TRIGONOMETRY

AND
ANALYTICAL
GEOMETRY

Fawole V.O.
 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

TRIGONOMETRY
INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the measurement of sides and
angles of triangles, and their relationship with each other. There are many applications in
engineering where knowledge of trigonometry is needed.

RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY

The study of trigonometry, which means “triangle measurement,” began more than 2000
years ago, partially as a means of solving surveying problems. Early trigonometry used the
length of a line segment between two points of a circle as the value of a trigonometric
function. In the sixteenth century, right triangles were used to define a trigonometric
function.
When working with right triangles, it is convenient to refer to the side opposite an angle or
the side adjacent to (next to) an angle. Figure 1 shows the sides opposite and adjacent to
the angle θ. Figure 2 shows the sides opposite and adjacent to the angle β. In both cases,
the hypotenuse remains the same.

Figure 1 Figure 2
Adjacent and opposite sides of ∠θ Adjacent and opposite sides of ∠β

The theorem of Pythagoras

The theorem of Pythagoras states that: ‘In any right-angle triangle, the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides’.
With reference to Figure 3, the side opposite the right angle (i.e. side b) is called the
hypotenuse.
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Hence b2 =a2 +c2

Figure 3
Example 1. In Figure 4, find the length of EF.

Figure 4
Solution: By Pythagoras’ theorem: e2 = d2 + f 2
Hence 132 = d2 + 52
169 = d2 + 25
d2 = 169 − 25 = 144
Thus d = √144 = 12 cm
i.e. EF =12 cm

Example 2. Two aircraft leave an airfield at the same time. One travels due north at an
average speed of 300 km/h and the other due west at an average speed of 220 km/h.
Calculate their distance apart after 4 hours
Solution: After 4 hours, the first aircraft has travelled 4 × 300 = 1,200 km, due north,
and the second aircraft has travelled 4 × 220 = 880 km due west, as shown in
Figure 5. Distance apart after 4 hours = BC.

Figure 5

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From Pythagoras’ theorem: BC2 = 12002 + 8802

= 1440000 + 774400 and
BC = √2214400 = 1488.
Hence distance apart after 4 hours = 1488km

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF ACUTE ANGLES

Six ratios can be formed by using two lengths of the three sides of a right triangle. Each
ratio defines a value of a trigonometric function of a given acute angle θ. The functions are
sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and cosecant (csc).
Let θ be an acute angle of a right angled triangle as shown in Figure 6 below. The values of
the six trigonometric functions of are

Figure 6

Secants, cosecants and cotangents are called the reciprocal ratios. We will write opp, adj,
and hyp as abbreviations for the length of the opposite side, adjacent side, and
hypotenuse, respectively.

Example 3. Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of for the triangle given in
Figure 7 below.

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Figure 7
Solution: Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.

ℎ𝑦𝑝 = √32 + 42 = √25 = 5

9
Example 4. If cos 𝑋 = determine the value of the other five trigonometric ratios.
41
9
Solution: Since cos 𝑋 = , then XY =9 units and XZ = 41 units. Figure 8 shows the right-
41

angled triangle XYZ.

Figure 8
Using Pythagoras’ theorem: 412 = 92 + 𝑌𝑍 2 from which
𝑌𝑍 = √412 − 92 = 40 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.
40 40 41 41 9
Thus, sin 𝑋 = , tan 𝑋 = , cosec 𝑋 = , sec 𝑋 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cot 𝑋 = .
41 9 40 9 40

Example 5. Point A lies at co-ordinate (2, 3) and point B at (8, 7). Determine (a) the
distance AB, (b) the gradient of the straight line AB, and (c) the angle AB makes with the
horizontal.

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Solution:
(a) Points A and B are shown in Figure 9(a). In Figure 9(b), the horizontal and
vertical lines AC and BC are constructed.

Figure 9
Since ABC is a right-angled triangle, and AC = (8−2) = 6 and BC = (7−3) = 4,
then by Pythagoras’ theorem: AB2 = AC2 + BC2 = 62 + 42 and
𝐴𝐵 = √62 + 42 = √52 = 7.211, correct to 3 decimal places
𝐵𝐶 4 2
(b) The gradient of AB is given by tan θ, i.e. gradient = tan 𝜃 = = = .
𝐴𝐶 6 3
2
(c) The angle AB makes with the horizontal is given by: tan−1 = 33.69°
3

ASSIGNMENT
1. A ladder 3.5m long is placed against a perpendicular wall with its foot 1.0m from the
wall. How far up the wall (to the nearest centimetre) does the ladder reach? If the
foot of the ladder is now moved 30 cm further away from the wall, how far does the
top of the ladder fall?
2. A man cycles 24 km due south and then 20 km due east. Another man, starting at
the same time as the first man, cycles 32 km due east and then 7 km due south. Find
the distance between the two men.

3. Two ships leave a port at the same time. One travels due west at 18.4 km/h and the
other due south at 27.6 km/h. Calculate how far apart the two ships are after 4
hours.
4. For the right-angled triangle shown in the figure below; Find
(a) sin α (b) cos θ (c) tan α (d) sin θ (e) sec α (f) cot θ

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5. Point P lies at co-ordinate (–3, 1) and point Q at (5, –4). Determine

(a) The distance PQ,
(b) The gradient of the straight line PQ, and
(c) The angle PQ makes with the vertical axis

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF SPECIAL ANGLES:

FRACTIONAL AND SURD FORMS OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
In the previous examples, the lengths of the legs of the triangle were given, and you were
asked to find the values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle Often we will want
to find the value of a trigonometric function when we are given the measure of an angle
rather than the measure of the sides of a triangle. For most angles, advanced
mathematical methods are required to evaluate a trigonometric function. For some special
angles, however, the value of a trigonometric function can be found by geometric
methods. These special acute angles are 30°, 45°, and 60°.
First, we will find the values of the six trigonometric functions of 45° (This discussion is
based on angles measured in degrees). Figure 10 shows a right triangle with angles 45°,
45°, and 90°. Because ∠A = ∠B, the lengths of the sides opposite these angles are equal.
Let the length of each equal side be denoted by a. From the Pythagorean Theorem,

Figure 10

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The values of the trigonometric functions of the special angles 30° and 60° can be found by
drawing an equilateral triangle and bisecting one of the angles, as Figure 11 shows. The
angle bisector also bisects one of the sides. Thus the length of the side opposite the 30°
angle is one-half the length of the hypotenuse of triangle OAB.
Let a denote the length of the hypotenuse. Then the length of the side opposite the angle
𝑎
30° is . The length of the side adjacent to the 30° angle, h, is found by using the
2

Pythagorean Theorem.

Figure 11

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The values of the trigonometric functions of 60° can be found by again using Figure 11. The
√3𝑎
length of the side opposite the 60° angle is and the length of the side adjacent to the
2
𝑎
60° angle is .The values of the trigonometric functions of 60° are
2

Example 6. Using surd forms, evaluate:

3 tan 60𝑜 − 2 cos 30𝑜
tan 30𝑜
√3 1
Solution: From above, tan 60° = √3, cos 30° = and tan 30° = , hence
2 √3

√3
3(√3) − 2 (
3 tan 60𝑜 −2 cos 30𝑜 2)
=
tan 30𝑜 1
√3
3√3 − √3 2√3
= =
1 1
√3 √3
√3
= 2√3 ( ) = 2(3) = 6
1

Example 7. In triangle PQR shown in Figure 12, find the lengths of PQ and PR.

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Figure 12
Solution:

Example 8. Solve triangle XYZ given ∠X = 90°, ∠Y = 23°17’ and YZ =20.0 mm. Determine
also its
area
Solution: It is always advisable to make a reasonably accurate sketch so as to visualize
the expected magnitudes of unknown sides and angles. Such a sketch is shown
in Figure 13 below.

Figure 13

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ANGLE OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION

In Figure 14 below, BC represents horizontal ground and AB a vertical flagpole, then the
angle of elevation of the top of the flagpole, A, from the point C is the angle that the
imaginary straight line AC must be raised (or elevated) from the horizontal CB, i.e. angle θ.

Figure 14 Figure 15
Likewise in Figure 15, PQ represents a vertical cliff and R a ship at sea, then the angle of
depression of the ship from point P is the angle through which the imaginary straight line
PR must be lowered (or depressed) from the horizontal to the ship, i.e. angle φ. (Note,
∠PRQ is also φ – alternate angles between parallel lines.)
Example 9. From a point 115 feet from the base of a redwood tree, the angle of elevation
to the top of the tree is 64.3°. Find the height of the tree to the nearest foot.
Solution: The redwood tree is depicted in Figure 16 below:

Figure 16
From Figure 16, the length of the adjacent side of the angle is known (115
feet). Because we need to determine the height of the tree (length of the

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opposite side), we use the tangent function. Let h represent the length of the
opposite side.

The height of the tree is approximately 239 feet.

Example 10. An electricity pylon stands on horizontal ground. At a point 80 m from the
base of the pylon, the angle of elevation of the top of the pylon is 23°. Calculate the
height of the pylon to the nearest metre.
Solution: Figure 17 shows the pylon AB and the angle of elevation of A from point C is
23◦

Figure 17

Example 11. A surveyor measures the angle of elevation of the top of a perpendicular
building as 19°. He move 120 m nearer the building and finds the angle of elevation is now
47◦. Determine the height of the building.
Solution: The building PQ and the angles of elevation are shown in Figure 18 below.

Figure 18

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Example 12: An observer notes that the angle of elevation from point A to the top of a
space shuttle is 27.2°. From a point 17.5 meters further from the space shuttle, the angle
of elevation is 23.9°. Find the height of the space shuttle.
Solution: The space shuttle is depicted in Figure 19 below. Let x denote the distance
from point A to the base of the space shuttle, and let y denote the height of
the space shuttle.

Figure 19
𝑦
tan 27.2° = (1)
𝑥
𝑦
tan 23.9° = (2)
𝑥 + 17.5

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Example 13: If the distance from a plane in the air to a radar station is 160 miles and the
angle of depression is 33°, find the number of ground miles from a point directly below the
plane to the radar station.
Solution: The plane is depicted in Figure 20 below. The length of the hypotenuse is
known (160 miles). The length of the side opposite the angle of 57° is
unknown.

Figure 20
The sine function involves the hypotenuse and the opposite side, x, of the 57°
angle.

Rounded to two significant digits, the plane is 130 ground miles from the
radar station.

