KMJ26403 HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT
Mrs Siti Kamariah Bt Md Sa’at
Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology
UniMAP
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STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
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Streamflow and Measurement

◦ The character, amount, and timing of discharge from a basin tells a lot
about flow paths within the basin.
◦ Stream flow is one of the most important topics in engineering
hydrology because it directly relate to water supply, flood control,
reservoir design, navigation, irrigation, drainage, water quality, and
others.
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Need for Stream flow Measurements

◦ Floodplain management
◦ Flood forecasting & analysis
◦ Reservoir operations
◦ Low flows – water quality concerns
◦ Design structures – culverts, bridges, storm water systems
◦ Evaluate changes in land use on watersheds and/or
changes in climatic regimes
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Floods
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Need for Streamflow Measurements

◦ Important to hydrogeologist to identify how to create stream
hydrographs from discharge measurements
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Measurement of discharge
◦ Method used depends on type of study, size of river and
flow, data requirements, etc.
◦ Streamflow measurement techniques can be broadly
classified into 2 categories:
◦ Direct determination – area-velocity method, dilution techniques,
electromagnetic method, ultrasonic method
◦ Indirect determination – hydraulic structures, slope-area method
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Streamflow Measurements

◦ Serves as the basis for many water resources engineering

designs
◦ Three approaches
◦ Measurement of water stage (water level)
◦ Measurement of flow velocity
◦ Hydraulic Structure
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Con’t
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Streamflow Measurements
◦ Measurement of Water Stage
◦ Water stage: the elevation above some arbitrary datum of water
surface at a station
◦ Types of Gages Measuring River Stage:
◦ Staff gage – vertical or inclined
◦ Suspended – weight gage
◦ Recording gage (automatic data logger)
◦ Crest – stage gage ( used to indicate high water mark)
◦ Pressure sensor
◦ Float
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Figures of Stream Gauges

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Stream gauges

Automatic water level (river stage) recorder

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FLOW VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

◦ Measurement of Flow Velocity

◦ Current meter
◦ Dilution technique
◦ Manning Equation
◦ Floats: Suitable for straight channel, V = L/T
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Discharge (Q) Measurement

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Area-Velocity
Method
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VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
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Measuring
Streamflow in
small streams with
a pygmy current
meter
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Discharge (Q) Measurement

Large rivers –
from bridges or
boats
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Current Meter Method

◦ 3 types of current meter
◦ Propeller type : for high discharge
◦ Price type using anemometer
◦ Electromagnetic type : for low river flow
◦ Rating curve for current meter is given by:

V = a + b×N
where V = flow velocity;
a = starting velocity to overcome mechanical
friction;
b = equipment calibration constant;
N = revolutions/sec.
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Current Meters
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For river velocity measurement, we need:

◦ Wading/Paddle
◦ Bridges
◦ Boat
◦ Cablecar
◦ Cableway
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Velocity-Area Method
◦ Mostly/frequently used
◦ River cross-section determined
◦ Velocity measured using
◦ Float (for straight channel)
◦ Current meter
◦ Vertical velocity measured at 0.2d and 0.8d if depth,d >0.6m.
If d<0.6m, velocity measured at 0.6dm.
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Velocity-Area Method
◦ Q = [Velocity x Area]
◦ Need to know width of channel (w), Depth of channel (d), and Velocity of flow
(V) (ft/s or m/s)
◦ Area = w x d
◦ Because depth & velocity vary across a channel:
(1)Important to divide the channel into manageable segments (slices); Typically
use 10-20 segments
(2)For each segment measure depth, width and velocity
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Measuring Streamflow Discharge

◦ Procedure: at each segment measure depth then

velocity
◦ If Depth < 0.6m, take one reading @ 60%
depth

◦ If Depth > 0.6m take 2 measurements

and compute the average
◦ One @ 20% depth
◦ One @ 80% depth
◦ Average the two readings
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Measuring Streamflow Discharge

