International Journal of

Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
Plastic Recycling Practices in Vietnam and Related Hazards for
Health and the Environment
Stefan Salhofer 1, * , Aleksander Jandric 1 , Souphaphone Soudachanh 1 , Thinh Le Xuan 2,3 and Trinh Dinh Tran 4

1 Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria;
[email protected] (A.J.); [email protected] (S.S.)
2 Vietnam Cleaner Production Centre Co. Ltd, Hanoi 11413, Vietnam; [email protected]
3 School of Environmental Science and Technology, Hanoi University of Science and Technology,
Hanoi 11615, Vietnam
4 Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science, Vietnam National University, No. 19 Le Thanh Tong Street,
Hanoi 11021, Vietnam; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Waste plastic today is a global threat. The rapid increase in global production and use
has led to increasing quantities of plastics in industrial and municipal waste streams. While in
industrialized countries plastic waste is taken up by a waste management system and at least partly
recycled, in low-income countries adequate infrastructure to collect and treat waste adequately is
often not in place. This paper analyzes how plastic waste is handled in Vietnam, a country with a
fast-growing industry and growing consumption. The recycling of plastic waste typically takes place



in an informal context. To demonstrate this in more detail, two rural settlements—so-called craft


villages—are taken as case studies. Technologies and processes for plastic recycling are described
Citation: Salhofer, S.; Jandric, A.; and related risks for human health and the environment are shown, as well as the potential for the
Soudachanh, S.; Le Xuan, T.; Tran, T.D. improvement of this situation.
Plastic Recycling Practices in Vietnam
and Related Hazards for Health and
Keywords: plastic recycling; informal recycling; health risk; environmental impacts; craft village; Vietnam
the Environment. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 2021, 18, 4203. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084203

1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Elena Cristina
Rada, Hyun-Sang Shin and William Plastic has become one of the most important materials used in varied industries due
A. Toscano to its versatile properties and low cost. Plastic production and consumption have been
increasing significantly since the 1950s [1]. About 7800 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic resins
Received: 28 February 2021 and fiber have been manufactured during the period of 1950 up to 2015. The global annual
Accepted: 8 April 2021 plastic production has been scaling up from 2 Mt in 1950 to 381 Mt in 2015. The trend of
Published: 15 April 2021 plastic production is growing at a fast rate, and it is estimated that it may reach up to 34,000
Mt of the total plastic ever manufactured by the year 2050 [2].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral In parallel to plastic production, global plastic waste has also had a significant increase.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in The share of plastic in municipal waste has remarkably increased from less than 1% in
published maps and institutional affil- 1960 to 10% in 2005. It was estimated that only 9% of the total plastic waste disposed of
iations. since the 1950s was recycled, whereas 12% was incinerated and the majority of the plastic
waste remains in the landfills, dumpsites, and oceans worldwide [2]. Plastic waste has
become one of the most concerning environmental issues as it has contributed to many
environmental threats such as pollution of groundwater, marine litter climate change, and
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. the release of hazardous substances. It was estimated that about 8 Mt of plastic has been
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. entering the ocean annually and Vietnam is among the top five polluters globally [3].
This article is an open access article China plays a very important role in the plastic waste stream worldwide. The country
distributed under the terms and is not only the major plastic producer and consumer but was also the top plastic waste
conditions of the Creative Commons importer, with 56% of the total plastic scrap being imported into China [4,5].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Since China has tried to improve the quality of imported plastic waste with the ‘Green
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
Fence Operation’ in 2013 and has permanently banned the import of certain types of
4.0/).

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084203 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 2 of 13

household plastic waste starting in 2017 and coming into force in 2018, there has been a
huge shift in the plastic waste import and export globally. With this restriction, the import
has been decreased significantly for China and Hong Kong and plastic waste has shifted to
other destinations within Southeast Asian countries. EU–27 countries were one of the main
plastic waste exporters accounted for 31% of global plastic waste export, of which 85% is
sent to China, where the plastic ban has had a major impact and created challenges for the
redistribution and reduction in the export of plastic waste during 2017 and 2019 [6,7].
There is a high possibility that plastic waste import into Southeast Asian countries
will increase and these countries will become the plastic world leaders in plastic waste
imports [8] as between the years 2015 and 2018, 88 scrap plastic exporters diverted attention
from China to other markets such as Turkey, with an increase of 1295%, Indonesia with
an increase of 485%, Malaysia with an increase of 193%, and Vietnam with an increase of
111% [9].
This paper gives an overview of the plastic industry in Vietnam and how plastic
waste is managed in this country. The recycling of plastic waste typically takes place in an
informal context. To demonstrate this more in detail, two rural settlements–so-called craft
villages—are taken as case studies. Technologies and processes for plastic recycling are
described and related risks for human health and the environment are shown, as well as
the potential for improvement of this situation.