Example 14: The angle of depression of a ship viewed at a particular instant from the top
of a 75m vertical cliff is 30°. Find the distance of the ship from the base of the cliff at this
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instant. The ship is sailing away from the cliff at constant speed and 1 minute later its
angle of depression from the top of the cliff is 20°. Determine the speed of the ship in
km/h.
Solution: Figure 21 below shows the cliff AB, the initial position of the ship at C and the
final position at D. Since the angle of depression is initially 30° then
∠ACB=30° (alternate angles between parallel lines).

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANY ANGLE

The applications of trigonometry would be quite limited if all angles had to be acute
angles. Fortunately, this is not the case. In this section we extend the definition of a
trigonometric function to include any angle.
Consider angle θ in Figure 22 in standard position and a point P(x, y) on the terminal side of
the angle. We define the trigonometric functions of any angle according to the following
definitions.

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Figure 22
Let P(x, y) be any point, except the origin, on the terminal side of an angle θ in standard
position. Let r = d(O, P), the distance from the origin to P. The six trigonometric functions
of θ are

Any point in a rectangular coordinate system (except the origin) can determine an angle in
standard position.
The sign of a trigonometric function depends on the quadrant in which the terminal side of
the angle lies. For example, if is an angle whose terminal side lies in Quadrant III and P(x,
𝑦 𝑥
y) is on the terminal side of θ, then both x and y are negative, and therefore and are
𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥
positive. See Figure 23. Because tan 𝜃 = and cot 𝜃 = , the values of the tangent and
𝑥 𝑦

cotangent functions are positive for any Quadrant III angle. The values of the other four
trigonometric functions of any Quadrant III angle are all negative.
Table 1 lists the signs of the six trigonometric functions in each quadrant. Figure 24 is a
graphical display of the contents of Table 1.

Figure 23 Figure 24

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Table 1 Signs of the Trigonometric Functions

Example 15: Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of an angle in
standard position whose terminal side contains the point P(−3, −2).
Solution: The angle is sketched in Figure 25. Find r by using the equation 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
where x = −3 and y = −2.

Figure 25

7
Example 16: Given tan 𝜃 = − and sin θ < 0, find cos θ and csc θ.
5

Solution: The terminal side of angle θ must lie in Quadrant IV; that is the only quadrant
in which sin θ and tan θ are both negative. Because
7 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = − =
5 𝑥
and the terminal side of θ is in Quadrant IV, we know that y must be negative
and x must be positive. Thus the preceding equation is true for y = −7 and x =
5.
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Figure 26

𝑟 = √52 + (−7)2 = √74 (See Figure 26)

𝑥 5 5√74
cos 𝜃 = = =
𝑟 √74 74
𝑟 √74 √74
cosec 𝜃 = = = −
𝑦 −7 7

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF ANY ANGLE

The easiest method of evaluating trigonometric functions of any angle is by using a
calculator. The following values, correct to 4 decimal places, may be checked:
sine 18° = 0.3090,
sine 241.63° = –0.8799,
cosine 56° = 0.5592
cosine 115° = –0.4226,
tangent 29° = 0.5543,
tangent 296.42° = –2.0127
23
To evaluate, say, sine 42°23’ using a calculating means finding sine 42 since there are
60

60 minutes in 1 degree.
23
= 0.3833, thus 42°23’ = 42.3833°
60

Thus sine 42°23’ = sine 42.3833° = 0.6741, correct to 4 decimal places.

Most calculators contain only sine, cosine and tangent functions. Thus to evaluate secants,
cosecants and cotangents, reciprocals need to be used.
The following values, correct to 4 decimal places, may be checked:
1
secant 32° = = 1.1792
cos 32°

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1
cosecant 321.62° = = –1.6106
sin 321.62°
1
cotangent 263.59° = = 0.1123
tan 263.59°

Example 17: Evaluate correct to 4 decimal places:

a. cosine 271.41°
b. tangent 98°4’
c. secant 302°29’
d. cosecant 279.16°
e. cotangent 163°52’
Solution:
a. cosine 271.41° = 0.0246
4
b. tangent 98°4’ = tan 98 ° = –7.0558
60
1 1
c. secant 302°29’ = = 29 = 1.8620
cos 302°29’ cos 302 °
60
1
d. cosecant 279.16° = = –1.013
sin 279.16°
1 1
e. cotangent 163°52’ = = 52 = –3.4570
tan 163°52’ tan 16360 °

Example 18: Evaluate the following expression, correct to 4 significant figures:

4 sec 32°10′ − 2 cot 15°19′
3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 63°8′ tan 14°57′
Solution:
By calculator:
sec 32°10′ = 1.1813, cot 15°19′ = 3.6512
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 63°8′ = 1.1210, tan 14°57′ = 0.2670
4 sec 32°10′ − 2 cot 15°19′
3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 63°8′ tan 14°57′
4(1.1813) − 2(3.6512)
=
3(1.1210)(0.2670)
4.7252 − 7.3024
=
0.8979
−2.5772
=
0.8979
= −2.870

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REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Evaluate without using calculator
tan 60𝑜 − tan 30° 𝟏
[ ]
1+ tan 30𝑜 tan 60𝑜 √𝟑

2. Solve triangle GHI in Figure below.

[GH =9.841 mm, GI =11.32 mm, ∠H =49◦]

3. Solve the triangle MNO in the Figure below and find its area.

4. A ladder rests against the top of the perpendicular wall of a building and makes an
angle of 73° with the ground. If the foot of the ladder is 2m from the wall, calculate
the height of the building.
[6.54 m]
5. From a point on horizontal ground a surveyor measures the angle of elevation of the
top of a flagpole as 18◦40’. He moves 50m nearer to the flagpole and measures the
angle of elevation as 26◦22’. Determine the height of the flagpole.
[53.0 m].
6. From a ship at sea, the angle of elevation of the top and bottom of a vertical
lighthouse standing on the edge of a vertical cliff are 31◦ and 26◦, respectively. If
the lighthouse is 25.0m high, calculate the height of the cliff.
[107.8 m].
7. A skateboarder wishes to build a jump ramp that is inclined at a 19o angle and that
has a maximum height of 32 inches. Find the horizontal width x of the ramp.
[92.9 inches]

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8. For best illumination of a piece of art, a lighting specialist for an art gallery
recommends that a ceiling-mounted light be 6 feet from the piece of art and that
the angle of depression of the light be 38°. How far from a wall should the light be
placed so that the recommendations of the specialist are met? Note that the art
extends outward 4 inches from the wall. [5.1 feet].
9. Consider the following isosceles triangle. The length of each of the two equal sides
of the triangle is a, and each of the base angles has a measure of θ. Verify that the
area of the triangle is A = a2 sin θ cos θ.

10. The elevation of a tower from two points, one due east of the tower and the other
due west of it are 20o and 24o, respectively, and the two points of observation are
300m apart. Find the height of the tower to the nearest metre.
[60 m].
11. Evaluate the following expression, correct to 4 significant figures:
6.4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 29°5′−sec 81°
[0.7199]
2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 12°
12. Evaluate the following expression, correct to 4 significant figures:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 27°19′ +sec 45°29′
[–1.710]
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 27°19′ sec 45°29′

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TRIGONOMETRIC WAVEFORMS
GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
By drawing up tables of values from 0o to 360o , graphs of y = sin A, y = cos A and y = tan A
may be plotted. Values obtained with a calculator (correct to 3 decimal places—which is
more than sufficient for plotting graphs), using 30o intervals, are shown below, with the
respective graphs shown in Figure 30.

From Figure 30, it can be seen that:

i. Sine and cosine graphs oscillate between peak values of ±1.
ii. The cosine curve is the same shape as the sine curve but displaced by 90o.
iii. The sine and cosine curves are continuous and they repeat at intervals of 360o; the
tangent curve appears to be discontinuous and repeats at intervals of 180o.
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Figure 30

ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE

Figure 31 shows rectangular axes XX’ and YY’ intersecting at origin 0. As with graphical
work, measurements made to the right and above 0 are positive, while those to the left
and downwards are negative. Let 0A be free to rotate about 0. By convention, when 0A
moves anticlockwise angular measurement is considered positive, and vice versa. Let 0A be

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rotated anticlockwise so that θ1 is any angle in the first quadrant and left perpendicular AB
be constructed to form the right-angled triangle 0AB in Figure 32. Since all three sides of
the triangle are positive, the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent will all be
positive in the first quadrant. (Note: 0A is always positive since it is the radius of a circle.)

Figure 31 Figure 32
Let 0A be further rotated so that θ2 is any angle in the second quadrant and let AC be
constructed to form the right-angled triangle 0AC. Then

Let 0A be further rotated so that θ3 is any angle in the third quadrant and let AD be
constructed to form the right-angled triangle 0AD. Then

Let 0A be further rotated so that θ4 is any angle in the fourth quadrant and let AE be
constructed to form the right-angled triangle 0AE. Then

The above results are summarized in Figure 33. The letters underlined spell the word ACTS
when starting in the first quadrant and moving in a clockwise direction.
In the first quadrant of Figure 30, all of the curves have positive values; in the second only
sine is positive; in the third only tangent is positive; in the fourth only cosine is positive —
exactly as summarized in Figure 33. A knowledge of angles of any magnitude is needed
when finding all the angles between 0o and 360o.
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Figure 33
Example 19: Determine all the angles between 0o and 360o whose sine is –0.4638
Solution: The angles whose sine is –0.4638 occurs in the third and fourth quadrants
since sine is negative in these quadrants. θ = sin−1 0.4638 = 27.63o . Measured
from 0o, the two angles between 0o and 360o whose sine is –0.4638 are 180o +
27.63o, i.e. 207.63◦ and 360o – 27.63o, i.e. 332.37◦ (Note that a calculator
only gives one answer, 27.63o).

Figure 34
Example 20: Solve the equation cos−1 (–0.2348) = α for angles of α between 0o and
360o .
Solution: Cosine is positive in the first and fourth quadrants and thus negative in the
second and third quadrants. Angle θ = cos−1 (0.2348) = 76.42o. Measured from
0o, the two angles whose cosine is –0.2348 are α = 180o – 76.42o = 103.58◦ and
α = 180o + 76.42o = 256.42◦.

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SINE AND COSINE CURVES

Graphs of sine and cosine waveforms
A graph of y = sin A is shown by the broken line in Figure 35 and is obtained by drawing up
a table of values as shown earlier. A similar table may be produced for y = sin 2A.

The graph of y = sin 2A is shown in Figure 35.

