African Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

ISSN 2079-2034
© IDOSI Publications, 2020
DOI: 10.5829/idosi.ajbas.2020.37.55

Indirect Methods of Measuring Soil Moisture Content Using Different Sensors

1
Saketu Hunduma and 1,2Gezahagn Kebede

Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holetta Research Center,

1

P.O. Box: 31, Holetta, Ethiopia

2
Hawassa University College of Agriculture, P.O. Box: 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia

Abstract: Soil moisture content is a soil property that plays a crucial role in a large variety of biophysical
processes, such as seed germination, plant growth and plant nutrition. Soil moisture content affects water
infiltration, redistribution, percolation, evaporation and plant transpiration. Soil moisture is very dynamic, both
temporally and spatially, therefore its continuous monitoring is necessary. Soil moisture measuring devices can
be classified into direct and indirect monitoring methods. The direct method uses weight to determine how
much water is in a sample of soil. A soil sample is collected, weighed, oven-dried and weighed again to
determine the sample's water content either by mass or by volume. The volume of water in the soil as
determined by weight is the standard against which the indirect methods are calibrated. Indirect techniques can
be classified into volumetric and tensiometric methods. The indirect methods monitor soil water content by
estimating the soil moisture by a calibrated relationship with some other measurable variable. Studies comparing
direct and indirect methods have found that all soil water sensing methods must be calibrated, despite the
efforts of manufacturers to provide calibration curves. All these methods have their advantages and
disadvantages and should be used with caution depending upon the requirements and demands of the users.
The suitability of each method depends on several issues like cost, accuracy, response time, installation,
management and durability. Almost all suction measurement methods have shortcomings including such
aspects as reliability, cost, range of application and practicality. Therefore, there is still a need for improving
these soil suction measurement techniques. Different soil moisture estimation methods have been developed
and the most common instruments used for estimating soil moisture by indirect methods are neutron
probe, time-domain reflectometry, frequency domain reflectometry, tensiometer and gypsum block apparatus.
By understanding basic soil water concepts, the strengths and weaknesses of different types of soil water
sensors and methods of installing them, we can irrigate crops more efficiently, improve water conservation and
make our farm more profitable. In this review, the main indirect techniques used to determine the soil moisture
content are discussed, first by describing the physical principles behind the most popular indirect methods and
then by addressing the various strengths and limitations of the selected methods.

Key words: Indirect Methods Soil Moisture Measurement Tensiometric Method Volumetric method

INTRODUCTION to apply it are prerequisites to effective water

management. The amount of water required by a crop is
The water content in the soil surrounding the crop dependent on crop type, its growth stage, its sensitivity
roots determines crop growth and influences the fate and to water stress, the environment in which it grows, the
movement of fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. depth of the water table, soil health and management
Accurate measurement of soil water content is therefore options such as fertilizer application and yield target. It is
important to maximize yield and quality of the crop, to particularly important to maintain the optimal soil water
minimize water loss and hence to optimize the water use content during the water-sensitive stages of growth, as
efficiency. Knowing how much water to apply and when any damage during these stages cannot be compensated

Corresponding Author: Gezahagn Kebede, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holetta Research Center,
P.O. Box: 31, Holetta, Ethiopia & Hawassa University College of Agriculture,
P.O. Box: 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
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 African J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