2. Materials and Methods

The analysis of plastic waste management in Vietnam started from plastic production
and waste management in the country. A closer view of the plastic industry in Vietnam
gives insight into the dimensions of production and the demand for resources, which is
partly covered by secondary materials. Subject to the analysis is the generation of plastic
waste in the country and how the waste management system, in places, takes up this
waste stream in terms of collection and processing. Both steps are mainly in the hands
of the informal recycling sector. In a case study, the processing of plastic waste in an
informal context is discussed, using data for two craft villages, where quantities, processes,
and emissions are analyzed. As no samples were taken, the emissions from the recycling
processes can be given only on a qualitative basis. However, by comparing the processes
to other cases from the literature, the major impacts on health and the environment are
identified. In the conclusions, recommendations are given on how to mitigate these
adverse impacts.

3. Results
3.1. Plastic Manufacturing and Plastic Recycling in Vietnam
Vietnam is the 15th most populous country in the world with a total estimated popula-
tion of 96.2 million in 2019. Approximately 65.6% of the population live in rural areas and
34.4% live in urban areas with the largest share in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hai Phong,
and Can Tho. [10]. According to the World Bank country classifications by income level,
Vietnam is categorized as a low middle-income country with an average Gross National
Income (GNI) per capita of USD 2,590 per year [11].

3.1.1. Overview of the Plastic Industry in Vietnam

Vietnam’s plastic industry is one of the industries with relatively fast growth compared
to the national economy in general. During the period from 2012 to 2017, Vietnam’s plastic
industry grew on average 11.6% a year, faster than the world plastics industry’s 3.9%
growth and faster than Vietnam’s average GDP growth of 6.2% over the same period [12]
The plastic industry volume in 2017 was estimated at around USD 15 billion, equivalent to
about 6.7% of Vietnam’s GDP in 2017 [12].
The majority of the product sectors are packaging (37%), household furniture (29%),
construction (18%), and electronic appliances (29%) [13]. Therefore, Vietnam has become
 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 3 of 13

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 3 of 13

[12] The plastic industry volume in 2017 was estimated at around USD 15 billion, equiva-
lent to about 6.7% of Vietnam’s GDP in 2017 [12].
The majority of the product sectors are packaging (37%), household furniture (29%),
one of the top 20 global plastic products exporters and exports plastic products to more
construction (18%), and electronic appliances (29%) [13]. Therefore, Vietnam has become
than 55 different countries [14].
one of the top 20 global plastic products exporters and exports plastic products to more
In 2017, Vietnam’s plastic industry consumed about 5.9 Mt of virgin plastic materials,
than 55 different countries [14].
equivalent to a per capita plastic consumption rate of 63 kg/capita/year (kg/cap/year).
In 2017, Vietnam’s plastic industry consumed about 5.9 Mt of virgin plastic materials,
The rate in 1990 was only 3.8 (kg/cap/year); thus, in the period from 1990 to 2017, the
equivalent to a per capita plastic consumption rate of 63 kg/capita/year (kg/cap/year). The
average plastic consumption per capita in Vietnam increased by 10.96% per year [12].
rate in 1990 was only 3.8 (kg/cap/year); thus, in the period from 1990 to 2017, the average
Similar quantities are reported by British Plastic Federation (55 kg/cap/year) and H.Böll
plastic consumption per capita in Vietnam increased by 10.96% per year [12]. Similar
Stiftung (41.3 kg/cap/year). Figure 1 shows the plastic consumption per capita in different
quantities are reported by British Plastic Federation (55 kg/cap/year) and H.Böll Stiftung
regions.
(41.3 kg/cap/year). Figure 1 shows the plastic consumption per capita in different regions.

Figure1.1.Per
Figure Percapita
capitaplastic
plasticconsumption
consumptioninin2017
2017(data
(datafrom
from[15]).
[15]).