Figure 35
A graph of y = sin ½Ais shown in Figure 36 using the following table of values.

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Figure 36
The graph of y = cos A and y = cos ½A can be produced by drawing up a table of values,
similar to the one for y = sin A above and the result plotted.

Periodic time and period

i. Each of the graphs shown in Figures 35 to 36 will repeat themselves as angle A
increases and are thus called periodic functions.
ii. y = sin A and y = cos A repeat themselves every 360◦ (or 2π radians); thus 360◦ is
called the period of these waveforms. y = sin 2A and y = cos 2A repeat themselves
every 180◦ (or π radians); thus 180◦ is the period of these waveforms.
iii. In general, if y = sin pA or y = cos pA (where p is a constant) then the period of the
waveform is 360◦/p (or 2π/p rad). Hence if y = sin 3A then the period is 360/3, i.e.
120◦, and if y = cos 4A then the period is 360/4, i.e. 90◦.

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Amplitude
Amplitude is the name given to the maximum or peak value of a sine wave. Each of the
graphs shown in Figures 35 to 36 has an amplitude of +1 (i.e. they oscillate between +1 and
−1). However, if y = 4 sin A, each of the values in the table is multiplied by 4 and the
maximum value, and thus amplitude, is 4. Similarly, if y = 5 cos 2A, the amplitude is 5 and
the period is 360◦/2, i.e. 180◦.

Example 21: Sketch y = sin 3A between A = 0◦ and A = 360◦.

Solution: Amplitude = 1 and period = 360◦/3 = 120◦
A sketch of y = sin 3A is shown in Figure 37 below.

Figure 37
Example 22: Sketch y = 4 cos 2x form x = 0◦ to x =360◦
Solution: Amplitude = 4 and period = 360◦/2 = 180◦.
A sketch of y = 4 cos 2x is shown in Figure 38.

Figure 38
3
Example 23: Sketch 𝑦 = 2 sin A over one cycle
5
360° 360° × 5
Solution: 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 2; 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 3 = = 600°
3
5
3
A sketch of 𝑦 = 2 sin A is shown in Figure 39.
5

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 39

LAGGING AND LEADING ANGLES

(i) A sine or cosine curve may not always start at 0◦. To show this, a periodic function is
represented by y = sin(A ± α) or y = cos(A ± α) where α is a phase displacement
compared with y = sin A or y = cos A.
(ii) By drawing up a table of values, a graph of y = sin(A – 60o) may be plotted as shown
in Figure 40 below. If y = sin A is assumed to start at 0 o then y = sin(A − 60o) starts
60o later (i.e. has a zero value 60o later). Thus y = sin(A − 60o) is said to lag y = sin A
by 60o

Figure 40
(iii) By drawing up a table of values, a graph of y = cos (A + 45◦) may be plotted as shown
in Figure 41. If y = cos A is assumed to start at 0◦ then y = cos (A + 45◦) starts 45◦
earlier (i.e. has a maximum value 45◦ earlier). Thus y = cos (A + 45◦) is said to lead y
= cos A by 45◦.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 41
(iv) Generally, a graph of y = sin (A − α) lags y = sin A by angle α, and a graph of y = sin
(A + α) leads y = sin A by angle α.
(v) A cosine curve is the same shape as a sine curve but starts 90◦ earlier, i.e. leads by
90◦. Hence cos A = sin (A + 90◦).

Example 24: Sketch y = 5 sin (A + 30◦) from A = 0◦ to A = 360◦

Solution: Amplitude = 5 and period = 360◦/1 = 360◦.
5 sin (A + 30◦) leads 5 sin A by 30◦ (i.e. starts 30◦ earlier).
A sketch of y = 5 sin (A + 30◦) is shown in Figure 42 below.

Figure 42
SINUSOIDAL FORM A sin (ωt ± α)
In Figure 43, let OR represent a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about O at a
velocity of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is called a phasor. After a time t second OR will have
turned through an angle ωt radians (shown as angle TOR in Figure 43). If ST is constructed
perpendicular to OR, then sin ωt = ST/OT, i.e. ST = OT sin ωt.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 43
If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against ωt, a sine wave
results of amplitude OR. If phasor OR makes one revolution (i.e. 2π radians) in T seconds,
then the angular velocity, ω = 2π/T rad/s, from which, T = 2π/ω seconds.
T is known as the periodic time.
The number of complete cycles occurring per second is called the frequency, f

Amplitude is the name given to the maximum or peak value of a sine wave. The amplitude
of the sine wave shown in Figure 43 has an amplitude of 1.
A sine or cosine wave may not always start at 0◦. To show this, a periodic function is
represented by y = sin (ωt ± α) or y = cos (ωt ± α), where α is a phase displacement
compared with y = sin A or y = cos A. A graph of y = sin (ωt – α) lags y = sin ωt by angle α,
and a graph of y = sin (ωt + α) leads y = sin ωt by angle α.
The angle ωt is measured in radians.
The relationship between degrees and radians is:
360◦ = 2π radians or 180◦ = π radians
Summarising, given a general sinusoidal function y = A sin (ωt ± α), then:
(i) A = amplitude
(ii) ω = angular velocity = 2π f rad/s

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

2𝜋
(iii) = periodic time T seconds
𝜔
𝜔
(iv) = frequency, f hertz
2𝜋

(v) α = angle of lead or lag (compared with y = A sin ωt)

Example 25: An alternating current is given by i = 30 sin (100πt + 0.27) amperes. Find the
amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (in degrees and minutes).
Solution: i = 30 sin (100 πt + 0.27)A,
hence amplitude = 30A; Angular velocity ω = 100 π, hence

Example 26: The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is
given by v = 340 sin (50πt – 0.541) volts. Determine the:
(a) Amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (in degrees)
(b) Value of the voltage when t = 0
(c) Value of the voltage when t =10 ms
(d) Time when the voltage first reaches 200V, and
(e) Time when the voltage is a maximum
Sketch one cycle of the waveform
Solution:
(a) Amplitude = 340V; Angular velocity, ω = 50π

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

(b) When t =0,

v = 340 sin (0 – 0.541) = 340 sin(–31◦) = −175.1V
(c) When t =10 ms,

(d) When v = 200 volts,

then 200 = 340 sin(50πt – 0.541)

(e) When the voltage is a maximum, v = 340V

Hence 340 = 340 sin(50πt – 0.541)
1 = sin(50πt – 0.541)
50πt – 0.541 = sin−1 1 = 90◦ or 1.5708 rad
50πt = 1.5708 + 0.541 = 2.1118

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

A sketch of v = 340 sin(50πt – 0.541) volts is shown in Figure 44 below.

Figure 44

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Determine all of the angles between 0◦ and 360◦ whose sine is:
(a) 0.6792 (b) −0.14 [(a) 42.78◦ and 137.22◦(b) 188.53◦ and 351.47◦]
2. Solve the following equations for values of x between 0◦ and 360◦:
(a) x = cos−1 0.8739 (b) x = cos−1 (−0.5572)
[(a) 29.08◦ and 330.92◦ (b) 123.86◦ and 236.14◦]
3. Find the angles between 0◦ to 360◦ whose tangent is:
(a) 0.9728 (b) −2.3418 [(a) 44.21◦ and 224.21◦ (b) 113.12◦ and 293.12◦]
4. State the amplitude and period of the following waveforms and sketch the curve
between 0◦ and 360◦.
(a) y = 3 sin 4t (b) y = cos (2θ + 30°) [(a) 3, 90◦ (b) 4, 180◦]
5. Find the amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (stating whether it is
leading or lagging sin ωt) of i = 40 sin (50πt + 0.29) mA
[40, 0.04 s, 25 Hz, 0.29 rad (or 16◦37’) leading 40 sin 5πt]
6. Find the amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (stating whether it is
leading or lagging sin ωt) of v = 300 sin (200πt − 0.412) V.
[300V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 0.412 rad (or 23◦36’) lagging 300 sin 200πt]
7. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of 120V and a frequency of 50 Hz. At time
t = 0, the voltage is (a) zero, and (b) 50V. Express the instantaneous voltage v in the
form v = A sin (ωt ± α).
[(a) v = 120 sin 100πt volts (b) v = 120 sin (100πt + 0.43) volts]

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

8. The current in an A.C. circuit at any time t seconds is given by:

i = 5 sin (100πt − 0.432) amperes. Determine
(a) the amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (in degrees)
(b) the value of current at t =0,
(c) the value of current at t =8 ms,
(d) the time when the current is first a maximum,
(e) the time when the current first reaches 3A.
Sketch one cycle of the waveform showing relevant points.
[(a) 5A, 20 ms, 50 Hz, 24◦45’ lagging (b) −2.093A (c) 4.363A (d) 6.375 ms (e)
3.423 ms]

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
AND EQUATIONS
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
A trigonometric identity is a relationship that is true for all values of the unknown
variable.

are examples of trigonometric identities.

Let’s consider the right-angled triangle shown in Figure 45 below. Applying Pythagoras’
theorem to the right-angled triangle gives:

Figure 45
2 2 2
a +b =c (1)
Dividing each term of equation (1) by c2 gives:

Dividing each term of equation (1) by a2 gives:

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Dividing each term of equation (1) by b2 gives:

Example 27: Prove the identity sin x cot x sec x = 1.

Solution: The left side of the identity is more complicated than the right side. We will
try to verify the identity by rewriting the left side so that it involves only
sines and cosines.

Example 28: Verify the identity 1 – 2 sin2 x = 2 cos2 x – 1.

Solution: Rewrite the right side of the equation.

sin 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥
Example 29: Prove the identity = .
1+ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator of the left side of the identity by the
conjugate of 1 + cos x, which is 1 – cos x.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
Example 30: Prove that: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 1.
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥(1+ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 )

Solution:

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
Example 31: Verify the identity = tan 𝑥
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Solution:

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Equations which contain trigonometric ratios are called trigonometric equations. There
are usually an infinite number of solutions to such equations; however, solutions are often
restricted to those between 0◦ and 360◦.
A knowledge of angles of any magnitude is essential in the solution of trigonometric
equations and calculators cannot be relied upon to give all the solutions.
Equations of the type a sin2A + b sin A + c = 0
𝑐 𝑐
i. When a = 0, b sinA + c = 0, hence sin A = − and A = sin−1 − . There are two
𝑏 𝑏

values of A between 0◦ and 360◦ that satisfy such an equation.

𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
ii. When b = 0, a sin2A + c = 0, hence sin2 A = − , sin A = √− and A = sin−1 √− . If
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

either a or c is a negative number, then the value within the square root sign is
positive. Since when a square root is taken there is a positive and negative answer
there are four values of A between 0◦ and 360◦ which satisfy such an equation.
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

iii. When a, b and c are all non-zero: a sin2A + b sinA + c = 0 is a quadratic equation in
which the unknown is sin A. The solution of a quadratic equation is obtained either
by factorizing (if possible) or by using the quadratic formula.
iv. Often the trigonometric identities cos2A + sin2A = 1, 1 + tan2A = sec2 A and cot2A + 1 =
cosec2A need to be used to reduce equations to one of the above forms

Example 32: Solve the trigonometric equation: 5 sinθ + 3 = 0 for values of θ from 0o to
360o .
Solution: 5 sin θ + 3 = 0, from which sin θ = −3/5 = -0.6000
Hence θ = sin−1(–0.6000). Sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants.
The acute angle sin−1 (0.6000) = 36.87◦. Hence θ = 180° + 36.87°, i.e. 216.87°
or
θ = 360° – 36.87°, i.e. 323.13°
Example 33: Solve: 1.5 tan x – 1.8 = 0 for 0° ≤ 0 ≤ 360°.
Solution: 1.5 tan x – 1.8 = 0, from which
1.8
tan 𝑥 = = 1.2000
1.5

Hence x = tan−1 1.2000

Tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants. The acute angle
tan−1 1.2000 = 50.19◦.
Hence, x = 50.19◦ or 180◦ + 50.19◦ = 230.19◦
Example 34: Solve: 2 – 4 cos2A = 0 for values of A in the range 0◦<A<360◦.
Solution: 2 – 4 cos2A = 0, from which cos2A = 2/4 = 0.5000
Hence cos A = √0.5000 =•±0.7071 and A = cos−1 (±0.7071)
Cosine is positive in quadrant one and four and negative in quadrants two and
three. Thus in this case there are four solutions, one in each quadrant. The
acute angle cos−1 0.7071 = 45◦.
Hence A = 45◦, 135◦, 225◦ or 315◦.
Example 35: Solve the equation: 8 sin2θ +2 sin θ – 1 = 0, for all values of θ between
0◦ and 360◦.
Solution: Factorising 8 sin2θ +2 sin θ – 1 = 0 gives (4 sin θ – 1) (2 sin θ + 1) = 0
Hence 4 sin θ – 1 = 0, from which, sin θ = ¼ = 0.2500, or 2 sin θ + 1 = 0, from
which, sin θ = –1/2 = –0.5000. (Instead of factorising, the quadratic formula
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

can, of course, be used). θ = sin−1 0.2500 = 14.48◦ or 165.52◦, since sine is

positive in the first and second quadrants, or θ = sin−1 (–0.5000) = 210◦ or
330◦, since sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants. Hence θ =
14.48◦, 165.52◦, 210◦ or 330◦

SUM, DIFFERENCE, AND COFUNCTION IDENTITIES

Identities That Involve (α ± β)
All the identities discussed earlier involved only one variable. Let us now consider
identities that involve a trigonometric function of the sum or difference of two variables.
To establish the identity for cos(α – β), we use the unit circle shown in Figure 46. The
angles α and β are drawn in standard position, with OA and OB as the terminal sides of α
and β, respectively. The coordinates of A are (cos α, sin α) and the coordinates of B are
(cos β, sin β). The angle (α – β) is formed by the terminal sides of the angles α and β (angle
AOB).

Figure 46
An angle equal in measure to angle (α – β) is placed in standard position in the same figure
(angle COD). From geometry, if two central angles of a circle have the same measure, then
their chords are also equal in measure. Thus the chords AB and CD are equal in length.
Using the distance formula, we can calculate the lengths of the chords AB and CD.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

All the sums and difference identities are listed below.

Example 36: Use an identity to find the exact value of cos(60° – 45°).
Solution: Use the identity cos(α – β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β with α = 60° and β = 45°.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Cofunctions
Any pair of trigonometric functions f and g for which f (x) = g(90° – x) and g(x) = f (90° – x)
are said to be cofunctions.
To visualize the cofunction identities, consider the right angled triangle shown in the figure
below.

Figure 47
If θ is the degree measure of one of the acute angles, then the degree measure of the
other acute angle is (90° - θ). Using the definitions of the trigonometric functions gives us

These identities state that the value of a trigonometric function of θ is equal to the
cofunction of the complement of θ.
To verify that the sine function and the cosine function are cofunctions, we use the
identity for cos(α – β)
Cos(90° – β) = cos 90° cos β + sin 90° sin β
= 0·cos β + 1·sin β
which gives
cos(90° – β) = sin β
Thus the sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of its complement. Using cos(90° – β) = sin
β with β = 90° – α, we have
cos α = cos[90° – (90° – α)] = sin(90° – α)
Therefore,

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

We can use the ratio identities to show that the tangent and cotangent functions are
cofunctions.

Therefore

Example 37: Use a cofunction identity to write an equivalent expression for sin 20°.
Solution: The value of a given trigonometric function of θ, measured in degrees, is
equal to its cofunction of 90° - θ. Thus
sin 20° = cos(90° – 20°)
= cos 70°.
Additional Sum and Difference Identities
We can use the cofunction identities to verify the remaining sum and difference identities.
To derive an identity for sin(α + β), substitute α + β for θ in the cofunction identity sin θ =
cos(90° - θ).

Therefore,

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

The sum and difference identities can be used to simplify some trigonometric expressions.
Example 38: Write sin 5x cos 3x – cos 5x sin 3x in terms of a single trigonometric function.
Solution: sin 5x cos 3x – cos 5x sin 3x = sin(5x – 3x) = sin 2x
4 5
Example 39: Given tan 𝛼 = − for α in Quadrant II and tan 𝛽 = − for β in Quadrant IV,
3 12

find sin(α + β).

𝑦 4
Solution: Because tan 𝛼 = = − and the terminal side of α is in Quadrant II, P1(–3, 4)
𝑥 3

is a point on the terminal side of α. Similarly, P2(12, –5) is a point on the

terminal side of β. (See Figure 48)
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 48
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we find that the length of the line segment
OP1 is 5 and the length of OP2 is 13.

Example 40: Verify the identity cos(π – θ) = –cos θ.

Solution: cos(π – θ) = cos π cos θ + sin π sin θ
= –1· cos θ + 0 · sin u
= –cos θ.

DOUBLE- AND HALF-ANGLE IDENTITIES

Double-Angle Identities
By using the sum identities, we can derive identities for f (2α), where f is a trigonometric
function. These are called the double-angle identities. To find the sine of a double angle,
substitute α for β in the identity for sin(α + β).

There are two alternative forms of the double-angle identity for cos 2α. Using cos2α = 1 –
sin2α, we can rewrite the identity for cos 2α as follows

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

The double-angle identity for the tangent function is derived from tan(α + β) with β = α

Example 41: Write 4 sin 5θ cos 5θ in terms of a single trigonometric function.

Solution: 4 sin 5θ cos 5θ = 2(2 sin 5θ cos 5θ)
= 2(sin 10θ) = 2 sin 10θ.
4
Example 42: If sin 𝛼 = and 0° < α < 90°, find the exact value of sin 2α.
5

Solution: Use the identity sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α. Find cos α by substituting for sin α in
sin2α + cos2α = 1 and solving for cos α.

Substitute the values of sin α and cos α in the double-angle formula for sin 2α

Power-Reducing Identities
The double-angle identities can be used to derive the following power-reducing identities.
These identities can be used to write trigonometric expressions involving even powers of
sine, cosine, and tangent in terms of the first power of a cosine function.
The first power-reducing identity is derived by solving the double-angle identity cos 2α = 1
– 2 sin2α for sin2α. The second identity is derived by solving the double-angle identity cos
2α = 2 cos2α – 1 for cos2α. The identity for tan2α can be derived by using the ratio identity.
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Example 43: Write sin4α in terms of the first power of one or more cosine functions.
Solution: sin4α = (sin2α)2

Half-Angle Identities
The following identities, called half-angle identities, can be derived from the power-
𝛼
reducing identities by replacing α with and taking the square root of each side.
2

𝛼
The choice of the plus or minus sign depends on the quadrant in which lies.
2
3 𝛼
Example 44: If sin 𝛼 = − and 180° < α < 270°, find the exact value of cos and tan
5 2
𝛼
.
2

Solution: To apply the half-angle identities, we need to find cos α. We can use the
identity cos2α = 1 – sin2α to find cos α, but first we need to determine
the sign of cos α. Because 180° < α < 270°, we know that cos α < 0. Thus

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

IDENTITIES INVOLVING THE SUM OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Product-to-Sum Identities
Some applications require that a product of trigonometric functions be written as a sum or
difference of these functions. Other applications require that the sum or difference of
trigonometric functions be represented as a product of these functions. The product-to-
sum identities are particularly useful in these types of problems.
The product-to-sum identities can be derived by using the sum or difference identities.
Adding the identities for sin(α + β) and sin(α – β), we have

Solving for sin α cos β, we obtain the first product-to-sum identity.

The identity for cos α sin β is obtained when sin(α – β) is subtracted from sin(α + β). The
result is

In like manner, the identities for cos(α + β) and cos(α – β) are used to derive the identities
for cos α cos β and sin α sin β. Such that
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

1
Example 45: Verify the identity cos 2𝑥 sin 5𝑥 = (sin 7𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 )
2
1
Solution: cos 2𝑥 sin 5𝑥 = [sin(2𝑥 + 5𝑥) − sin(2𝑥 − 5𝑥)]
2
1
= [sin 7𝑥 − sin(−3𝑥)]
2
1
= (sin 7𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 )
2

Sum-to-Product Identities
The sum-to-product identities can be derived from the product-to-sum identities. To
derive the sum-to-product identity for sin x + sin y, we first let x = α + β and y = α – β.
Then

Substituting these expressions for α and β into the product-to-sum identity

Yields

Simplifying the left side, we have the sum-to-product identity.