at other stages. As soil water status and mineral nutrition accuracy and low cost. However, the drawbacks are
of plants are interrelated, optimal soil fertility will enhance destructive, slow, time-consuming and do not allow for
crop water uptake and ensure that a maximum of water is making repetitions in the same location. Indirect
used for crop growth. The measurement of soil water techniques can be classified into volumetric (gives
content is therefore essential to enhance water volumetric soil moisture) and tensiometric methods
management strategies that will enable farmers to (yields soil suction or water potential). The indirect
schedule irrigation according to soil water holding methods monitor soil water content by estimating the soil
capacities, plant water use and prevailing weather moisture by a calibrated relationship with some other
conditions. Monitoring soil-water content for irrigation measurable variable. The most common instruments used
scheduling, based on a measurement and control system, for estimating soil moisture by indirect methods are
requires fast, precise, non-destructive and in-situ tensiometer, gypsum block, neutron probe, time-domain
measurement techniques [1, 2]. reflectometry and frequency domain reflectometry
Soil moisture is an inevitable part of the three-phase apparatus. The suitability of each method depends on
system of the soil, which comprises soil minerals (solids), several issues like cost, accuracy, response time,
moisture and air [3, 4]. Hence, soil moisture content has installation, management and durability.
quite significant influence on engineering [5], agronomic Most practical techniques for soil water monitoring
[6, 7], geological, ecological, biological and hydrological are indirect [21, 22]. Numerous sensor performance
behavior of the soil mass [8-10]. Mechanical properties of and performance influencing factors experiments have
the soil viz., consistency, compatibility, cracking, swelling, been conducted under laboratory and field conditions
shrinkage and density are dependent on the soil moisture [23-30]. The soil-water status is also measured manually
content [5, 11]. Furthermore, it has a major role to play as as well as automatically with tensiometers [31-33], soil
far as the plant growth [7], organization of the natural psychrometers [34] and gypsum blocks [35]. But these
ecosystems and biodiversity [12] is concerned. In the methods measure the soil-water potential rather than
agriculture sector, the application of adequate and timely measuring the soil-water content directly. These methods
moisture for irrigation, depending upon the soil-moisture- need individual calibration of the soils and the
plant environment, is essential in crop production [13-16]. characteristic curves for them and may be confounded by
Effective irrigation scheduling requires an understanding hysteresis. Different volumetric and tensiometric
of the dynamics of soil-water storage in the plant technologies (Neutron probe; TDR (Time Domain
root-zone and soil-water availability and use by plants, Reflectometry); FDR (Frequency Domain Reflectometry);
which relies on the accurate measurement of soil moisture. gypsum blocks; tensiometers etc.) used to estimate the
Sensors may differ in performance under conditions volume of water in a sample volume of undisturbed soil.
specific to different local measurement locations due to Therefore, this paper reviews the indirect soil moisture
several environmental factors. For example, clay content, measurement techniques and summarizes basic working
soil temperature, texture, salinity, the air gap between the principles, measurement, strengths, limitations and
soil and the sensor, porosity and bulk density can exert application of indirect soil moisture measurement
different levels of influence on the sensor performance methods.
[17-20].
Soil moisture is estimated both by the direct and Volumetric Methods
indirect methods. The direct method involves the Neutron Probe: Neutron probe technology, also known
determination of moisture in the soil while indirect as a neutron scattering method, is an indirect method of
methods estimate the amount of water through the measuring soil moisture content. Soil moisture can be
properties of water in the soil. In the direct methods estimated quickly and continuously with neutron moisture
moisture is estimated thermo- gravimetrically either meter without disturbing the soil. Neutron probes are
through oven– drying or by volumetric method. The soil considered among the most accurate methods for
sample is taken with a core sample or with a tube auger measuring soil water content when properly calibrated.
whose volume is known. The amount of water present A radioactive source emits neutrons through the media
in the soil sample is estimated by drying in the oven. and its moisture content is measured by the thermal or
The volumetric moisture content can also be estimated slow neutron density at the collector [36]. Garner and
from the moisture content estimated on a dry weight Kirkham [37] first defined the principles of the neutron
basis. The main advantages of direct methods are its scattering method. The neutron probe has found wide use