However,Vietnam’s
However, Vietnam’splastic plasticindustry
industryisiscommonly
commonlyfocused
focusedononplastic
plasticprocessing
processingand and
not fully active in inputting raw plastic materials sources to production
not fully active in inputting raw plastic materials sources to production activities. Accord- activities. Accord-
ingtoto
ing thethe Vietnam
Vietnam Plastic
Plastic Association,
Association, the plastic
the plastic industry
industry in Vietnam
in Vietnam needs approxi-
needs approximately
mately
3.5 Mt/year3.5 of
Mt/year
the input of therawinput raw such
materials materials such as polyethylene
as polyethylene (PE), 30%; polypro-
(PE), 30%; polypropylene (PP),
pylene
23%; (PP), 23%; terephthalate
polyethylene polyethylene (PET), terephthalate
9%; and(PET), 9%; and
poly vinyl poly vinyl
chloride (PVC),chloride (PVC),
5.7%, where
5.7%,
the where production
domestic the domestic canproduction
only supply can0.9
onlyMtsupply 0.9 Mt
of the raw of the raw
materials materials
to the market to the
[13].
market [13].
Therefore, theTherefore,
plastic industry the plastic industry
is highly is highly
dependent ondependent
the importon of the
rawimport of raw
materials which ma-
terials whichincrease
continuously continuously increase
in quantity andinvalue
quantity
over and value Even
the years. over the years.
though Even
there is athough
high
there is for
potential a high potential
recovering thefor recovering
plastics the plastics
raw materials fromraw materials
scrap, only 20%from scrap,
of the onlywastes
plastic 20% of
isthe plastic[16].
recycled wastes is recycled [16].
The
Thevolume
volumeofofimported
importedplastic plasticmaterials
materialsofofVietnam’s
Vietnam’splastic
plasticindustry
industrycontinued
continuedtoto
grow
growininthetheperiod
period2011–2017.
2011–2017.The Theaverage
averagegrowth
growthininvolume
volumeand andvalue
valueofofimported
importedraw raw
materials
materialsduring
duringthisthisperiod
periodgrew grewwithwithananaverage
averageofof11.5%
11.5%and and7.8%
7.8%perperyear,
year,respec-
respec-
tively
tively[12].
[12].This
Thisisisananinevitable
inevitableconsequence
consequenceofofthe thefact
factthat
thatthetheupstream
upstreamplastic
plasticindustry
industry
did not develop
did not develop fast fast enough to meet the rapidly growing demand
to meet the rapidly growing demand of the downstreamof the downstream seg-
segment.
ment. The The dependence
dependence of Vietnam’s
of Vietnam’s plastic
plastic industry
industry on imported
on imported materials
materials has has
beenbeenfore-
forecast to continue
cast to continue in the
in the future.
future.

3.1.2.
3.1.2.Plastic
PlasticWaste
WasteininVietnam
Vietnam
Over
Over the years, Asiahas
the years, Asia hasbecome
becomethe
theleading
leadinggenerator
generatorofofplastic
plasticwaste
wastewith
with8282Mt
Mtinin
2015, followed by Europe (31 Mt), and Northern America (29 Mt). Latin America,
2015, followed by Europe (31 Mt), and Northern America (29 Mt). Latin America, includ-including
the Caribbean, and Africa generated 19 Mt of plastic waste each while Oceania generated
ing the Caribbean, and Africa generated 19 Mt of plastic waste each while Oceania gener-
about 0.9 Mt [17].
ated about 0.9 Mt [17].
Regarding the generation of plastic waste by country, China is the leading country
with over 17 Mt/year, followed by India with more than 12 Mt/year. Vietnam was ranked
7th of the top country generators of plastic waste in the world, with over 1.8 Mt/year.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 4 of 13

With an average share of 12% in municipal solid waste (MSW) (23.4 Mt, i.e.,
242 kg/cap/year), the quantity of plastic waste in 2019 can be estimated at
29 kg/cap/year [12].

