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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Organs
or group of cells that secrete
hormone
 Hormones - are groups of chemical
substance secreted by endocrine
glands; released directly into the
circulation (ductless) to affect
distant target organs that contain
specific receptors on which the
particular hormones act.

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Hormones can be…
 proteins or polypeptides (oxytocin,
TSH, insulin).
 derivativesof amino acids
(thyroxine, epinephrine)
 derivatives of cholesterol (steroids)

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Endocrine glands

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Origin: Hypothalamus
Functions: Stimulates ACTH release from
pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)
2. Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Origin: Hypothalamus
Functions: Stimulates FSH, LH release from
pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

3. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Origin: Hypothalamus
Functions: Stimulates growth hormone
release from pituitary gland
(adenohypophysis)
4. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Origin: Hypothalamus
Functions: Inhibits GH release from pituitary
gland (adenohypophysis)

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

5. Thyrotrophin-realeasing hormone (TRH)
Origin: Hypothalamus
Functions: Stimulates TSH release from
pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)
6. Dopamine (prolactin-inhibiting hormone)
Origin: Hypothalamus
Functions: Inhibits prolactin release from
pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

7. Growth hormone (somatotropin)
Origin: Anterior pituitary gland
Functions: Promotes growth,
gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, protein
synthesis
8. Prolactin
Origin: Anterior pituitary gland
Functions: Stimulates mammary
development and lactose synthesis in
pregnancy

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

9. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Origin: Anterior pituitary gland
Functions: Stimulates cortisol secretion in
adrenal cortex
10. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Origin: Anterior pituitary
Function: Control production of thyroid
hormone

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

11. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Origin: Anterior pituitary gland
Functions: Stimulates spermatogenesis
(males) and maturation of ovarian follicle
(female)
12. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Origin: Anterior pituitary gland
Functions: Stimulates testosterone synthesis
(male) and ovulation and corpus luteum
development in the ovary (female)

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

13. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
Origin: Anterior and middle lobes of pituitary gland
Function: Promotes melanin pigmentation of the
skin
14. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or Vasopressin)
Origin: Hypothalamus (stored in posterior
pituitary)
Functions: Acts on the kidney to promote
reabsorption of water back into the
circulation

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

15. Oxytocin
Origin: Hypothalamus (stored in posterior
pituitary)
Functions: Stimulates release of milk in
lactating animals; stimulates uterine
contraction
16. Thyroxine
Origin: Thyroid gland (follicular cell)
Function: Increases body metabolic rate

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

17. Calcitonin
Origin: Thyroid gland (parafollicular cells)
Functions: decreases plasma calcium. Acts on
bone by decreasing the activity of osteoclasts
(cells that breakdown bone). Its net effect is
opposite to that of parathyroid hormone.
18. Parathormone
Origin: Parathyroid gland
Function: Maintains the level of calcium in the blood,
acting mainly on bone and kidney.

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

19. Epinephrine
Origin: Adrenal medulla
Functions: Epinephrine stimulates glycogen
breakdown, lipid breakdown and
gluconeogenesis (the opposite of insulin).
Norepinephrine, though, is the predominant
neurotransmitter in postganglionic axons of the
autonomic nervous system, where it mediates
sympathetic, particularly catabolic (energy-
expending “flight-or-fight”) responses

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

20. Glucocorticoids (cortisol being most important)
Origin: Adrenal cortex
Functions: promote gluconeogenesis and protein
and fat breakdown; anti-inflammatory
21. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone being most
important)
Origin: Adrenal cortex
Function: Stimulates kidney reabsorption of sodium
back into the circulation with loss of potassium.

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

22. Insulin
Origin: Pancreas (β cells of pancreatic islets)
Function: Lowers blood glucose ; stimulates
glycolysis and glycogen synthesis;
promotes protein and fat synthesis; inhibits
gluconeogenesis; facilitates uptake of
glucose by cells.

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

23. Glucagon
Origin: Pancreas (α cells of pancreatic islets)
Function: Stimulates glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis in the liver.

24. Estrogen (estradiol being the most important)

Origin: Ovary
Functions: Necessary for development of secondary
female characteristics. Needed for proliferation
of the uterine endometrium during the early
phase of the estrous cycle.