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in hydrological and civil engineering applications [38]. will only come about from changes in water content.
Smaller and safer radioactive sources have evolved as a Wet soil will contain more hydrogen than dry soil and
result of technological advancements in neutron probe therefore more slow neutrons will be detected.
technology [39]. This meter scans the soil about 15 cm Neutron probes consist of a probe and an electronic
diameters around the neutron probe in wet soil and 50 cm counting scale, which are connected by an electric cable
in dry soil. It consists of a probe and a scalar or rate meter. (Figure 1). To measure the moisture content of a medium
Access tubes are aluminum tubes of 50-100 cm length and at the desired depth, the probe is lowered down an access
are placed in the field when the moisture has to be tube to the required depth. Access tubes are made of
estimated. The neutron probe is lowered in to access tube materials that do not slow the neutrons emitted by the
to the desired depth. Fast neutrons are released from the source. Neutrons with high energy are emitted by a
probe which scatters into the soil. The scalar or the rate radioactive source into the soil and are slowed down by
meter counts of slow neutrons which are directly elastic collisions with nuclei of atoms and become
proportional to a water molecule. The moisture content of thermalized. The average energy loss is much greater
the soil can be known from the calibration curve with the when neutrons collide with atoms of low atomic weight
count of slow neutrons. Application of neutron probe than collisions with heavier atoms. The hydrogen atom
technology is not feasible for certain moisture-measuring with its low atomic weight can slow down neutrons more
situations due to high regulatory standards for use of effectively than other elements. The density of the
radioactive materials. These requirements result in costly resultant cloud of slowed neutrons (which are detected by
licensing and training for both the companies and the the counter) is taken to be proportional to the total
operators and storage of the equipment and disposal of number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of the soil
the probe with its radioactive source is also expensive and [42]. The volumetric moisture content can then be
highly regulated [39]. determined by an established calibration curve, assuming
Neutron probe moisture meters involve the detection that these hydrogen atoms have a direct correlation with
of soil moisture using radioactive elements. In this soil moisture. Thomas [43] documented some of the
method, the amount of water in a volume of soil is problems of the neutron probe that include: All hydrogen
estimated by measuring the amount of hydrogen it atoms slow the high-energy neutrons. These involve both
contains, expressed as a percentage. Because most free water atoms and bound hydrogen atoms that are part
hydrogen atoms in the soil are components of water of the molecular structure of compounds that are not
molecules, the back scatter of the thermalized neutrons water molecules [42]; some elements other than hydrogen
from a radioactive source emitted and measured by a have a propensity to absorb the high-energy neutrons
detector in the probe directly corresponds to water [42]; and changes in the density of the medium may affect
content in the soil. A neutron probe can measure total soil the transmission of the neutron particles [42]. Evaluation
water content if it is properly calibrated by gravimetric criteria for neutron probe soil moisture measurements are
sampling. Depth probes and surface probes are available summarized in Table 1.
that measure the soil moisture content at the required Fast neutrons, emitted from the source and passing
depth, or in the uppermost layer, respectively [40, 41]. through the access tube into the surrounding soil,
A probe is fed deep into the soil and connected to the gradually lose their energy through collisions with
power supply, micro controller, display and keypad via a other atomic nuclei. Hydrogen molecules in the soil
wire. Neutron probes emit fast-moving neutrons. The fast (mostly in soil water) are particularly effective in slowing
neutrons are emitted by the source and the detector the fast neutrons since they are both of near-equal mass.
detects the neutrons that come back after collision and The result is a "cloud" of slow or thermalized neutrons
absorption with nuclei of soil and water. The number of some of which diffuse back to the detector. The size and
neutrons that come back to probe depends upon the density of the cloud depend mainly upon soil type and
hydrogen and oxygen atoms present in the soil. When the soil water content is spherical and ranges in size from 6 to
neutrons collide with hydrogen in the soil they are slowed 16 inches. Thermalized neutrons that pass through the
and deflected. A detector on the probe counts returning detector create a small electrical impulse. These electrical
slow neutrons. The number of slow neutrons detected can pulses are amplified and then counted. The number of
be used to calculate soil water content because changes slow neutrons counted in a specified interval of time is
in the amount of hydrogen in the soil between readings linearly related to the total volumetric soil water content.

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Table 1: Summary of evaluation criteria for neutron probe soil moisture measurements
SN Evaluation parameters Performance of the technique
1 Principles used and methodology Depends on the amount of collision between fast neutrons and Hydrogen atoms in moisture.
Insert the probe into an access tube installed in soil. Linear calibration between the count rates of
slowed neutrons gives the reading of % moisture content.
2 Logging capacity No
3 Installation method Access tube
4 Soil type not recommended None
5 Affected by salinity No
6 Field maintenance No
7 Accuracy ±0.005 ft3ft-3
8 Safety hazard Yes
9 Advantages High accuracy, relative ease of deep readings, repeatable.
10 Disadvantage High cost, regulatory requirements.