3.1.3. Waste Management in Vietnam

The rapid population growth, increase in production, urbanization, industrialization,
and economic development result in the intense extraction of natural resources and in
increasing solid waste generation. According to the National Environmental Report, the
total volume of MSW generated nationwide was about 16.2 Mt/year in 2011 [18]. By 2019,
this figure was 23.4 Mt/year with an increase of 44% compared to 2011. The volume of
MSW has increased significantly in regions with high urbanization, industrialization, and
tourism such as Ho Chi Minh City (9400 t/day) and Hanoi (6500 t/day) [18–21]. MSW
generated in urban areas is estimated at 13.0 Mt/year, accounting for 55% of the volume
of MSW in the country, of which Ho Chi Minh City is the largest waste generator in the
country, followed by Hanoi. Rural areas contribute another 10.4 Mt/year.
The per capita generation of MSW is highest in the northern midland and moun-
tainous area with 1.20 kg/cap/day, followed by the north and south-central coast with
1.17 kg/cap/day; the lowest is in the Mekong Delta with 0.82 kg/cap/day. For rural areas,
MSW generation in the Red River Delta is reported to be the highest with 0.52 kg/cap/day,
followed by the north-central and central coast with 0.51 kg/cap/d; the lowest is in the
northern midland and mountainous area with 0.29 kg/cap/day [18].
In terms of composition, Vietnam’s solid waste is characterized by high humidity
(ranging from 65–95%), a high ash content of about 25–30% (dry weight), and low heat
value (900–1100 Kcal/kg wet weight) [18]. The major waste composition is organic waste
(67%) and other recyclable materials such as paper (6%), metal (6%), glass (4%), and plastic
(12%) [22]. In household MSW, organic matter (food waste) is the largest constituent, with
a decreasing trend. Since 1995, the composition of food waste accounted for a very high
proportion (80–96%), but by 2017 this figure had decreased to about 50–70%, indicating
that urban residents’ lifestyle changes are fast and convenient [19,23].

3.1.4. Waste Collection and Treatment

In urban areas, the collection rate of MSW increased from 81% in 2010 to 85.5%
in 2017 [18,24]. The collection and transportation of MSW are usually done by public
enterprises. In recent years, with the policy of privatisation, private companies participate
in the collection and transportation of MSW in urban areas. Funding for the collection and
transportation of MSW is given by the state and stems from sanitation fees. In urban areas,
municipal waste collection is undertaken by mobile garbage collectors, collection trucks,
and through a container system [24–26].
In rural areas, the collection and transportation of MSW are mostly managed by
cooperatives and self-managed collection teams. The rate and method of collection vary
widely between localities. In many rural areas, due to inconvenience in transportation and
lack of awareness of the population, waste is dumped into water bodies and on bare land
without any management [25]. If MSW is collected, most of it dumped onto land, without
any hygienic protection such as liners or leachate collection and covering, or it is exposed
to uncontrolled burning.
Currently, there are 1322 MSW treatment facilities nationwide, including 381 solid
waste incinerators, 37 composting plants, and 904 landfills, including a larger number of
non-sanitary landfills (dump sites) [18].
From the total volume of MSW collected, about 71% is treated by landfilling, 16%
is processed in composting plants, and 13% is treated by incineration. Out of the larger
landfills, receiving more than 20,000 t/day, only 30% are classified as sanitary landfills as
landfills with daily cover. Only 9% of the landfills are equipped with weights and 36% with
bottom lining. Most landfills do not have compactors, a gas collection system, leachate
treatment, or environmental monitoring [18].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 5 of 13

The recycling of waste is mainly performed by the informal sector. Informal collectors
purchase recyclable materials from households and industry. Wholesalers buy from infor-
mal collectors and industrial waste collectors; then sort, bale, and sell to processors [18,27].
In addition to the amount of recycled waste from the domestic market, a considerable
amount is imported such as plastics (1.2 Mt/year) and paper (1.3 Mt/year).
The main limitation of the waste management system in Vietnam is the fact that
a larger proportion of the waste generated is not collected, treated, or disposed of in a
controlled manner. As a result, a number of environmental and health problems arise
such as groundwater and soil pollution from leachate, methane emissions from the landfill,
contaminated waterways, marine littering, air pollution from inadequate waste burning,
and the spread of diseases.

3.1.5. Management of Plastic Waste in Vietnam

The awareness of the majority of people of the sorting, collection, transportation, and
treatment of MSW, especially plastic waste and plastic bags, is still limited. People are
usually not aware of the harmful effects of plastic waste disposal to the environment and
the ecosystem.
The collection and sorting of recyclable plastic waste from households is done by
informal collectors. The collection rate for plastic waste is low, specifically for plastic bags,
which are made of thin films and difficult to recycle. Producers of plastic packaging and
other plastic products do not have a responsibility for the management of plastic waste.
Regarding the plastic recycling industry, most of the actors in the market are in the
informal sector. The recycling of plastic waste still faces many difficulties, the reuse of
waste is done through collection and transportation. It is then sent to the craft villages for
recycling [25]. The recycling materials are mainly paper and plastics, which are processed
manually and with outdated technology causing high emissions rates.
The topic of environmental pollution due to plastics in daily life has been integrated
into local environmental protection and waste management plans [18]. Several cities and
provinces have carried out public relations work, including information dissemination,
and education to raise the awareness of the community about the harmful effects of non-
biodegradable plastic bags. Movements such as “plastic-bag-free days”, “say no with
plastic bags” plan and implement public events to combat plastic wastes. However, the
size and number of the above-mentioned activities is still limited, and their effectiveness is
not significant [18].

