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Radiographic Techniques

This document discusses key radiographic concepts including density, contrast, and recorded detail. Density refers to the blackness of a radiographic image and is controlled by factors like mAs, SID, kVp, and film speed. Contrast refers to the difference in densities between anatomical structures and is influenced by kVp, grids, filtration, and anatomy. Recorded detail refers to the sharpness of anatomical structures in the image.
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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
820 views4 pages

Radiographic Techniques

This document discusses key radiographic concepts including density, contrast, and recorded detail. Density refers to the blackness of a radiographic image and is controlled by factors like mAs, SID, kVp, and film speed. Contrast refers to the difference in densities between anatomical structures and is influenced by kVp, grids, filtration, and anatomy. Recorded detail refers to the sharpness of anatomical structures in the image.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 300 0.

03 9
300 0.04 12
PRINCIPLES OF IMAGING 300 0.05 15
300 0.06 18
DENSITY
300 0.07 21
• Amount of blackness on a given area of a radiograph
• kVp
• Also known as the logarithm of opacity or optical density (OD
• Directly controls the energy or quality of the x-rays produced
• Defined as the ratio of the amount of light incident on the
film to the amount of light transmitted through the film • Directly affects density though not in directly proportional
relationship
• Light incident may be bought as the light striking the
radiograph from the back, coming from the view box • Determines the penetrating ability of the x-ray beam

• Light transmitted may be thought of as the light that is seen • Penetrating ability of the x-rays also determines the number
coming through the radiograph while being viewed either by of x-rays exiting the patient to strike the film
the human eye or a densitometer
• As kvp increase, quality of the beam is increased, more x-rays
• OD = log 10 Light Incident penetrate the anatomical part.

Light transmitted Distance

• A result of exit x-rays and light rays from intensifying screens • Density is inversely proportional to the square of the
striking the film’s emulsion distance

• Made visible when the crystals in the film’s emulsion are • Governed by the inverse square law
converted to black metallic silver in the developer solution
• Old mAs = (New Distance) ² (mAso = Dn²)
• Density directly proportional to mAs
New mAs (Old Distance) ² (mAsn Do²)
• Has a numeric value
Film-screen combination
• can be present in varying degrees, from completely black, in
• Film is sensitive to green and blue
which no light is transmitted through the radiograph, to
almost clear • Directly proportional relationship with density
• high OD – too dark caused by overexposure • As speed (sensitivity) increases, density increases
• low OD – too light, little radiation caused by underexposure • As speed (sensitivity) decreases, density decreases
• controlled by 2 major factors: mAs and SID Grids
• Controlled by the following: • Decreases the amount of scatter radiation striking the film
• The number of exit rays striking the film-screen combination • Used for thicker structure, 10 cm and above
• The speed of the film-screen combination • 75 kVp and up
• Processing • Increases scatter radiation
Factors Controlling and Influencing Density Beam Restriction
mAs • Decreases density by limiting the size of x-ray beam unless
mAs is increased to compensate
• Controls the number of electrons passing from cathode to
anode in the x-ray tube • Limit patient exposure
• Controls the quantity of x-rays produced at the anode • Reduces amount of scatter radiation
• Controls the amount of radiation exiting the x-ray tube • Image quality is optimal because there is lesser radiation
• Directly controls the number of x-ray photons that will • Reduces patient dose
emerge from the patient as exit rays
Anatomy and pathology
• Directly controls the number of x-rays that eventually strike
the film-screen system as exit rays • Anatomy affects density through its variation of atomic
number, tissue thickness and tissue density
• Directly proportional to density
Anode heel effect
• Governed by the reciprocity law
• Concentrate to focus in thicker part and lesser to thin part
• Optical density remains the same no matter the length of • A phenomenon in which the intensity of the x-ray beam is
exposure greater towards the cathode side of the tube. The variation in
x-ray intensity along the longitudinal tube axis.
• If the mA is doubled, you need to half the the exposure time
• Anode heel effect refers to the lower field intensity towards
• 100 mA x 1 sec = 100 mAs the anode in comparison to the cathode due to lower x-ray
200 mA x .5 sec = 100 mAs emissions from the target material at angles perpendicular to
the electron beam.
• 400 mA x .25 sec = 100 mAs
500 mA x .2 sec = 100 mAs Filtration
• Applicable to direct screen exposure • Negligible effect on density, largely a radiation protection
accessory
mA Time mAs
• Filter light energy photon and drop the lesser energy photon • Any misrepresentation of an anatomic structure on an image
receptor that alters its size and/ or shape

CONTRAST • Two types of distortion: size and shape

• Differences in adjacent densities on the radiograph Factors Controlling Distortion

• Primary function is to make the detail visible • Size

• High contrast: few gray tones, mainly black and white • Magnification

• Low contrast: many gray tones on image; may also be • Caused by excessive OID
referred to as long-scale contrast
• Caused by insufficient SID