Fig. 1: Neutron probe

A higher count indicates higher soil water content and medium containing bound hydrogen will increase the
vice versa. The neutron probe allows relatively rapid and count rate due to the presence of more hydrogen per unit
repeatable measurements of soil water content to be made volume of the medium [42]. On the other hand, increasing
at several depths and locations within a field. Being able the density of soil containing neutron absorption
to repeat measurements at the same location through the elements would decrease the count rate due to more
growing season minimizes the effects of soil variability on neutron capture per unit volume of the medium [42].
the measurements. Depending on the number of access The probe configuration is in the form of a long and
tube installations per field and number of fields, the time narrow cylinder, containing a source and detector.
required to take probe readings and analyze the data may Measurements are made by introducing the probe into an
become extensive. A minimum of three access tubes per access tube (previously installed into the soil). It is
field is recommended. Readings should be taken in 6-inch possible to determine soil moisture at different depths by
increments to the bottom of the expected rooting depth. hanging the probe in the tube at different depths. The soil
Neutron probe technology assumes that hydrogen moisture is obtained from the device based on a linear
atoms from the water molecules thermalize the neutrons. calibration between the count rate of slowed-down
This technology cannot measure accurate moisture neutrons at the field (read from the probe) and the soil
content if atoms of any other elements are involved in moisture content obtained from nearby field samples.
thermalizing the neutrons. When the neutrons are slowed,
some of them are captured by various elements that have Advantages and Disadvantages: The neutron probe
an affinity towards the neutrons. Neutron absorption method gives fast and reliable measurements. Repeated
elements decrease the number of thermalized neutrons measurements can be taken at any depth of soil and any
and this reduction is proportional to the moisture content. location. The method is relatively easy and
Apart from bounding hydrogen and neutron capture straightforward to use. Furthermore, it is a nondestructive
effects, the changes in the density of the medium also technique that enables the measurement of soil moisture
affect the thermalization of the neutrons and their distribution profiles at several depths. The method is also
transport to the detector, thus affecting the neutron count accurate—a properly calibrated instrument is capable
rate at the detector. An increase in the density of the of an accuracy of better than ±0.02 in volumetric water

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content [44] and capable of measuring surface soil control unit. The time taken for the signal to return varies
moisture content in real-time conditions [45]. The major with the soil dielectric, which is related to the water
disadvantage of a neutron moisture meter is the content of the soil surrounding the probe.
involvement of radioactive elements. This radioactive Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) has been used
element requires extensive care to handle and licensed, widely in laboratory and field studies to measure the soil
efficiently trained operators. The equipment is of very water content, electrical conductivity and other soil
high cost and requires proper calibration according to hydraulic properties [48-60]. TDR has the advantage of
each soil type in which they will be used, which, in allowing for continuous and simultaneous measurements
practice, increases the time it takes to collect data. of the soil water content and the electrical conductivity
Furthermore and perhaps most importantly, they are [61] and usually does not require site-specific calibration
insensitive in measuring soil moisture near the surface [62]. TDR has been used to determine and investigate soil
(top 20 cm) because fast neutrons can escape into the hydraulic properties [52, 53, 63-66]. TDR is a method that
atmosphere [46]. This technique is not common when uses a device that propagates a high-frequency
frequent and automated observations are required and its transverse electromagnetic wave along a cable attached
use has been proven most useful in measuring relative to a parallel conducting probe inserted into the soil.
soil moisture differences rather than absolute soil The signal is reflected from one probe to the other before
moisture content [45]. being returned to the meter that measures the time elapsed
between sending the pulse and receiving the reflected
Time Domain Reflectometry: The time-domain wave. Assuming that the cable and wave guide length is
reflectometer (TDR) is a new device developed to measure known, the propagation velocity, which is inversely
soil-water based on soil electrical conductivity proportional to the dielectric constant, can be directly
measurements belonging to the dielectric group content related to soil moisture content. By measuring the travel
[47]. Two parallel rods or stiff wires are inserted into the time, the velocity and hence the apparent dielectric
soil to the depth at which the average water content is constant of the soil can be estimated. This provides a
desired. The rods are connected to an instrument that measurement of the average volumetric water content
sends an electromagnetic pulse (or wave) of energy along along the length of the wave guide.
the rods. The rate at which the wave of energy is Two or three parallel metal rods are often used as a
conducted into the soil and reflected the soil surface is conventional TDR probe for measuring dielectric
directly related to the average water content of the soil. constant, while a variety of customized probes have been
One instrument can be used for hundreds of pairs of developed for different purposes [67-69]. Although a
rods. The TDR probe usually consists of 2–3 parallel vertical water content profile can be measured by setting
metal rods that are inserted into the soil acting as wave several probes with different depths horizontally, the
guides similarly as an antenna used for television space between the probes should be at least a few
reception. This is a dielectric method that estimates soil centimeters to avoid interference between them [68, 70].
water content by measuring the soil bulk permittivity The effect of clay, soil organic matter content and soil
(or dielectric constant), Ka, that determines the velocity bulk density on TDR measurements has been reported
of an electromagnetic wave or pulse through the soil. [48, 70-72]. A temperature effect has been reported by
In a composite material like the soil (i.e., made up of Topp et al. [48], while an iron influence on the dielectric
different components like minerals, air and water), the constant has been discussed by Robinson et al. [74].
value of the permittivity is made up of the relative Evett et al. [75] found that TDR measurements may be
contribution of each of the components. Since the affected by soil salinity, soil temperature, clay type and
dielectric constant of liquid water (Ka= 81) is much larger clay content. The TDR technique may over estimate
than that of the other soil constituents (Ka= 2–5 for soil soil-water content in saline soils because the apparent
minerals and 1 for air), the total permittivity of the soil or dielectric constant also depends on the electrical
bulk permittivity is mainly governed by the presence of conductivity of the soil [76]. For example, Wyseure et al.
liquid water. The speed of an electromagnetic signal [76] used a dielectric-based technique to estimate the
passing through a material varies with the dielectric of the electrical conductivity. Miyamoto and Maruyama [77]
material. TDR instruments send a signal down steel found that by coating the TDR rods, more accurate
probes, called wave guides, buried in the soil. The signal measurements in a heavily fertilized paddy field was
reaches the end of the probes and is reflected in the TDR possible. Roots, earthworm channels, cracks and stones