3.2. Plastic Recycling Practices in Craft Village

Accounting for more than 90% of activities, the informal sector is dominating plastic
waste recycling in Vietnam. The activities of informal plastic waste recycling in Vietnam
are carried out in craft villages, which play an important role in contributing to rural
social–economic development and the industrialisation process. Beside recycling, typical
activities in craft villages are silk processing, food production, or fine arts [28]. The craft
villages are helping to alleviate poverty and hunger, create jobs, and increase income for
people in the rural areas. However, despite many years of development, these activities are
still bound to single households and recycling activities are performed on a small scales.
The basic production unit in a craft village is a household enterprise, which specializes
in one or two recycling activities, e.g., waste collection, separation, shredding, or extrusion.
The recycling enterprise has limited available working space but is tolerable for small-scale
recycling operations. The equipment, machinery, and materials are set up next to or on
the ground floor of the residential house, while the work force is mostly limited to the
household members [29]. Households from the same craft village will mostly specialise in
the same recycling activity. This allows them to cooperate, take over larger waste quantities,
and benefit in general from economies of scale. As a result, a particular craft village will
specialise in one type of recycling activity, whereas the neighbouring craft village will
specialise in another, filling the gap in the recycling process. However, most of the craft
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 6 of 13

villages’ recycling activities operate under unregulated and uncontrolled conditions, so