The other three sum-to-product identities can be derived in a similar manner. Such that

Example 46: Write sin 4θ – sin θ as the product of two functions.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Solution:

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Definition of sin–1 x
𝜋 𝜋
y = sin–1 x if and only if x = sin y where –1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤𝑦 ≤ .
2 2

Definition of cos–1 x
y = cos–1 x if and only if x = cos y where –1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.
2
Example 47: Find the exact value of sin (cos−1 ).
5

Solution: Let 𝜃 = cos −1 2 2

which implies that cos 𝜃 = . Because cos θ is positive, θ is a
5 5

first quadrant angle. We draw a right triangle with base 2 and hypotenuse 5 so
that we can view θ, as shown in Figure 49 below. The height of the triangle is
√52 − 22 = √21. Our goal is to find which by definition is sin θ, which by
𝑜𝑝𝑝 √21 2 √21
definition is = . Thus, sin (cos−1 ) = sin 𝜃 = .
ℎ𝑦𝑝 5 5 5

Figure 49
3 5
Example 48: Find the exact value of sin [sin −1 + cos−1 (− )]
5 13
3 3 5
Solution: Let 𝛼 = sin−1 . Thus sin 𝛼 = . Let 𝛽 = cos−1 (− ), which implies that
5 5 13
5
cos 𝛽 = − .
13
3 5
sin [sin−1 + cos−1 (− )] = sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 )
5 13

= sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

4 12
From above cos 𝛼 = and sin 𝛽 =
5 13
3 5 3 5 4 12 33
Therefore sin [sin−1 + cos−1 (− )] = ( ) (− )+ ( )( ) =
5 13 5 13 5 13 65
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Prove the following trigonometric identities:
a. sin x cot x = cos x
b. 2 cos2A – 1= cos2A – sin2A
c. tan x csc x cos x = 1
cos 𝑥
d. = sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥
1 − sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
e. − = 2 cot 𝑥
1 − cos 𝑥 1 + cos 𝑥

f. sin2x – cos2x = 2 sin2x – 1

cos2 𝑥
g. 1 + sin 𝑥 =
1 − sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥+ cot 𝑥 sin 𝑥
h. = 2 sin 𝑥
cot 𝑥

2. Solve the following equations for angles between 0o and 360o

a. 4 – 7 sin θ = 0 [θ =34.85o or 145.15o]
b. 3 cosec A + 5.5 = 0 [A=213.06o or 326.94o]
c. cos x – 0.75 = 0 [x = 41.4o or 318.6o]
d. 3 – 5 sin x = 4 sin x + 1 [x = 12.8o or 167.2o]
e. 5 sin2y = 3 [y = 50.77o, 129.23o,230.77o or 309.23o]
f. 15 sin2A + sin A – 2 = 0 [A = 19.47o, 160.53o, 203.58o or 336.42o]
g. 8 tan2θ + 2 tan θ = 15 [θ = 51.34o, 123.69o, 231.34o or 303.69o]
h. 12 sin2θ – 6 = cos θ [θ = 48.19o, 138.59o, 221.41o or 311.81o]
i. 2.9 cos2a – 7 sin a + 1 = 0 [a = 27.83o or 152.17o]
j. cos2x – 3 sin x + 2 sin2x = 0 [x = 22.5° or 157.5°]
3. Find the exact value of the following expression
√𝟔+ √𝟐
a. Sin(45° + 30°) [ ]
𝟒

√𝟔+ √𝟐
b. Cos(45° – 30°) [ ]
𝟒

c. Tan(45° – 30°) [𝟐 − √𝟑]

4. Write each expression below in terms of a single trigonometric function.
a. sin 7x cos 2x – cos 7x sin 2x [sin 5x]
b. sin 7x cos 3x – cos 7x sin 3x [sin 4x]
c. cos 4x cos(–2x) – sin 4x sin(–2x) [cos 2x]
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

d. 2 sin 2α cos 2α [sin 4α]

e. 1 – 2 sin25β [cos 10β]
f. cos23α - sin23α [cos 6α]
5. Find the exact value of the given functions
4 15
a. Given tan 𝛼 = − for α in Quadrant II and tan 𝛽 = for β in Quadrant III, find
3 8
𝟕𝟕 𝟖𝟒 𝟕𝟕
sin(α – β), cos(α + β) and tan(α – β) [− , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ]
𝟖𝟓 𝟖𝟓 𝟑𝟔
4 12
b. Given sin 𝛼 = − for α in Quadrant III and cos 𝛽 = − for β in Quadrant II, find
5 13
𝟔𝟑 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟑
sin(α – β), cos(α + β) and tan(α + β) [ , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ]
𝟔𝟓 𝟔𝟓 𝟓𝟔
3 5
c. Given cos 𝛼 = − for α in Quadrant III and sin 𝛽 = , β in Quadrant I, find sin(α –
5 13
𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝟔𝟑
β), cos(α + β) and tan(α + β) [− , − 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ]
𝟔𝟓 𝟔𝟓 𝟏𝟔

6. Verify the following identities

a. Sin(θ + π) = –sin θ
b. sin 6x cos 2x – cos 6x sin 2x = 2 sin 2x cos 2x
c. sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3x
d. sin2x + cos 2x = cos2x
e. cos2x – 2 sin2x cos2x – sin2x + 2 sin4x = cos22x
f. 2 cos 3x sin x = 2 sin x cos x – 8 cos x sin3x
g. sin 3x – sin x = 2 sin x – 4 sin3x
h. sin(x + y) cos(x – y) = sin x cos x + sin y cos y
7. Write each expression as the sum or difference of two functions
a. 2 sin x cos 2x [sin 3x – sin x]
𝟏
b. sin x sin 5x [ (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝒙)]
𝟐

8. Write each expression as the product of two functions

a. sin 4θ + sin 2θ [2 sin 3θ cos θ]
b. cos θ + cos 7θ [2 cos 4θ cos 3θ]
√2
9. Find the exact value of tan (sin−1 ) [1]
2
2 1 𝟏
10. Find the exact value of sin [sin−1 + cos−1 ( )] [ (𝟑√𝟕 − 𝟒√𝟑)]
3 2 𝟓

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY
To ‘solve a triangle’ means ‘to find the values of unknown sides and angles’. If a triangle is
right-angled, trigonometric ratios and the theorem of Pythagoras may be used for its
solution. However, for a non-right-angled triangle, trigonometric ratios and Pythagoras’
theorem cannot be used. Instead, two rules, called the sine rule and cosine rule, are used.

LAW OF SINES (SINE RULE)

Solving a triangle involves finding the lengths of all sides and the measures of all angles in
the triangle. To solve an oblique triangle, which is a triangle that does not contain a right
angle, the Sine Rule or Law of Sines can be used to solve the oblique triangles in which
either two angles and a side or two sides and an angle opposite one of the sides are known.
Consider Figure 50 below where altitude CD is drawn from C. The length of the altitude is
h. Triangles ACD and BCD are right triangles.

Figure 50
Using the definition of the sine of an angle of a right triangle, we have

Equating the values of h in these equations, we obtain

a sin B = b sin A
Dividing each side of the equation by sin A sin B, we obtain

Similarly, when an altitude is drawn to a different side, the following formulas result.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Consequently, the Law of Sines states that If A, B, and C are the measures of the angles of
a triangle and a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite those angles, then

The sine rule may be used only when:

(i) 1 side and any 2 angles are initially given, or
(ii) 2 sides and an angle are initially given.
Example 49: Solve triangle ABC if A = 42°, B = 63°, and c = 18 cm.
Solution: Find C by using the fact that the sum of the measures of the interior angles of
a triangle is 180°.
A + B + C = 180°
42° + 63° + C = 180°
C = 75°
Using the Law of Sines to find a.

a = 12.47 cm
Using the Law of Sines again, this time to find b.

b = 16.60 cm.
Example 50: Solve triangle ABC, given A = 25.5°, b = 41.2, and a = 29.6.
Solution: Use the Law of Sines to find the measure of angle B.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

There are two angles B, where B is between 0° and 180°, such that sin B = 0.599225. One
of the angles is an acute angle, and the other is an obtuse angle. The inverse sine function
can be used to find the acute angle.

The obtuse angle is the supplement of 36.8°, which is

180° – 36.8° = 143.2°
We can determine that B ≈ 143.2° is a valid result because A = 25.5° and the sum of 25.5°
and 143.2° is less than 180°. Thus, there are two triangles with the given dimensions. In
one triangle B ≈ 36.8°, and in the other triangle B ≈ 143.2°. The two cases are depicted
below.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Example 51: A radio antenna 85 feet high is located on top of an office building. At a
distance AD from the base of the building, the angle of elevation to the top of the antenna
is 26°, and the angle of elevation to the bottom of the antenna is 16°. Find the height o f
the building to two significant digits.
Solution: Firstly, sketch a diagram to depict the question. See Figure 51 below.

Figure 51
B = 90° – 26° = 64°
β = 26° – 16° = 10°
Because we know the length BC and the measure of β, we can use triangle
ABC and the Law of Sines to find the length AC.

Having found AC, we can now find the height of the building.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

= 121.27 feet
The height of the building, to two significant digits, is 120 feet.
Example 52: A ship with a heading of 330° first sighted a lighthouse at a bearing of N65°E.
After traveling 8.5 miles, the ship observed the lighthouse at a bearing of S50°E. Find the
distance from the ship to the lighthouse when the first sighting was made.
Solution: Use the given information to draw a diagram to depict the question. See
Figure 52.

Figure 52
The measure of ∠CAB = 65° + 30° = 95°, the measure of ∠BCA = 50° – 30° =
20°, and
B = 180° – 95° – 20° = 65°. Use triangle ABC and the Law of Sines to find c.

The lighthouse was 3.2 miles from the ship when the first sighting was made.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

LAW OF COSINES (COSINE RULE)

The Law of Cosines can be used to solve triangles in which two sides and the included angle
are known or in which three sides are known. Consider the triangle in Figure 53. The height
BD is drawn from B perpendicular to the x-axis. The triangle BDA is a right triangle, and the
coordinates of B are (a cos C, a sin C) while the coordinates of A are (b, 0). Using the
distance formula, we can find the distance c.

Figure 53

If A, B, and C are the measures of the angles of a triangle and a, b, and c are the lengths of
the sides opposite these angles, then

The rule may be used only when:

(i) 2 sides and the included angle are initially given, or
(ii) the 3 sides are initially given.
Example 53: In triangle ABC shown in Figure 54 below, B = 110.0°, a = 10cm and c = 15cm.
Find b.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 54
Solution: b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
= 102 + 152 – 2(10)(15) cos 110°
𝑏 = √102 + 152 − 2(10)(15) cos 110° = √427.61
b = 20.68 cm
Example 54: In triangle ABC, a = 32 cm, b = 20 cm, and c = 40cm. Find B.
Solution: b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B

B = 29.7o
Example 55: A boat sailed 3.0 miles at a heading of 78° and then turned to a heading of
138° and sailed another 4.3 miles. Find the distance and the bearing of the boat from the
starting point.
Solution: Firstly, sketch a diagram to depict the question. See Figure 55 below.