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can also cause small variations in soil-water content concept of relative permittivity and the TDR theory
estimated using the dielectric-based technique [78]. [43, 50, 51, 79-81]. The TDR instrument consists of a
Furthermore, old root channels would affect dielectric voltage source and a coaxial cable that is attached to
measurements if these were within the measurement parallel probes at its end. The probes are inserted into
volume of the sensor. the media in which moisture content is to be determined.
The water content of the soil is calculated by using The voltage source produces a fast rise step voltage
the travel time readings. The TDR system consists of a pulse (V). This voltage pulse propagates through a coaxial
pulse generator that generates a square wave and an cable and part of this voltage pulse is transmitted (VT) as
oscillator that captures the reflected pulse, from many an electromagnetic wave along the parallel electrodes that
points along with the probe. The probes are inserted into are inserted into the test medium [51]. If during
the soil; the travel time depends upon the complex propagation the electromagnetic wave passes an interface
permittivity of the soil. The reflection of the original signal of changing impedance (when the voltage leaves the
will occur when there is any change in the impedance. coaxial cable and enters the parallel probes), a portion of
The water present in the soil will change the dielectric the signal is transmitted through the interface and a
constant of the soil. Due to changes in a dielectric, the portion is reflected. The first change of impedance is at
impedance variations occur and affect the shape of the the beginning of the parallel probes when a portion (VT)
reflected signal. The reflected signal's shape is used to is transmitted. At the end of the parallel probes, part of
obtain information about the water content present in the the transmitted pulse (VT) is reflected by the waste (again
soil. For soil water content measurement, the device due to a change of impedance) and is shown as VR. If the
propagates a high frequency transverse electromagnetic medium is a perfect insulator, the reflected voltage will be
wave along a cable attached to parallel conducting probes of the same intensity as the transmitted voltage but if the
inserted into the soil. The signal is reflected from the end medium is conductive, the reflected electromagnetic wave
of the waveguide back to the cable tester where it is will be attenuated.
displayed on an oscilloscope and where the time between Seyfried and Murdock [82] suspended six water
sending the pulse and receiving the reflected wave is content reflectometers (WCR) simultaneously in air and
accurately measured by the cable tester. By knowing the subjected them to temperature changes from -5°C to 45°C
length of the transmission line and wave guide, the to investigate the response of the sensor electronics to
propagation velocity of the signal in the soil can be temperature changes independent of potential soil
computed The dielectric constant is inversely related to medium effects. The temperature had a minor effect on the
this propagation velocity, i.e., faster propagation velocity sensor response in air. However, when the sensors are
indicates a lower dielectric constant and thus a lower soil installed in the soil, the sensor response was significantly
water content or, as soil water content increases, affected by the temperature and this effect increased in
propagation velocity decreases and dielectric constant absolute value with the volumetric soil water content.
increases. Also, the effect of temperature on sensor response was
The application of this technology involves the significantly different for different soils tested. Persson
use of finite transmission lines (coaxial or parallel). and Berndtsson (1998) quantified temperature
An electromagnetic pulse is transmitted through these dependence of the apparent dielectric constant and
lines and its reflection is analyzed to obtain the complete electrical conductivity in wet soils by using an
dielectric frequency spectrum. TDR technology is similar automated TDR system in sandy, clay and organic soils.
to the concept that the physical characteristic of the They confirmed the findings of Pepin et al. [83] that
medium in which an electromagnetic signal is emitted change in apparent dielectric constant with temperature
can be found by analysis of the reflection of this signal. was lower in fine-textured soils and also found that a high
In TDR technology, the physical characteristic of the concentration of electrolytes (high EC) in combination
medium that is analyzed by the propagated with fine-textured soils can lead to positive temperature
electromagnetic wave is the relative permittivity or the dependence (i.e., volumetric soil water content increases
dielectric constant of the medium. TDR theory states that with increase in temperature). They also showed that the
the time for a transmitted electromagnetic pulse to be temperature effect on bulk electrical conductivity was
reflected is dependent on the relative permittivity or independent of soil texture; and if high accuracy for
dielectric constant of the medium [43]. A basic capacitor volumetric soil water content measurement is needed, the
theory can be used to explain the concept of relative temperature dependence of electrical conductivity needs
permittivity. Various studies have documented the to be measured specifically.