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XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

25. Progesterone
Origin: Corpus luteum of the ovary
Function: Prepares the endometrium to receive the
fertilized egg during the post ovulatory phase
of the estrous cycle.
26. Testosterone
Origin: Testes
Functions: Development of male genitalia, male
secondary sex characteristics, spermatogenesis,
and libido. Androgens also promote skeletal
and muscular development.

XI. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

27. Chorionic Gonadotrophin (HCG)
Origin: Chorion and placenta
Function: Prevents corpus luteum from shrinking
in pregnancy, allowing a rise of estrogen and
progesterone
28. Melatonin
Origin: Pineal gland
Function: influences the development of sexual
maturity and the seasonality of breeding and
hibernation

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BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

 animals are grouped according to their
reaction to the environment:
a. Homeotherms (warm-blooded) – animals
exhibiting constant body temperature
irrespective of the environmental changes.
b. Poikilotherms (cold-blooded) – animals that show
changes in temperature following that of the
environment.

Hibernation – is a protective mechanism against profound cooling. This

was observe in mammoth, ground hog, hamster and hedgehog.

Heat Production
 Heat is produced in the metabolic or
chemical processes taking place in the
protoplasm of the animal body.
 Most of the heat is produced in the skeletal
muscles and in the glands
- muscles produce 70% of the body heat
- liver is a gland where most heat is generated
- highest temperature found in the hepatic vein
- rectal temperature is the fair index of internal
temperature of animals

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Heat Production
 Sudden lowering of temperature causes the
body to shiver, thereby producing heat.
 Adrenaline and thyroxin cause heat
production
 When hot food or hot water is swallowed
 By conduction, when the animal lies on the
ground
 By radiation, when heat is gained from the
sun’s rays

Heat Dissipation
Heat is dissipated through:
1. Radiation, conduction and convection
 70% of heat is lost by these means
 60% of the heat is eliminated from the body
thru radiation
 More heat is lost if the surrounding
temperature is lower than that of the body.
 If the temperature and humidity are high, less
heat loss can be expected

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Heat Dissipation
2. Vaporization of water on the skin (sweat) or
insensible perspiration
 Water is vaporized as fast as it comes out of the
skin
 Insensible perspiration is important in cattle, sheep
and rabbit
 Horse sweats
 Swine sweat at the snout
 External temperature which causes blood
distribution and dilution of blood - favors heat loss

Heat Dissipation
3. Vaporization of water in the lungs and
respiratory passages
 Smoke emitted by animals in cooler temperature
of mountainous region
 Carabao pants
 Dog vaporizes large amount of water from the
respiratory passages through panting
 Sheep developed heat polypnea
 25% of the heat of the body of mammals is lost in
this way and from the skin
 Chicken - 17% heat loss

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Heat Dissipation
4. By the feces and urine
 insignificant heat is eliminated by this
way

Comfort Zone
 Also known as thermoneutral zone
 a range of environmental temperature
within which the animal does not have to
adjust to the environment

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Critical Temperature
 the temperature of the environment at which the heat-retaining
mechanisms of the body are no longer able to maintain constant body
temperature and heat production being increased to meet the
requirements of the body
 Hair, wool, fur, feather, thick layer of subcutaneous fat lower the critical temperature
 Lower in non- fasting than in fasting animals.
 Cattle and sheep have the lowest critical temperature but they are able to
withstand cold conditions.

 The body temperature is the resulting balance of

heat production and heat dissipation,
influenced by age, sex, season, time of the day,
exercise, feeding, drinking and digestion.
 Hypothermia - is the reduction of deep body
temperature below the normal.
 Hyperthermia - body temperature is elevated
beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation
 Fever - is a rise in deep body temperature that
develops during pathological conditions

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Physiological Response to Heat

a. Circulatory adjustment
 Cutaneous vasodilatation causes a rise in the skin temperature which steepens the thermal
exchange gradient for environmental temperature below skin temperature.

b. Evaporative heat loss

 Sweating
 Panting – is a rapid breathing (polypnea) with open mouth.