Figure 55

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

B = 78° + (180° – 138°) = 120°

Using the Law of Cosines we can first find b and then find A.
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
= 4.32 + 3.02 – 2(4.3)(3.0) cos 120°
𝑏 = √4.32 + 3.02 − 2(4.3)(3.0) cos 120°
b ≈ 6.4 miles

The bearing of the present position of the boat from the starting point A can
be determined by calculating the measure of angle α in Figure 54 above.
α ≈ 180° – (78° + 35°) = 67°
The distance is approximately 6.4 miles, and the bearing (to the nearest
degree) is S67°E.

AREA OF A TRIANGLE
1
The formula 𝐾 = 𝑏ℎ can be used to find the area of a triangle when the base and height
2

are given. But when the height is not given how do we find the area of the triangle.
Consider the areas of the acute and obtuse triangles in Figure 56 below.

Figure 56
Height of each triangle: h = c sin A
1
Area of each triangle: 𝐾= 𝑏ℎ
2
1
𝐾= 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴
2

Thus, the area K of triangle ABC is one-half the product of the lengths of any two sides and
the sine of the included angle. Such that
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

1 1 1
𝐾= 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴 𝐾= 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶 𝐾= 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐵
2 2 2

When two angles and an included side are given, the Law of Sines is used to derive a
formula for the area of a triangle. Firstly, solve for c in the Law of Sines.

1
Substitute for c in the formula 𝐾 = 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴
2

In like manner, the following two alternative formulas can be derived for the area of a
triangle.

Example 56: Given angle A = 62°, b = 12 meters, and c = 5 meters, find the area of
triangle ABC.
Solution: The triangle is depicted in Figure 57 below

Figure 57
1 1
𝐾= 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴 = (12)(5)(sin 62°) = 26.49m.
2 2

Example 57: Given A = 32°, C = 77°, and a = 14 inches, find the area of triangle ABC.
Solution: B = 180° – 32° – 77° = 71°
𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 142 𝑠𝑖𝑛 71° 𝑠𝑖𝑛 77°
𝐾= =
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 32°

K = 170.38 inches

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Heron’s Formula
The Law of Cosines can be used to derive Heron’s formula for the area of a triangle in
which three sides of the triangle are given.
If a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, then the area K of the triangle is
1
𝐾 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐), where 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
2

Because s is one-half the perimeter of the triangle, it is called the semiperimeter.

Example 58: Find, to two significant digits, the area of the triangle with a = 7 meters, b =
15 meters, and c = 12 meters.
Solution: Calculate the semiperimeter s.
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 7+15+12
𝑠= = = 17
2 2

𝐾 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

= √17(17 − 7)(17 − 15)(17 − 12)

= √1700
= 41.23 m2

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Solve the following triangles;
a. A = 110°, C = 32°, b = 12 [B = 38°, a ≈ 18, c ≈ 10]
b. A = 132°, a = 22, b = 16 [C ≈ 15°, B ≈ 33°, c ≈ 7.7]
c. A = 82.0°, B = 65.4°, b = 36.5 [C = 32.6°, c ≈ 21.6, a
≈ 39.8]
d. C = 114.2°, c = 87.2, b = 12.1 [A ≈ 58.5°, B ≈ 7.3°, a ≈
81.5]
2. The angle of elevation to a balloon from one observer is 67°, and the angle of
elevation from another observer, 220 feet away, is 31°. If the balloon is in the same
vertical plane as the two observers and between them, find the distance of the
balloon from the first observer. [≈110 ft]
3. A navigator on a ship sights a lighthouse at a bearing of N36°E. After traveling 8
miles at a heading of 332°, the ship sights the lighthouse at a bearing of S82°E. How
far is the ship from the lighthouse at the second sighting?
[≈8.1 miles]
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

4. An airplane flew 450 km at a bearing of N65°E from airport A to airport B. The plane
then flew at a bearing of S38°E to airport C. Find the distance from A to C if the
bearing from airport A to airport C is S60°E.
[≈1200 km]
5. Find the third side of the following triangles;
a. a = 120, c = 180, B = 56° [≈150]
b. a = 4.6, b = 7.2, C = 124° [≈10]
c. a = 122, c = 55.9, B = 44.2° [≈
90.7]
6. Given the three sides of the following triangles, find the specified angle;
a. a = 25, b = 32, c = 40; find A
[≈39°]
b. a = 80, b = 92, c = 124; find B [≈47.9°]
c. a = 32.5, b = 40.1, c = 29.6; find B
[≈80.3°]
7. Solve the following triangles;
a. A = 39.4°, b = 15.5, c = 17.2 [a ≈ 11.1, B ≈ 62.0°, C
≈ 78.6°]
b. a = 83.6, b = 144, c = 98.1 [A ≈ 34.2°, B ≈ 104.6°,
C ≈ 41.3°]
8. For the following, find the area of the given triangle and round each area to the
same number of significant digits given for each of the given sides;
a. A = 105°, b = 12, c = 24 [≈140 square units]
b. A = 42°, B = 76°, c = 12 [≈53 square units]
c. B = 54.3°, a = 22.4, b = 26.9 [≈299 square
units]
d. a = 3.6, b = 4.2, c = 4.8 [≈7.3 square units]
9. Two ships left a port at the same time. One ship traveled at a speed of 18 km per
hour at a heading of 318°. The other ship traveled at a speed of 22 km per hour at a
heading of 198°. Find the distance between the two ships after 10 hours of travel.
[≈350 km]

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

10. A plane traveling at 180 miles per hour passes 400 feet directly over an observer.
The plane is traveling along a straight path with an angle of elevation of 14°. Find
the distance of the plane from the observer 10 seconds after the plane has passed
directly overhead. [≈2800 feet]
11. Find the number of acres in a triangular pasture measuring 800 feet by 1020 feet by
680 feet. Round to the nearest hundredth of an acre. (An acre is 43,560 square
feet.) [≈6.23 acres]
12. Two sides of a triangular plot of land are 52 m and 34 m, respectively. If the area of
the plot is 620m2 find (a) the length of fencing required to enclose the plot and (b)
the angles of the triangular plot. [(a) 122.6m (b)
94.80o, 40.66o, 44.54o]
13. PQ and QR are the phasors representing the alternating currents in two branches of
a circuit. Phasor PQ is 20A and is horizontal. Phasor QR (which is joined to the end of
PQ to form triangle PQR) is 14A and is at an angle of 35 o to the horizontal.
Determine the resultant phasor PR and the angle it makes with phasor PQ
[32.48A, 14.31o]
14. A vertical aerial AB, 9.60m high, stands on ground which is inclined 12o to the
horizontal. A stay connects the top of the aerial A to a point C on the ground 10m
downhill from B, the foot of the aerial. Determine (a) the length of the stay, and (b)
the angle the stay makes with the ground.
[(a) 15.23m (b) 38.07 o]
15. A surveyor, standing W25oS of a tower measures the angle of elevation of the top of
the tower as 46o30′. From a position E23oS from the tower the elevation of the top is
37o15′. Determine the height of the tower if the distance between the two
observations is 75 m. [36.2 m]

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
The graph of a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola can be formed by the
intersection of a plane and a cone. Hence, these figures are referred to as conic sections.
See Figure 58.

Figure 58
A plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone intersects the cone in a circle (plane C). The
plane E, when tilted so that it is not perpendicular to the axis, intersects the cone in an
ellipse. When the plane is parallel to a line on the surface of the cone, the plane intersects
the cone in a parabola. When the plane intersects both portions of the cone, a hyperbola is
formed. If the intersection of a plane and a cone is a point, a line, or two intersecting
lines, then the intersection is called a degenerate conic section.

PARABOLAS
In addition to the geometric description of a conic section just given, a conic section can
be defined as a set of points. This method uses specified conditions about a curve to
determine which points in the coordinate system are points of the graph. For example, a
parabola can be defined by the following set of points.
A parabola is the set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line (the
directrix) and a fixed point (the focus) not on the directrix.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

The line that passes through the focus and is perpendicular to the directrix is called the
axis of symmetry of the parabola. The midpoint of the line segment between the focus
and the directrix on the axis of symmetry is the vertex of the parabola, as shown in Figure
59 below. Using this definition of a parabola, we can determine an equation of a parabola.

Figure 59 Figure 60
Suppose that the coordinates of the vertex of a parabola are V(0, 0) and the axis of
symmetry is the y-axis. The equation of the directrix is y = –p, p < 0. The focus lies on the
axis of symmetry and is the same distance from the vertex as the vertex is from the
directrix. Thus the coordinates of the focus are F(0, p), as shown in Figure 60 above.
Let P(x, y) be any point P on the parabola. Then, using the distance formula and the fact
that the distance between any point P on the parabola and the focus is equal to the
distance from the point P to the directrix, we can write the equation
D(P, F) = d(P, D)
By the distance formula,

This is the standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin and the
axis as its axis of symmetry. The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex at
the origin and the x-axis as its axis of symmetry is derived in a similar manner.
Standard Forms of the Equation of a Parabola with Vertex at the Origin
Axis of Symmetry is the y-axis

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and the y-axis as its axis
of symmetry is
x2 = 4py
The focus is (0, p), and the equation of the directrix is y = –p. If p > 0, the graph of the
parabola opens up. See Figure 61a. If p < 0, the graph of the parabola opens down. See
Figure 61b.
Axis of Symmetry is the x-axis
The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and the x-axis as its axis
of symmetry is
y2 = 4px
The focus is (p, 0), and the equation of the directrix is x = –p. If p > 0, the graph of the
parabola opens to the right. See Figure 61c. If p < 0, the graph of the parabola opens to the
left. See Figure 61d.