that they are significant contributors to health hazards and pollution of the environment
and the surrounding communities [28].
In 2018, the Vietnam Cleaner Production Centre (VNCPC) conducted a survey on two
plastic recycling villages namely Phan Boi village and Minh Khai Village to analyze their
recycling technologies and practices and their impact on the environment, human health,
and the surrounding community [29].
Phan Boi and Minh Khai craft villages have specialised in different recycling activities
but within the plastic waste recycling sector. While the majority of households in Minh
Khai village process granulated plastic from waste scrap, the majority of households in
Phan Boi village focus on waste plastic sorting, shredding, washing, and selling for further
granulation processes [29].
In Phan Boi village, in 2018, about 130 households were working on plastic recycling
activities. Of these 130 households, 81 (~62%) produced shredded plastic, 18 (~14%)
prouced granulated plastic, and the remaining 31 (~24%) traded in waste materials [29].
As was also the case also in Minh Khai village, most of the activities were performed in the
residential areas with limited working space. The input material in the village consisted of
waste packaging, water pipes, pots, and other plastic items. On average, Phan Boi village
has a processing capacity of between 100–200 t/day of unsorted input waste material. The
main source of the material was the domestic waste plastic market. Because it usually
arrived as a mixed waste stream, it was necessary to separate different recyclables and to
sort and wash waste plastics before any further recycling steps [29]. About 85–88% of the
input material is used for plastic recycling, while 5–10% consists of metal, paper, adhesive
tapes, and others, which are then sold to the respective recyclers; 5–7% of input material
remains unrecycled and it is often discarded in the dumpsite or on the roadsides of the
villages [29].
In Minh Khai village, the majority of households were involved in agricultural pro-
duction. Only a small number of households collected waste materials as a source of
extra income. However, the trend changed, and by 2018 approximately 870 households
were primarily working with waste plastics. Of these 870 households, approximately
260 households (~30%) were working on the plastic collection together with sorting and
trading, 452 households (~52%) were involved with plastic granulation, 122 households
(~14%) were dealing with films and other plastic products, and 35 households (~4%) were
working with plastic shredding. Minh Khai village has a processing capacity of between
550–600 t/day of input material, which mostly consists of waste PE, PP, PVC, PS, HDPE,
and LDPE plastics. It originates both from domestic and from international markets such
as China, South Korea, Australia, and European countries. About 85–90% of input material
is used for waste plastic recycling, 5–10% consists of other recyclables, and approx. 3–5% is
disposed of in the proximity of the village in dumpsites and roadsides [29].
The main production outputs from Minh Khai village are PE and PP granules (90%
purity), while the remaining outputs consist of other plastic products, such as plastic bags,
trays, ropes, and buckets, and other recycling services, such as plastic shredding and
trading in waste materials. The main recycling processes at Minh Khai village are sorting,
cutting, shredding, washing and drying, extruding, and granulating [29]. The overview of
the recycling processes in Minh Khai village is shown in Figure 2.
Int.Int. J. Environ.
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Figure
Figure 2. The
2. The plastic
plastic recycling
recycling process
process andand related
related emissions
emissions at Minh
at Minh Khai
Khai village
village [29].
[29].
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
4.1. Environmental Impacts
4.1. Environmental Impacts
Waste plastics contain a wide range of different additives, which are mixed up with
Waste
the polymer plastics contain
substrate a wide
in order torange
improveof different additives, which
plastic characteristics suchare mixed up with
as durability, colour,
theand
polymer substrate in order to improve plastic characteristics such
flammability. The most commonly used additives can be classified into the followingas durability, colour,
and flammability.
categories with The most commonly
descending used additivesincan
average concentration thebepolymer
classified into the following
substrate: plasticisers,
categories with descending
flame retardants, stabilizersaverage concentration
and antioxidants, slip in the polymer
agents, substrate:
curing agents, plasticisers,
biocides, colorants
flame
and retardants,
pigments, and stabilizers and antioxidants, slip agents, curing agents, biocides, color-
fillers [30].
ants and pigments,
During and fillersrecycling
the informal [30]. activities, waste plastics are exposed to mechanical,
Duringand
thermal, the chemical
informal stresses,
recyclingand activities, waste plastics
a combination of these areinexposed to mechanical,
uncontrolled conditions.
thermal,
For this reason, plastic additives tend to be released during the recycling processFor
and chemical stresses, and a combination of these in uncontrolled conditions. with
this
thereason,
potentialplastic additives
to cause tend
adverse to beon
effects released during
health and the the recycling process
environment with thethe
[29]. However,
potential to cause adverse
plastic emissions duringeffects on health
recycling andare
activities thenot
environment
inherently [29]. However,
hazardous, butthe
they plastic
should
emissions
be regardedduringas recycling
potentially activities are not inherently
toxic substances (PoTSs) as hazardous,
defined by butHahladakis
they shouldetbe al.re-
[31].
garded
Theiras potentially
toxicity arisestoxic
fromsubstances
environmental(PoTSs)conditions
as definedand by Hahladakis et al. [31].
stresses, exposure Their
pathways,
concentration,
toxicity arises from exposure duration,conditions
environmental and other social-economic
and stresses, exposure factors.pathways, concen-
Since there was no possibility for us to
tration, exposure duration, and other social-economic factors. take samples on-site, we have extrapolated
potential emissions
Since there was no in Phan Boi and
possibility forMinh
us toKhai
take craft
samplesvillages based
on-site, weonhave
observed recycling
extrapolated
activities
potential and thein
emissions average
Phan Boi material
and Minhcomposition
Khai craftof waste based
villages plastics. Furthermore,
on observed the de-
recycling
scribed and
activities release
thepathways are cross composition
average material referenced with the available
of waste plastics.data from literature
Furthermore, thefor
de-the
same release
scribed or similar informalare
pathways emissions pathwayswith
cross referenced (seetheTable 1).
available data from literature for
the same or similar informal emissions pathways (see Table 1).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 8 of 13

Table 1. Potential emissions resulting from specific informal waste plastic recycling at Phan Boi and Minh Khai craft villages
activities with descriptions of their release pathways and corresponding scientific literature [29,32].