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Table 2: Summary of evaluation criteria for time-domain reflectometry soil moisture measurements
SN Evaluation parameters Performance of the technique
1 Principles used and methodology Depends on the propagation time required by EM wave to transmit and reflect from sensor transmission
wave guide. Insert the probe into the access tube & transmit EM wave. The propagation time required
for transmitting & reflect gives the % moisture content depending on the dielectric constant.
2 Logging capacity Depending on instrument
3 Installation method Permanently buried in-situ
4 Soil type not recommended Organic, dense, salt or high clay soil
5 Affected by salinity High level
6 Field maintenance No
7 Accuracy ±0.001 ft3ft-3
8 Safety hazard No
9 Advantages High accuracy, volumetric water content and salinity, robust calibration.
10 Disadvantage Highly influenced by adjacent moisture/voids.

Fig. 2: TDR equipment

Advantages and Disadvantages: The main advantages of expensive system. The dielectric constant of a material is
TDR over other soil water content measurement methods a measure of the capacity (or electrical permittivity) of
are: (i) superior accuracy to within 1 or 2% volumetric non-conducting material to transmit high-frequency
water content; (ii) calibration requirements are minimal-in electromagnetic waves or pulses. The dielectric constant
many cases, soil-specific calibration is not needed; (iii) of dry soil varies between 2 and 5, while the dielectric
lack of radiation hazard associated with neutron probe or constant of water is 80 at frequencies between 30 MHz
gamma-attenuation techniques; (iv) TDR has excellent and 1 GHz. A large volume of research has shown the
spatial and temporal resolution; and (v) measurements are measurement of the dielectric constant of the soil water
simple to obtain and the method is capable of providing media to be a sensitive measurement of soil water content.
continuous measurements through automation and Relatively small changes in the quantity of free water in
multiplexing. A variety of TDR systems are available for the soil have large effects on the electromagnetic
water content determination in soil and other porous properties of the soil water media. The overall
media (Figure 2). Among the most important advantages performances of the time domain reflectometry are
of this technique are that it is non-destructive to the summarized in Table 2.
study site and is not labor-intensive [41]. The ability to
automate TDR measurement and to multiplex many wave Frequency Domain Reflectometry: A Frequency Domain
guides through one instrument [44] are further Reflectometry (FDR) approach to the measurement of soil
advantages of TDR because they allow unattended water content is also known as radio frequency (RF)
measurement at multiple points, either on a scheduled capacitance techniques (Figure 3). This technique
interval or in response to events such as rainfall. When it measures soil capacitance. A pair of electrodes is inserted
is properly calibrated and installed, it is a highly accurate into the soil. The soil acts as the dielectric completing a
method for measuring soil moisture content [44, 84]. capacitance circuit, which is part of a feedback loop of a
It requires complex electronic equipment and it is an high-frequency transistor oscillator. As high-frequency