Figure 61
1
Example 59: Find the focus and directrix of the parabola given by the equation 𝑦 = − 𝑥 2
2

Solution: Because the x term is squared, the standard form of the equation is x2 = 4py.
1
𝑦 = − 𝑥2
2

𝑥2 = −2𝑦
Comparing this equation with x2 = 4py gives
4𝑝 = −2
1
𝑝= −
2

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Because p is negative, the parabola opens down, and the focus is below the
1
vertex (0, 0), as shown in Figure 62. The coordinates of the focus are (0, − ).
2
1
The equation of the directrix is 𝑦 = .
2

Figure 62
Example 60: Find the equation in standard form of the parabola with vertex at the origin
and focus at (–2, 0).
Solution: Because the vertex is (0, 0) and the focus is at (–2, 0), p = –2. The graph of
the parabola opens toward the focus, so in this case the parabola opens to the
left. The equation in standard form of the parabola that opens to the left is y2
= 4px. Substitute –2 for p in this equation and simplify.
y2 = 4(–2)x = –8x
The equation of the parabola is y2 = –8x.
Parabolas with Vertex at (h, k)
The equation of a parabola with a vertical or horizontal axis of symmetry and with vertex
at a point (h, k) can be found by using the translations discussed previously. Consider a
coordinate system with coordinate axes labeled xʹ and yʹ placed so that its origin is at (h, k)
of the xy-coordinate system.
The relationship between an ordered pair in the xʹ yʹ-coordinate system and one in the xy-
coordinate system is given by the transformation equations
xʹ = x – h
yʹ = y - k
Now consider a parabola with vertex at (h, k), as shown in Figure 63 below. Create a new
coordinate system with axes labeled xʹ and yʹ and with its origin at (h, k). The equation of a
parabola in the xʹ yʹ-coordinate system is
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

(xʹ )2 = 4pyʹ
Using the transformation equations, we can substitute the expressions for xʹ and yʹ into the
equation above. The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex (h, k) and a
vertical axis of symmetry is
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k)
Similarly, we can derive the standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex (h, k)
and a horizontal axis of symmetry.

Figure 63
Standard Forms of the Equation of a Parabola with Vertex at (h, k)
Vertical Axis of Symmetry
The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex (h, k) and a vertical axis of
symmetry is
( x – h )2 = 4p( y – k )
The focus is (h, k + p), and the equation of the directrix is y = k – p. If p > 0, the parabola
opens up. If p < 0, the parabola opens down. See Figure 64a and Figure 64b below.
Horizontal Axis of Symmetry
The standard form of the equation of a parabola with vertex (h, k) and a horizontal axis of
symmetry is; ( y – k )2 = 4p( x – h )
The focus is (h + p, k), and the equation of the directrix is x = h – p. If p > 0, the parabola
opens to the right. See Figure 64c below. If p < 0, the parabola opens to the left. See
Figure 64d below.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 64
Example 61: Find the equation of the directrix and the coordinates of the vertex and focus
of the parabola given by the equation 3x + 2y2 + 8y – 4 = 0.
Solution: Rewrite the equation so that the y terms are on one side of the equation, and
then complete the square on y to find the standard form of the parabola, and
then use the standard form to determine the vertex, focus, and directrix of
the parabola.

Comparing this equation to ( y – k )2 = 4p( x – h ), we have a parabola that

3 3
opens to the left with vertex (4, –2) and 4𝑝 = − . Thus 𝑝 = − .
2 8

The coordinates of the focus are

3 29
(4 + (− ) , 2) = ( , 2)
8 8

The equation of the directrix is

3 35
𝑥 = 4 − (− ) =
8 8

Choosing some values for y and finding the corresponding values for x, we plot
a few points. Because the line y = –2 is the axis of symmetry, for each point
on one side of the axis of symmetry there is a corresponding point on the

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other side. Two points are (–2, 1) and (–2, –5). The parabola is depicted in
Figure 65 below.

Figure 65
Example 62: Find the equation in standard form of the parabola with directrix x = –1 and
focus (3, 2).
Solution: The vertex is the midpoint of the line segment joining the focus (3, 2) and the
point (–1, 2) on the directrix.
−1+3 2+2
(ℎ, 𝑘) = ( , ) = (1 , 2)
2 2

The standard form of the equation is ( y – k )2 = 4p( x – h ). The distance from

the vertex to the focus is 2. Thus 4p = 4(2) = 8, and the equation of the
parabola in standard form is ( y – 2)2 = 8( x – 1). The parabola is depicted in
Figure 66 below.

Figure 66
Applications of Parabolas
A cross section of the reflecting mirror of a telescope has the shape of a parabola. The
incoming parallel rays of light are reflected from the surface of the mirror to the eyepiece.
Also, flashlights and car headlights also use the reflective property of a parabola. The

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lightbulb is positioned at the focus of the parabolic reflector, which causes the reflected
light to be reflected outward in parallel rays.
When a parabola is revolved about its axis, it produces a three-dimensional surface called a
paraboloid. The focus of a paraboloid is the same as the focus of the parabola that was
revolved to generate the paraboloid. The vertex of a paraboloid is the same as the vertex
of the parabola that was revolved to generate the paraboloid.
Example 63: A satellite dish has the shape of a paraboloid. The signals that it receives are
reflected to a receiver that is located at the focus of the paraboloid. If the dish is 8 feet
across at its opening and 1.25 feet deep at its center, determine the location of its focus.
Solution: A cross section of the paraboloid along its axis of symmetry is a parabola as
shown in Figure 67 below. Figure 68 shows this cross section placed in a
rectangular coordinate system with the vertex of the parabola at (0, 0) and
the axis of symmetry of the parabola on the y-axis. The parabola has an
equation of the form
4py = x2
Because the parabola contains the point (4, 1.25), this equation is satisfied by
the substitutions x = 4 and y = 1.25. Thus we have
4p(1.25) = 42
5p = 16
16
𝑝=
5

The focus of the satellite dish is on the axis of symmetry of the dish, and it is
1
3 feet above the vertex of the dish. See Figure 68.
5

Figure 67 Figure 68
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ELLIPSES
An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points (foci) is a positive constant.
An ellipse is another of the conic sections formed when a plane intersects a right circular
cone. If β is the angle at which the plane intersects the axis of the cone and α is the angle
shown in Figure 69, an ellipse is formed when α < β < 90°. If β = 90°, then a circle is
formed.

Figure 69

Ellipses with Center at (0, 0)

The graph of an ellipse has two axes of symmetry (see Figure 70a). The longer axis is called
the major axis. The foci of the ellipse are on the major axis. The shorter axis is called the
minor axis. It is customary to denote the length of the major axis by 2a and the length of
the minor axis by 2b. The center of the ellipse is the midpoint of the major axis. The
endpoints of the major axis are the vertices (plural of vertex) of the ellipse.
A semimajor axis of an ellipse is a line segment that connects the center point of the
ellipse with a vertex. Its length is half the length of the major axis. A semiminor axis of an
ellipse is a line segment that lies on the minor axis and connects the center point with a
point on the ellipse. Its length is half the length of the minor axis.
Consider the point V2(a, 0),which is one vertex of an ellipse, and the points F2(c, 0) and F1(–
c, 0),which are the foci of the ellipse shown in Figure 70b. The distance from V2 to F1 is a +
c. Similarly, the distance from V2 to F2 is a – c. From the definition of an ellipse, the sum of
the distances from any point on the ellipse to the foci is a positive constant. By adding the
expressions a + c and a – c we have

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(a + c) + (a – c) = 2a
Thus the positive constant referred to in the definition of an ellipse is 2a, the length of the
major axis.
Now let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse (see Figure 70c). By using the definition of an
ellipse, we have
d(P, F1) + d(P, F2) = 2a

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 70
Subtract the second radical from each side of the equation, and then square each side of
the equation.

Standard Forms of the Equation of an Ellipse with Center at the Origin

Major Axis on the x-axis
The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center at the origin and major axis on
the x-axis (see Figure 71a) is given by
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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

The length of the major axis is 2a. The length of the minor axis is 2b. The coordinates of
the vertices are (a, 0) and (–a, 0), and the coordinates of the foci are (c, 0) and (–c, 0),
where c2 = a2 – b2.
Major Axis on the y-axis
The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center at the origin and major axis on
the y-axis (see Figure 71b) is given by

The length of the major axis is 2a. The length of the minor axis is 2b. The coordinates of
the vertices are (0, a,) and (0, –a,), and the coordinates of the foci are (0, c,) and (0, –c,),
where c2 = a2 – b2.

Figure 71
𝑥2 𝑦2
Example 64: Find the vertices and foci of the ellipse given by the equation + = 1.
25 49

Sketch the graph.

Solution: Because the y2 term has the larger denominator, the major axis is on the y-
axis.

The vertices are (0, 7) and (0, –7). The foci are (0, 2√6) and (0, −2√6). See
Figure 72.
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Figure 72
Ellipses with Center at (h, k)
The equation of an ellipse with center at (h, k) and with a horizontal major axis can be
found by using a translation of coordinates. On a coordinate system with axes labeled xʹ
and yʹ, the standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center at the origin of the xʹ yʹ-
coordinate system is

Now place the origin of the xʹyʹ-coordinate system at (h, k) in an xy-coordinate system. See
Figure 73.
The relationship between an ordered pair in the xʹ yʹ-coordinate system and one in the xy-
coordinate system is given by the transformation equations
xʹ = x – h
yʹ = y – k
Substitute the expressions for xʹ and yʹ into the equation of an ellipse. The equation of the
ellipse with center at (h, k) is

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Figure 73
Standard Forms of the Equation of an Ellipse with Center at (h, k)
Major Axis Parallel to the x-axis
The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center at (h, k) and major axis
parallel to the x-axis (see Figure 74a) is given by

The length of the major axis is 2a. The length of the minor axis is 2b. The coordinates of
the vertices are (h + a, k) and (h – a, k), and the coordinates of the foci are (h + c, k) and
(h – c, k), where c2 = a2 – b2.
Major Axis Parallel to the y-Axis
The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center at (h, k) and major axis
parallel to the y-axis (see Figure 74b) is given by

The length of the major axis is 2a. The length of the minor axis is 2b. The coordinates of
the vertices are (h, k + a) and (h, k – a), and the coordinates of the foci are (h, k + c) and
(h, k – c), where c2 = a2 – b2.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 74
Example 65: Find the center, vertices, and foci of the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 – 8x + 36y + 4 = 0.
Sketch the graph.
Solution: Write the equation of the ellipse in standard form by completing the square.