Emission Potential Related

Description of Release Release of Potentially Toxic
No Process to the Specific Recycling
Pathways Substances (PoTS)
Activity
During collection,
These conditions lead to
transportation, and sorting,
increased brittleness of plastics,
the non-recyclable plastics
especially of polyethylene (PE),
and unintentionally lost
Piled-up waste plastics in the polypropylene (PP) plastic types,
recyclable plastics is piled-up
Purchase and landfill and along the roadside is polyethylene terephthalate
along the roadside and the
1 sorting of exposed to weathering (PET), and polystyrene (PS).
nearby landfill.
plastic waste conditions such as sunlight (UV Consequently, following
There is approximately
radiation), O2 , and precipitation. emissions of stabilisers,
65,000–100,000 t of plastic
antioxidants, flame retardants,
residues in the less strictly
and micro plastics can be
controlled landfill in Minh
expected [33–37]
Khai.
Migration and leaching
Small plastic pieces and Washing water and washing
characteristics of plastic
dissolved plastic additives in supplements create a susceptible
additives include:
Washing of wastewater of the washing environment for the dissolution
2 plasticisers [38], brominated
plastic process. About 6000–8000 m3 of plastic additives. Furthermore,
flame retardants [39,40], heavy
of wastewater per day is the lack of any filtration system
metals [41,42], and curing agents
released without treatment leads to microplastic emissions.
[43]
Open burning of plastics releases
primary pollutants, i.e.,
substances contained in plastic
When non-recyclable waste material before burning, and Open burning of plastics leads to
plastics is piled-up up to the secondary pollutants, i.e., emission of free radicals, heavy
Burning of
extent that inhibits substances catalyzed under metals, polycyclic aromatic
3 sorted out
day-to-day activities, it is thermal stress. If not directly hydrocarbons (PAH),
plastics
often set afire to reduce inhaled in form of aerosols, the brominated flame retardants,
volume. burning residues will end up in and others [44,45].
soil sediments, bioaccumulated
in agricultural products, or in
water bodies.
The shredders and crushers in
Min Khai village do not possess
any dust mitigation mechanisms.
For this reason, the emissions
Prior to the extrusion The emissions of particulate
settle in form of microplastic
4 Shredding process, the waste plastics is matter from shredding
dust in the enclosed facilities or
shredded to fine grains. process [46,47]
they are dispersed in the
environment (soil sediments,
bioaccumulation, water bodies)
if the shredder is placed outside
Emissions resulting from the
Plastic extrusion is carried The plastic extrusion process
thermal stress at temperature
out on temperatures varying produces air emissions and
between 60 and 250 ◦ C may
Plastic extrusion between 60–250 ◦ C with a plastic residues on the sieve. The
5 include plasticisers [48], volatile
and granulation capacities between 500 and plastic residues are burned
organic compounds [49,50],
750 kg/day depending on together with other plastics from
ultra-fine particles [51], and
the plastic type the step 1
flame retardants [52]

The emissions from uncontrolled recycling activities and related concentration of

hazardous substances have been analyzed for a number of locations, among others for
flame retardants, heavy metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). As processes
are similar, similar impacts can be expected for the craft villages considered here.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 9 of 13

Tang et al. [53] investigated road dust in the area with intense mechanical recycling
activities of waste plastics in Wen’an, north China. The analyzed dust samples showed
between one and two orders of magnitude higher polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE)
concentrations compared to outdoor and road dust samples from areas with no recycling
activities. The commercial deca-BDE was the dominant type for approximately 85% of all
detected PBDE. The analysis of heavy metals, showed average concentrations of arsenic
(As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb),
and zinc (Zn) of 10.1, 0.495, 112, 54.7, 0.150, 71.8, 10.6, and 186 mg/kg, respectively.
Matuskukami et al. [54] studied organophosphorus flame retardants (o-PFRs), eight
monomeric phosphorus flame retardants PFRs (m-PFRs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA),
and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in surface soils and river sediments near
the recycling village Bui Dau, northern Vietnam. They found total PBDEs ranged from
67 to 9200 ng/g-dry in surface soils near the open storage area of recyclables, while the
concentration near the open burning site of tris(methylphenyl) phosphate (TMPP) showed
the highest concentration (2–190 ng/g-dry) of all measured flame retardants. They also
concluded that the presence of o-PFRs is a good indicator of the substitution process of
brominated FR to alternatives.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a large group of chemicals containing
only carbon and hydrogen arranged in multiple aromatic rings and they are identified
as carcinogenic organic compounds [55]. PAHs are mainly created during incomplete
combustion and are very frequently detected near informal recycling sites. Since they are a
side-effect of incomplete combustion, their presence can be attributed to the open burning
of plastic.
Hoa et al. [56] investigated soil and sediment contamination by PAHs and methylated
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MePAHs) in the area of an informal recycling site
in northern Vietnam. They found an abundance of PAH and MePAHs contaminations
(approximately 60% of all examined soil samples). The highest concentrations were found
in workshop soil (median 2900; range 870–42,000 ng/g), followed by open burning soil
(median 2400; range 840–4200 ng/g), paddy field soil (1200; range 530–6700 ng/g), and
river sediment samples (median 750; range 370–2500 ng/g). However, the incremental
lifetime cancer, the probability of developing cancer as the result of exposure to a specific
carcinogen, of PAH-contaminated workshop soils was still within the acceptable levels of
human health risk.
An investigation on plasticisers, PAHs, phthalic acid esters (PAEs), and bisphenol
A (BPA) in the surface soil of informal recycling workshops in large Indian cities was
carried by Chakraborty et al. [57]. They found that the average concentration of the
16 investigated PAHs (∑16 PAHs) was 1259 ng/g, while the concentration of six PAEs
(∑6 PAEs) was 396 ng/g, and the average concentration of BPA was 140 ng/g. Furthermore,
they concluded that the involvement of children and women in informal recycling might
lead to their direct exposure and therefore risk of serious health problems.