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Fig. 3: FD probes: a) Capacitance (plates imbibed in a silicon board); b) Capacitance (rods); and c) FDR (rings)

radio waves (about 150 Mhz) are pulsed through the The dielectric constant of water is much higher than the
capacitance circuitry, a natural resonant frequency is soil. Two electrodes are embedded in the soil and soil acts
established which is dependent on the soil capacitance. as a dielectric medium. The electrodes are given voltage
The soil capacitance is related to the dielectric constant supply, due to the presence of water the dielectric of soil
by the geometry of the electric field established around changes. Because of which the frequency oscillations
the electrodes. This is also a dielectric method developed occur, at a certain point resonance occurs and the
for measuring the dielectric constant of the soil water resonance frequency value is used to calculate the water
media and, through calibration. The electrical capacitance content in the soil. The more the water, the smaller will be
of a capacitor that uses the soil as a dielectric depends on the resonant frequency.
the soil water content. When connecting this capacitor Profile-probe versions using FDR and capacitance
with an oscillator to form an electrical circuit, changes in methods are now commercially available [86-88]. The
soil moisture can be detected by changes in the circuit manufacturer's calibration of the probe is for sand and
operating frequency. This is the basis of the Frequency yields generally very high volumetric soil water
Domain (FD) technique used in Capacitance and FDR percentages than other soils. Calibration of the probe for
sensors. Probes usually consist of two or more electrodes soils other than sands is therefore required for use in an
that are inserted into the soil. On the ring configuration, irrigation scheduling program. Bulk density differences in
the probe is introduced into an access tube installed in soils (i.e., with depth) will also require separate
the field. Thus, when an electrical field is applied, the soil calibrations. Properly calibrated and with careful access
around the electrodes (or around the tube) forms the to tube installation, the probe's accuracy can be good.
dielectric of the capacitor that completes the oscillating Many of the advantages of the neutron probe system
circuit. The use of an access tube allows for multiple are available with this system including rapid, repeatable
sensors to take measurements at different depths. measurements at the same locations and depths.
The FDR is similar to TDR but estimates soil moisture The probe comes with either an analog, color-coded
content through measuring changes in the frequency (for three different soil types: sand, loam and clay) dial
of a signal as a result of soil dielectric properties [41]. gauge, or a digital readout. Both give readings on a scale
An electrical circuit using a capacitor and an oscillator from 0% to 100%. High readings reflect higher soil water
measures changes in the resonant frequency and content and vice versa. Probe readings near 100%
indicates variations in soil moisture content. The signal (blue range) represent saturated conditions. Readings
reflected by soil combines with the generated signal to near 85% to 90% (dark green range) are near field
form a standing wave with amplitude that is a measure of capacity. Readings in the 50% to 70% (light green) range
the soil-water content. In the case of capacitance-type indicate adequate soil water. Readings in the 30% to 50%
sensors, such as that used by Grooves and Rose [85], (orange range) represent the onset of water stress and
the charge time of a capacitor is used to determine the readings below 30% (red range) represent conditions
soil-water content. The moisture is calculated by approaching a wilting point.
considering the dielectric constant of the soil. The Many of the soil moisture sensing technologies
dielectric constant of any material is defined as the measure volumetric soil water content indirectly by
capacity to transmit the electromagnetic pulses or waves. using dielectric properties, electrical resistance, amount of