Physiological Response to Cold

a. Reduction of heat loss
 This includes curled-up position of animals and piloerection (increases the amount of air trapped
in the fur to make it more insulating)
b. Increase heat production by shivering
 involuntary shaking of the body caused by contraction or twitching of the muscles as means of
heat production
c. Circulatory adjustment
 Vasoconstriction in the skin of homeotherms

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Normal body temperature of domestic animals

ANIMAL RANGE (OC) AVERAGE (OC)

Stallion 37.2-38.1 37.6
Mare 37.3-38.2 37.8
Beef cow 36.7-39.1 38.3
Dairy cow 38.0-39.3 38.6
Sheep 38.3-39.9 39.1
Goat 38.5-39.7 39.1
Pig 38.7-39.8 39.2
Dog 37.9-39.9 38.9
Cat 38.1-39.2 38.6
Chicken (daylight) 40.6-43.0 41.7

SENSE ORGANS
 Sensation is the result of afferent impulses from
stimuli that eventually reach a conscious level
in the cerebral cortex.
 General senses of touch, pressure, pain and
temperature that are distributed fairly evenly
through the skin.
 Special senses include smell, sight, taste,
hearing and equilibrium.
 Organic sensations include hunger, thirst,
sensation of bladder fullness and sexual
sensation.

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SENSE ORGANS
1. Skin: Organ of touch, pressure, pain and
temperature.
 Receptors in the skin:
a. Mechanoreceptors (responds to
mechanical stimuli such as touch, pressure,
vibration)
b. Thermoreceptors (responds to temperature
stimuli such as hot and cold)
c. Nociceptors (responds to damaging or
potentially damaging stimuli)

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SENSE ORGANS
2. Tongue: Organ of taste.
 Taste receptors are chemoreceptors
(responds to chemical stimuli)
 Four specific taste modalities in man:
a. bitter taste, at the base of the tongue
b. sour taste, in the lateral sides of the
tongue
c. sweet taste. in the tip of the tongue.
d. salty taste, in the tip of the tongue.

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SENSE ORGANS
3. Nostril: Organ of smell.
 Nerve impulses from the olfactory receptor
(chemoreceptor) travel to the olfactory
bulb of the brain and along the two
olfactory tracts which channel the impulses
to interpretive center or cells deeper within
the brain.

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Vomeronasal organ

SENSE ORGANS
4. Ear: Organ of hearing and balance
 There are three main parts of the ear:
a. external ear – it extends from the exterior as far as
the tympanic membrane.
 Auricle or pinna – a funnel-shaped outer part
composed of skin and elastic cartilage
b. middle ear – it extends from the tympanic
membrane into the air-filled excavation within
the petrous temporal bone.
 Three auditory ossicles found in the middle
ear: malleus or hammer, incus or anvil,
stapes or stirrup

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SENSE ORGANS
4. Ear: Organ of hearing and balance
c. inner ear – it is also excavated in the petrous
temporal bone but is filled with fluid.

The inner ear is an essential portion of the

organ of hearing and balance or equilibrium.
Because of its complex shape it is called
labyrinth.

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SENSE ORGANS
5. Eye: Organ of sight
a. Conjunctiva. A thin epithelium which covers the anterior
surface of the eyeball and cornea.
b. Eyelids. Two flaps of the skin that serve to close or cover
the eye.
c. Eyelashes. Special hairs which act as protective screens
and dust filters.
d. Meibomian or tarsal gland. Specialized sebaceous
gland located at the base of the hair follicles of the
lashes of the upper eyelid
e. Third eyelid. Transverse sheet of thin translucent
membrane located in the median canthus of the eye.

SENSE ORGANS
Parts of the Eye
a. Fibrous tunic
a.1 sclera – an opaque posterior part of the
external coat of the eye. It is a dense
fibrous membrane which is white but may
have a bluish tinge in its thinner part.
a.2 cornea – a transparent anterior part of the
external coat of the eye. It is colorless and
non-vascular.

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SENSE ORGANS
Parts of the Eye
b. Vascular tunic
b.1 choriod – a thin, opaque membrane that
lies between the sclera and the retina.
b.2 ciliary body – the middle portion of the
vascular tunic.
b.3 iris – forms the anterior of the vascular coat.
It is a pigmented structure that forms a
curtain to control the amount of light
entering the eye.

SENSE ORGANS
Parts of the Eye
c. Nervous tunic
retina – a thin neuroepithelium which is closely
attached to the choriod and extends from the
optic disc to the border of the ciliary ring. It
contains the rods and cones, which are
receptive to the light stimuli.

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