4.2. Health Risks Arising from Informal Recycling

At the current stage, there is no health risk assessment of the plastic recycling activities
for the workers and people who are living in the craft village, as there is no standard
measurement for assessing the health risk potential. However, the exceeding of parameters
and the contamination of the air and surface water can lead to health problems.
Informal recycling sites are known hotspots of dioxins and dioxin-related compounds
(DRC), since they are formed during incomplete combustion at temperatures between
200 and 800 ◦ C under the presence of BFRs and other halogenated FR as their chemical
catalysts [58]. Such conditions are abundantly present during the open burning of waste
plastics [59,60]. Dioxins are highly lipophilic compounds and insoluble in water, which
triggers an easy transition from the environment to living organisms and subsequently
humans [61]. Tue et al. [62] investigated the accumulation levels and profiles of DRC in
breast milk samples from women living in the proximity of separate informal recycling
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 10 of 13

sites. The results showed that women who are living in the proximity of informal recycling
sites but are not directly involved, do not have significantly higher concentrations of World
Health Organization toxicity equivalents (WHO-TEQ) compared to the control group of the
Vietnamese background range (0.22–7.4 vs. 1.1–3.0 pg/g lipid). However, women directly
involved in the informal recycling activities did have significantly higher concentrations of
polychlorinated dibenzofurans PCDFs (13–15 pg/g lipid) and polybrominated dibenzofu-
rans PBDFs (1.1–1.5 pg/g lipid) compared to the background range of 2.3–8.8 pg/g lipid
and <1.1 pg/g lipid for PCDFs and PBDFs, respectively.
Cao et al. [63] assessed bioaccessibility and human health risk of Cu, As, Cd, Sb, and
Pb in the soil near e-waste and waste plastic burning sites in Accra, Ghana using in vitro
assay. The results of this study show elevated total concentrations of 211–20,400 mg/kg for
Cu, 10–29 mg/kg for As, 7–29 mg/kg for Cd, 24–9450 mg/kg for Sb, and 24–10,800 mg/kg
for Pb. The results for bioaccessibility-corrected human health risk assessment revealed
noncarcinogenic risk for local inhabitants in half of the analyzed sites, while the carcino-
genic risk was within an acceptable range. Sb together with Cu and Pb were identified to
be one of the major metals of concern that contributed the most to the health risk.

5. Conclusions
The plastic industry in Vietnam is a strong and growing sector of the industry. The
production—mainly for export—widely relies on imported raw materials, and secondary
material (plastic waste) is partly used as a raw material input. Considering the management
of municipal waste in Vietnam it becomes clear that today most of the waste is disposed of
at landfills and dumpsites. Only a small part is sent for composting or recycling. Recycling
mainly takes place in an informal context in craft villages. In craft villages, typically located
in a rural area, residents have established additional economic activities, complementing
agriculture. A number of craft villages have focused on recycling activities. However, due
to a lack of state-of-the-art technology for recycling and a low degree of organization, the
typical processes for plastic recycling in craft villages come along with health risks for
workers and neighbours and a high potential of environmental pollution. This includes
dust from sorting and shredding, wastewater from washing steps, and the uncontrolled
disposal of residuals including uncontrolled burning. A major source of contamination is
the emissions of VOC from the extrusion process.
To improve this situation, several measures can be taken, beginning with a more
selective material intake to the recycling facilities and improvement in the sorting step
in terms of sorting equipment and personal protection equipment. Wastewater from
washing and shredding should undergo wastewater treatment before being released to the
environment. For extrusion and granulation, the gaseous emissions should be reduced and
at least collected and filtered. Finally, the disposal of residues should be organised in a better
way; with partly hazardous materials open dumping is not an appropriate technology.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization and methodology, S.S. (Stefan Salhofer); investigation—waste

management, T.D.T.; investigation—craft villages, T.L.X.; analysis emissions and impacts, A.J.;
writing—original draft preparation S.S. (Souphaphone Soudachanh); writing—review and editing,
A.J.; supervision, S.S. (Stefan Salhofer). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data in the paper refer to literature, which is cited.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4203 11 of 13

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