FET

AIM:
To construct the Differential Amplifier in Differential mode and to find the
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 FET BFW10 2
2 Resistor 1kΩ 3
3 Dual Trace CRO 20MHz 1
4 Dual Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V 1
5 Bread Board 1
6 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies

the difference between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage common
to the two inputs. Differential amplifiers are usually implemented with a basic
two- transistor circuit called a long-tailed pair or differential pair. This circuit
was originally implemented using a pair of vacuum tubes. The circuit works the
same way for all three-terminal devices with current gain. The long-tail resistor
circuit bias points are largely determined by Ohm's Law and less so by active
component characteristics.

93
FORMULA:

C.M.R.R = | Ad/Ac |
C.M.R.R in dB = 20 log | Ad/Ac
| Ad = Differential mode gain
Ac = Common mode gain

94
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the RPS
3. Vary the input voltages using function generator and note the corresponding
output voltage.
4. Reduce the RPS voltage to 0 V
5. Calculate the Gain.
6. Calculate the CMRR

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is Differential amplifier?

2. What is difference between amplifier and Differential amplifier?
3. Sketch the circuit diagram of Differential amplifier using BJT.
4. List out the applications of Differential amplifier.
5. What is the mode of operations in Diff. Amp?
6. What is Common mode gain and difference mode gain?
7. What is the use of CMRR?
8. What is gain?
9. What is the unit of current and voltage gain?
10.Compare the application of Differential amplifier using FET with Diff.
Amp using BJT.

RESULT:

Thus the differential amplifier is constructed and CMRR has been calculated.

95
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

LOW PASS FILTER:

HIGH PASS FILTER:

MODEL GRAPH:

96
Ex. No.: 11
REALIZATION OF PASSIVE FILTERS

AIM:
To realize the characteristics of passive low pass filter and high pass filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No Components / Equipments Specifications Quantity

1 Function Generator (0- 20MHz) 1
2 Capacitors 0.01µF 1
3 Resistor 1kΩ 1
4 Dual Trace CRO (0- 20MHz) 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires Few

THEORY:

Passive filters are made up of passive components such as resistors,

capacitors and inductors and have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps,
etc.) so have no signal gain, therefore their output level is always less than the
input. At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor will be very large than
the resistors resistive value. So, the signal’s voltage potential across capacitor will
be much larger than the voltage drop across the resistor. In higher frequencies exact
opposite thing will happen. Resistor’s resistive value gets higher and due to that
with the effect of capacitor’s reactance the voltage across capacitor became
smaller. Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that
they allow to pass through them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest.
The most commonly used filter designs are:
The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals
from 0Hz to its cut-off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.
The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from
its cut-off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking
those any lower.

DESIGN:

Cut off frequency 1

= 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
fc

Given f = 15kHz and C = 0.01µF

1
𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 1.06kΩ ≅ 1kΩ

97
TABULATION:
(i) Low Pass Filter
Vin = (volts) 𝑉
𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
Frequency (Hz) Vout (Volts) 10 𝑉
𝑖𝑛
dB

(ii) HIgh Pass Filter 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
Frequency (Hz) Vout (Volts) 10 𝑉
𝑖𝑛
dB

98
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components as per the circuit diagram in the breadboard.

2. Set the input sinusoidal signal of 5Vots in the function generator.
3. Vary the frequency and note down the output voltage in the CRO.
4. Find the gain and plot the frequency response of the filter from which
determine the cut off frequency of the filter designed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is a passive filter?

2. Differentiate Active filter and Passive Filter.
3. What is the roll off rate of the frequency response obtained from the filter
designed?
4. Classify the filter types.
5. Why 3dB line is drawn to fine the bandwidth of a filter?

RESULT:

Thus the frequency response of the passive low pass and high pas filter is
obtained.

Filter Type Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter

Theoretical cut off frequency

Practical cut off frequency

99
100