From the equation of the ellipse in standard form, the coordinates of the
center of the ellipse are (1, –2). Because the larger denominator is 9, the
major axis is parallel to the x-axis and a2 = 9. Thus a = 3. The vertices are (4,
–2) and (–2, –2).
To find the coordinates of the foci, we find c.
c2 = a2 – b2 = 9 – 4 = 5
𝑐 = √5
The foci are (1 + √5, −2) and (1 − √5, −2). The graph is shown in Figure 75
below

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 75
Example 66: Find the standard form of the equation of the ellipse with center at (4, –2),
foci F2(4, 1) and F1(4, –5), and minor axis of length 10.
Solution: Because the foci are on the major axis, the major axis is parallel to the y-
axis. The distance from the center of the ellipse to a focus is c. The distance
between the center (4, –2) and the focus (4, 1) is 3. Therefore, c = 3.
The length of the minor axis is 2b. Thus 2b = 10 and b = 5
To find a2, use the equation c2 = a2 – b2.
9 = a2 – 25
a2 = 34
Thus the equation in standard form is

HYPERBOLAS
A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane the difference between whose distances
from two fixed points (foci) is a positive constant.
A hyperbola is a conic section formed when a plane intersects a right circular cone at a
certain angle. If β is the angle at which the plane intersects the axis of the cone and α is
the angle shown in Figure 76, a hyperbola is formed when 0°< β < α or when the plane is
parallel to the axis of the cone.
This definition differs from that of an ellipse in that the ellipse was defined in terms of the
sum of two distances, whereas the hyperbola is defined in terms of the difference of two
distances.

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Figure 76
Hyperbolas with a Center at (0, 0)
The transverse axis of a hyperbola shown in Figure 77a is the line segment joining the
intercepts. The midpoint of the transverse axis is called the center of the hyperbola. The
conjugate axis is a line segment that passes through the center of the hyperbola and is
perpendicular to the transverse axis.
The length of the transverse axis is customarily represented as 2a, and the distance
between the two foci is represented as 2c. The length of the conjugate axis is represented
as 2b.
The vertices of a hyperbola are the points where the hyperbola intersects the transverse
axis.
To determine the positive constant stated in the definition of a hyperbola, consider the
point V1(a, 0), which is one vertex of a hyperbola, and the points F1(c, 0) and F2(–c, 0),
which are the foci of the hyperbola (see Figure 77b). The difference between the distance
from V1(a, 0) to F1(c, 0), c – a, and the distance from V1(a, 0) to F2(–c, 0), c + a, must be a
constant. By subtracting these distances, we find |(c – a) – (c + a)| = |–2a| = 2a.
Thus the constant is 2a, and it is the length of the transverse axis. The absolute value is
used to ensure that the distance is a positive number.

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

(a) (b)
Figure 77
Standard Forms of the Equation of a Hyperbola with Center at the Origin
Transverse Axis on the x-axis
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center at the origin and transverse
axis on the x-axis (see Figure 78a) is given by

The coordinates of the vertices are (a, 0) and (–a, 0), and the coordinates of the foci are
(c, 0) and (–c, 0) where c2 = a2 + b2.
Transverse Axis on the y-axis
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center at the origin and transverse
axis on the y-axis (see Figure 78b) is given by

The coordinates of the vertices are (0, a) and (0, –a), and the coordinates of the foci are
(0, c) and (0, –c) where c2 = a2 + b2.

Figure 78
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Asymptotes of a Hyperbola with Center at the Origin

𝑥2 𝑦2
The asymptotes of the hyperbola defined by − = 1, are given by the equations 𝑦 =
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝑥 and 𝑦 = − 𝑥 (see Figure 79a).
𝑎 𝑎
𝑦2 𝑥2
The asymptotes of the hyperbola defined by − = 1, are given by the equations 𝑦 =
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 and 𝑦 = − 𝑥 (see Figure 79b).
𝑏 𝑏

Figure 79
Example 67: Find the vertices, foci, and asymptotes of the hyperbola given by the
𝑦2 𝑥2
equation − = 1. Sketch the graph.
9 4

Solution: Because the term y2 is positive, the transverse axis is on the y-axis. We know
that a2 = 9; thus a = 3. The vertices are V1(0, 3) and V2(0, –3).
c2 = a2 + b2 = 9 + 4
𝑐 = √13
The foci are 𝐹1 (0, √13) and 𝐹2 (0, −√13).
3
Thus a = 3 and b = 2 (b2 = 4), the asymptotes equations are 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 =
2
3
− 𝑥.
2

To sketch the graph, we draw a rectangle that has its center at the origin and
has dimensions equal to the lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes. The
asymptotes are extensions of the diagonals of the rectangle. See Figure 80.

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Figure 80
Hyperbolas with Center at (h, k)
Using a translation of coordinates similar to that used for ellipses, we can write the
equation of a hyperbola with center at the point (h, k). Given coordinate axes labeled xʹ
and yʹ an equation of a hyperbola with center at the origin is

Now place the origin of this coordinate system at the point (h, k) of the xy-coordinate
system, as shown in Figure 81. The relationship between an ordered pair in the xʹ yʹ-
coordinate system and one in the xy-coordinate system is given by the transformation
equations
xʹ = x – h
yʹ = y – k
Substitute the expressions for xʹ and yʹ into the equation of a hyperbola above. The
equation of a hyperbola with center at (h, k) is

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Figure 81
Standard Forms of the Equation of a Hyperbola with Center at (h, k)
Transverse Axis Parallel to the x-axis
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center at (h, k) and traverse axis
parallel to the x-axis (see Figure 82a) is given by

The coordinates of the vertices are V1(h + a, k) and V2(h – a, k). The coordinates of the foci
are F1(h + c, k) and F2(h – c, k), where c2 = a2 + b2.
𝑏
The equations of the asymptotes are 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ).
𝑎

Transverse Axis Parallel to the y-axis

The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center at (h, k) and traverse axis
parallel to the y-axis (see Figure 82b) is given by

The coordinates of the vertices are V1(h, k + a) and V2(h, k – a). The coordinates of the foci
are F1(h, k + c) and F2(h, k – c), where c2 = a2 + b2.
𝑎
The equations of the asymptotes are 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ).
𝑏

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

Figure 82
Example 68: Find the center, vertices, foci, and asymptotes of the hyperbola given
by the equation 4x2 – 9y2 – 16x + 54y – 29 = 0. Sketch the graph.
Solution: Write the equation of the hyperbola in standard form by completing the
square.

The coordinates of the center are (2, 3). Because the term containing (y – 3)2
is positive, the transverse axis is parallel to the y-axis. We know that a2 = 4;
thus a = 2.
The vertices are (2, 5) and (2, 1) as shown on the graph in Figure 83. To find
the coordinates of the foci, we find c.
c2 = a2 + b2 = 4 + 9
𝑐 = √13
The foci are (2, 3 + √13) and (2, 3 − √13). We know that b2 = 9; thus b = 3.
2
The equations of the asymptotes are 𝑦 − 3 = ± ( ) (𝑥 − 2), which simplifies to
3
2 5 2 13
𝑦= 𝑥+ and 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + .
3 3 3 3

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Figure 83

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola given by each equation. Sketch
the graph.
a. (x – 2)2 = 8( y + 3) [Vertex (2, –3), Focus (2, –1); Directrix y = –5]

𝟕 𝟗
b. ( y – 1)2 = 2x + 8 [Vertex (–4, 1), Focus (− , 1); Directrix x = − ]
𝟐 𝟐
𝟗
c. 2x – y2 – 6y + 1 = 0 [Vertex (–5, –3), Focus (− , –3); Directrix x =
𝟐
𝟏𝟏
− ]
𝟐
𝟏 𝟑𝟏 𝟐𝟑
d. 3x2 – 6x – 9y + 4 = 0 [Vertex (1, ), Focus (1, ); Directrix y = − ]
𝟗 𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝟔

2. Find the equation in standard form of the parabola with

a. Vertex at the origin and focus (0, –4). [x2 = –16y]
b. Vertex at (–1, 2) and focus (–1, 3). [(x + 1)2 = 4(y – 2)]
c. Focus (3, –3) and directrix y = –5. [(x – 3)2 = 4( y + 4)]
d. Vertex (–4, 1), axis of symmetry parallel to y-axis, and passes through point (–
2, 2). [(x + 4)2 = 4( y – 1)]
3. During televised football games, a parabolic microphone is used to capture sounds.
The shield of the microphone is a paraboloid with a diameter of 18.75 inches and a
depth of 3.66 inches. To pick up the sounds, a microphone is placed at the focus of

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 TRIGONOMETRY AND ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY Fawole V.O.

the paraboloid. How far (to the nearest tenth of an inch) from the vertex of the
paraboloid should the microphone be placed? [6.0 inches]
4. Find the center, vertices, and foci of the ellipse given by each equation. Sketch the
graph.
𝑥2 𝑦2
a. + =1 [Vertices (3, 0) (–3, 0); Center (0, 0); Foci (√𝟐, 0) (−√𝟐, 0)]
9 7
(𝑥+2)2 𝑦2
b. + = 1 [Vertices (–2, 5) (–2, –5); Center (–2, 0); Foci (–2, 4) (–2, –4)]
9 25

c. 25x2 + 16y2 = 400 [Vertices (0, 5) (0, –5); Center (0, 0); Foci (0, 3) (0, –3)]
5. Find the equation in standard form of each ellipse, given the information provided.
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
a. Center (0, 0), major axis of length 10, foci at (4, 0) and (–4, 0) [ + = 𝟏]
𝟐𝟓 𝟗

b. Major axis of length 12 on the x-axis, center at (0, 0); ellipse passes through
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
(2, –3) [ + = 𝟏]
𝟑𝟔 𝟖𝟏⁄𝟖

c. Center (2, 4), major axis parallel to the y-axis and of length 10; ellipse passes
(𝒙−𝟐)𝟐 (𝒚−𝟒)𝟐
through the point (3, 3). [ + = 𝟏]
𝟐𝟓⁄𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟓

(𝒙−𝟓)𝟐 (𝒚−𝟏)𝟐
d. Vertices (5, 6) and (5, –4), foci at (5, 4) and (5, –2). [ + = 𝟏]
𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟓

6. Find the center, vertices, foci, and asymptotes for the hyperbola given by each
equation. Sketch the graph.
𝑦2 𝑥2
a. − =1 [Center (0, 0); Vertice (0, ±2); Foci (0, ±√𝟐𝟗); Asymptotes y =
4 25
𝟐
± 𝒙]
𝟓
(𝑥−3)2 (𝑦+4)2
b. − =1 [Center (3, –4); Vertices (7, –4) (–1, –4);]
16 9
𝟐
[Foci (8, –4) (–2, –4)); Asymptotes y + 4 = ± (𝒙 − 𝟑) ]
𝟓

7. Find the equation in standard form of the hyperbola that satisfies the conditions;
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
vertices (3, 0) and (–3, 0), foci (4, 0) and (–4, 0). [ − = 𝟏]
𝟗 𝟕

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