◦Two method of measurement
◦ Mean section method
◦ Mid section method
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Mean section
Computation of river discharge: Mean Section Method
Principle: Using average value for each section

Q = ∑ qi
= VA
vi −1 + vi d i −1 + d i
= * (bi − bi −1 )
2 2
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Mid section
Computation of river discharge: Mid Section Method

Q = ∑ qi
bi +1 − bi −1
=( )(vi d i )
2
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Example Calculation:
Find the Q for this case:
V = 0.25 N + 0.05
Where V= velocity (m/s)
N = number of revolution/s

a) Using mean-section method

b) Using mid-section method
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Example Calculation:

Distance Depth, d Rev/min

from edge, b (m)
0.6d 0.2d 0.8d
(m)
0 0
2 1.1 14
4 2.6 48 44
6 4.0 57 52
8 7.2 43 37
10 4.3 38 32
12 3.2 36 29
14 1.6 12
15.5 0
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Mean-section method
Velocity (m/s)

b d 0.6d 0.2d 0.8d Vavg (Vi+ A Q

Vi+1)/
2
0 0 0
2 1.1 0.108 0.108 0.054 1.1
4 2.6 0.250 0.233 0.242 0.175 3.7
6 4.0 0.288 0.278 0.260 6.6
8 7.2 0.229 0.216 0.247 11.2
10 4.3 0.208 0.196 0.206 11.5
12 3.2 0.200 0.186 0.191 7.5
14 1.6 0.100 0.100 0.143 4.8
15.5 0 0.000 0.050 1.2

Q = 9.736 m3/s
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Mid-section method
Velocity (m/s)
b d 0.6d 0.2d 0.8d Vavg (bi+1- qi
bi-1)/2
0 0 0
2 1.1 0.108 0.108 2
4 2.6 0.250 0.233 0.242 2
6 4.0 0.288 0.278 2
8 7.2 0.229 0.216 2
10 4.3 0.208 0.196 2
12 3.2 0.200 0.186 2
14 1.6 0.100 0.100 1.75
15.5 0 0.000

Q = 9.986 m3/s
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Exercise
Calculate the discharge of the river gauging record shown in Table
below using mean and Mid section method.

Answer:
Mean section: Total Q= 20.52 m3/s
Mid-section: Total Q = 19.89 m3/s
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Dilution gauging
◦ Using tracer/chemical at upstream
◦ For uneven stream base, good method for turbulent streams
◦ Applying mass conservation principle
◦ Q can be determined by tracer quantity and concentration at upstream and
downstream (after dilution) using mass transfer equation.
◦ need to use tracer that is
◦ a) easily soluble,
◦ b) have no or very low natural concentrations in stream,
◦ c) be conservative,
◦ d) easily detectable at low concentrations,
◦ e) ecofriendly,
◦ f) affordable
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Dilution gauging
◦ Advantage: suitable to any condition. Why?
◦ •Disadvantage: difficult to find completely water soluble tracer.
Sodium Chloride (garam dapur) are commonly used
◦ Example of tracer:
◦ Chemical: Sodium cloride,sodium dicromat,manganese sulphate
◦ Dye: sodium fluoroscein, Rhodamine-WT
◦ Radioactive: Bromine-82,Sodium-24,Iodine-132
◦ 2 approach
◦ Sudden/Gulp injection
◦ Constant rate injection
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Dilution gauging: Constant Rate Injection

C1,q
C1q
C2 =
q+Q C2(q+Q)

q <<< Q + q ≈ Q Q

C1
C2 = .q
Q
C1 Unknown river flow, Q m3/s
Q= .q •Tracer of known concentration C1(kg/m3) releases
C2 at point 1 at constant rate, Q m3/s
•After sometimes, measure the water concentration
at point 2, C2(kg/m3)
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Example calculation

◦ 20 g/L of tracer injected at upstream of the river at rate 0.01 L/s.