Factors Controlling and Influencing Contrast • Causes anatomic structure to appear larger on film than in
reality
• kVp
• Shape
• Directly controls contrast
• Elongation
• Controls differentials absorption of the x-ray beam energy
• Causes anatomic structure to appear longer than in reality
Grids

• Reduce the amount of scatter reaching the film


• Foreshortening
• Less scatter fog results in fewer gray tones, which increase
contrast • Causes anatomic structure to appear shorter than reality
Beam restriction
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
• Limits area being irradiated
Base
• Filtration
• Made of polyester
• As filtration is increased, beam becomes harder (average
photon striking the patient has shorter wavelength) • Approximately 0.008 inches thick

• Contrast decreases as filtration increases • Blue dye added

• Anatomy and pathology Emulsion

• Also known as subject contrast • Double emulsion film (also called duplitized film): coated on
both sides of base
• Control contrast with variations in the following:
• Single emulsion film: coated on one side of base
RECORDED DETAIL
• Consists of silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin
• Sharpness with which anatomic structures are displayed
Film Characteristics
• B. May be described as the geometric representation of part
being radiographed Speed ( sensitivity )

• C. May also be referred to as detail sharpness, definition or • Determined by the size and/or number of the silver
image resolution halide crystals and the thickness of the emulsion

Factors Controlling and Influencing Recorded Detail Contrast

Object-image distance (OID) • Determined by the size of the silver halide crystals and the

• Distance from the anatomic part being imaged to the image Thickness of the emulsion
receptor (usually film)
Latitude
Source-image distance (SID)
• Determined by the inherent contrast of the film
• Distance from the source of radiation (usually anode in the x-
ray tube) to the image receptor (usually film) Exposure latitude

Focal spot size • Wider exposure latitude at higher kVp levels

• Use small focal spot whenever possible Sensitometry

Film-screen combination P & D curves

Also called sensitometric curves, characteristics curves, and


• Use of slower speed film-screen system results in increased
sharpness of recorded detail D log E curves Curve always assurance some form of S or
sigmoid shape
Motion
Toe Portion of curve representing low exposure and density;
• Any motion results in image blur and subsequent loss of
base plus fog
recorded detail
Body
• Motion may be caused by the following:
a. Also called straight line portion, gamma, or slope
DISTORTION
b. Portion of curve from 0.25 to 2.5 density
Shoulder • Linears

• Portion of curve from 2.5 to maximum density (also called D- • Focused grids
max)
• Crossed grids
• Measures unusable densities on the radiograph (blackest
portion) • Grid characteristics

Use of H & D curves • Contrast improvement factor

• May be used to determine the characteristics of a • Measure of grid’s ability to enhance contrast
certain film
• Grid selectivity
• May be used to compare the characteristics of
several films • Expressed as the ratio of primary radiation transmitted
through the grid to secondary radiation transmitted through
Film characteristics as plotted on H & D curves
the grid
• Speed (sensitivity): the closer the curve to the y-axis
• Grid conversion factor
the faster the film
• Also called Bucky factor
FILM STORAGE
• Amount of exposure increase necessary to compensate for
• Storage
the absorption of image-forming rays and scatter in the
• Temperature no greater than 68º to 70° F cleanup Grid motion

• Humidity from 40% to 60% • Stationary grids

• Handling • Do not move during the exposure

• Pressure marks • Moving grids

• Static • Reciprocate (move back and forth) during exposure

• Crinkle or half-moon marks • Grid errors: focused grids

• Bending film over fingernail during handling • Upside down

• Other rough handling • Off-level

INTENSIFYING SCREENS • Lateral decentering

• Base or backing • Air gap technique

• Made of polyester • Uses increased OID

• Reflective layer • Increased OID allows scatter (which travels in widely


divergent paths) to exit the patient and miss the film
• Between base and active layer
• Example: lateral cervical spine
• Reflects light from crystals toward film, increasing the speed
of the system • Radiographic quality and grids

• Active layer • Produce higher contrast by absorbing Compton’s scatter rays,


which produce fog if they strike the film
• Also called the phosphor layer
• Decrease recorded detail if used in a Potter-Bucky diaphragm
• Adheres to the base because of increased OID
• Protective layer
TECHNIQUE CHARTS
• Thin coating placed on top of active layer to provide
protection from scratching or other damage • Measurements
• Screen speed (sensitivity) • Part thickness should always be measured using calipers
• Primarily controlled by the following: • Types of technique charts
• Film-screen combination summary (speed primarily 1. Fixed kVp-variable mAs
controlled by screens; contrast primarily controlled by Kvp)
• Assumes optimum kVp for the part being radiographed

GRIDS 2. Variable kVp

• Use • kVp is varied according to part thickness as measured with


the calipers
• Reduces the amount of scatter radiation reaching the film
• Based on the assumption that thicker parts require a beam
• Construction with shorter wavelength rays that are more penetrating
• Lead strips separated by aluminum interspaces 3. Variable technique

• Grid ratio • Provides for alteration of routine techniques because of


pathology, patient age, ability to cooperate, casts, contrast
• Grid frequency media
• Grid types

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