Concentration of tracers at downstream is 5 ppb. Estimate the
discharge of the river at downstrean. Assume the initial concentration
of tracer is very low.
Solution:
q =0.01 L/s = 10-5 m3/s
C1 = 20 g/L = 20 000 g/m3
C2 = 5 ppb = 5 x 10-6 g/L = 5 x 10-3 g/m3
Q = C1/C2 x q = (20 000/5 x 10-3 )x 10-5
= 40 m3/s = 40 000 L/s
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Conversion factor
◦ 1 g/L = 10-3
◦ 1 mg/L = 10-6 = 1 ppm
◦ 1 μg/L = 10-9 = 1 x 10-3 g/m3 = 1 ppb
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Dilution gauging: Sudden Injection

C1,V1

C2, Q2

Unknown river flow, Q m3/s

•Tracer of known concentration t2
C1(kg/m3) and known volume V VC1 = Q ∫ C2 dt
m3/s releases at point 1 at one t1
short
Where:
•After certain time, water
V = volume of tracers (m3)
concentration at point 2 are
t1=time of tracer induced at upstream(point
measured, C2(kg/m3) 1)
t2=time of tracer detected at point 2
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Example Calculation:
◦ 100 liter NaCL at concentration 10 g/L induced at river
upstream. Average NaCl concentration after an hour
at 800 m distance, at downstream are 0.02 mg/L.
Estimate the river discharge at downstream.
◦ Solution:

t2
VC1 = Q ∫ C2 dt
t1

VC1 = QC2 ∆t
VC1 0.1x10 3
Q= = −5
= 13 . 89 m /s
C2 ∆t 2 x10 x 3600
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Sonic methods

- Measure speed of small particles in the flow

- Can also track and subtract bottom speed
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Some gages are designed to measure just high flows

 HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Used for small watersheds – such as experimental watersheds – where need accurate,
continuous flow measurements.
Two types: Weirs, Flumes
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Weirs
◦ Obstruct flow and force it through a notch
◦ Stage-Q relationship established mathematically for different types
of notches
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Weirs
◦ Generally used in small streams
◦ Various types
◦ V-notch for accurate low flow
◦ Rectangular
◦ Handles higher flows
◦ Less accurate at low flows
◦ Trapezoidal -- an intermediate weir
◦ Concerns
◦ Sediment & debris are trapped
◦ Leakage
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Trapezoidal Weir
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Trapezoidal Weir
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Rectangular Weir
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90 degree V-notch Weir

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V-notch Weir
◦ For small river
◦ Q (m3/s) can be determine using equation:
◦
8 θ 52
Q = Cd 2 g tan H
15 2
◦ Where:
◦ H = head loss
◦ Cd = discharge coefficient
◦ g gravity acceleration
◦ θ angle of the v-notch
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90º V-notch Weir

Q = 2.36CdH5/2
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Flumes

• An artificial open channel built to contain flow within

a designed cross-section and length
• No impoundment
• Water height in flume measured with a stilling well
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Flumes
◦Used to measure flow in:
◦ water and wastewater treatment plants
◦ irrigation channels
◦ agricultural runoff
◦ runoff plots – research applications
◦ small watersheds
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Large Crest Flumes

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Long-throated Flume
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Short-throated Flume
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Parshall Flume
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H Flume
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Slope Area Method

◦Manning Equation
◦Chezy Equation
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Estimating Discharge (Q) from channel

features: Manning’s Equation

1 2 3 12
v= R S
n Q = Av

• v = average velocity (m/s)

• R = hydraulic radius
= [Area/wetted perimeter]
• S = Energy gradient, Approximated by water
surface slope
• n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
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Chezy Equation
◦ Based on Chezy formula,
Q = AC RS
◦ with A = flow cross-section area; C = Chezy Coefficient;
◦ R = hydraulic radius, A/P; and S = channel slope.
◦ For a given section, C S = constant whereas for a wide channel (W>10D)
R≈D. Therefore,

K Q=KA D
1
A D
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