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hydrogen, or the reflectance properties of the soil, all of constant of bulk soil-water decreases with increased soil
which are influenced, by varying degrees, by the amount temperature, while that of bound water is presumed to
of water in the soil. The soil dielectric property [which is increase with temperature.
the basis for FDR and TDR-based sensors [48, 89-91] The aforementioned sensor performance studies
measurements can be influenced by environmental factors indicate that the same soil moisture sensor can perform
other than water content [19]. It has been shown that the differently in different soil-water environments, which
soil temperature variation can affect soil dielectric require calibration for local soil conditions to establish
properties [83, 92], which may influence the performance and/or enhance the accuracy of volumetric soil water
of TDR or FDR-type sensors. Thus, investigating the content measurements. Also, because soil moisture
effect(s) of soil temperature on sensor performance is sensors are evolving rapidly with newer sensors or the
critical to identify sensor performance-influencing factors same type of sensors that have improved or different
and their magnitudes, which can be used to enhance engineering features continually being released to the
sensor design, engineering, circuits, etc. and guide in market, scientific evaluations of sensors in different soil
terms of a sensor's operational limits under certain types are justified to provide information to the users that
conditions. Furthermore, since different soil moisture can be useful in practical applications. Even if most of the
sensors have different engineering designs, circuits and sensors can be categorized as TDR- or FDR-type sensors,
technology that handle soil temperature and/or soil the engineering design, circuitry and other manufacturing
thermal conductivity vs. dielectric properties and features can change significantly from one sensor to
volumetric soil water content relationships differently, another even under the same category. For example, two
different soil moisture sensors may be influenced FDR-type sensors that are made by different
differently in measuring the volumetric soil water content manufacturers may perform differently and the known
of the same soil medium. performance of one FDR-type sensor may not apply to
A very limited number of studies investigated the soil another FDR type sensor that was designed and
temperature effect(s) on different soil properties that, in manufactured by a different company. This alone is an
turn, influence sensor response to changes in volumetric important justification to continue to evaluate soil
soil water content through field and laboratory research moisture sensors under different soil conditions. Also, a
and modeling [93-96]. Pepin et al. [83] investigated the single study may not be able to investigate all soil
TDR measurement errors of the apparent dielectric moisture sensors that are available in the market in all soil
constant of distilled water and different soils (sand, loam types. Thus, a collection of numerous studies that
and peat) associated with soil temperature variations. investigate and quantify the performance of various types
In all cases, they found that the apparent dielectric of sensors in different soil textures can provide a unique
constant decreased with increasing temperatures. The database and information that can collectively form a rich
temperature dependence of the dielectric constant of source that can provide invaluable guidance and
water in a soil matrix was lower than that of bulk water, information to the users in practical applications.
which was more pronounced for fine-textured and organic Furthermore, research projects that evaluate the
soils than for loamy soil. They also observed that with performance of the same sensor with different installation
higher volumetric soil water content in the same soil, the angle or orientation in the soil are rare. Finally, the effect
temperature effect on the dielectric constant was more of soil temperature on different soil moisture sensors’
pronounced. In examining the interactions between soil response can be considerably or significantly different for
surface area, volumetric soil water content and soil different soil, which justifies the need for investigating the
temperature, Wraith and Or [92] found that finer soils response of different soil moisture sensors to soil
and/or soils with lower volumetric soil water content temperature.
favored an increase in bulk dielectric constant with
increasing temperature and that coarse-textured soils Advantages and Disadvantages: The main advantage of
and/or soils with high volumetric soil water content this method is that it is nondestructive, but in comparison
favored a decrease in bulk dielectric constant under the with TDR, it can provide less accurate results due to
same temperature conditions. This observation can be sensitivity to soil characteristics (e.g., salinity and
explained through the competing effects of temperature temperature) and also has a limited scale of use [41].
on the bulk dielectric constant of soil-water. The dielectric However, FDR is a more accurate method as compared to

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 African J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

Table 3: Summary of evaluation criteria for frequency domain reflectometry soil moisture measurements
SN Evaluation parameters Performance of the technique
1 Principles used and methodology It is a dielectric method obtaining moisture content by observing response at different frequencies.
The probe is introduced into the soil after applying the electric field to give reading due to the
capacitance effect.
2 Logging capacity Yes
3 Installation method Permanently buried in-situ
4 Soil type not recommended None
5 Affected by salinity Minimal
6 Field maintenance No
7 Accuracy ±0.001 ft3ft-3
8 Safety hazard No
9 Advantages High accuracy, volumetric water content and salinity.
10 Disadvantage Highly influenced by adjacent moisture/voids.

TDR under optimum growing conditions of the plants. calibration, however, in most cases, they have to be
The design of the probe is flexible and robust. It is an permanently installed in the field, or a sufficiently long
inexpensive method compared to other methods. It is time must be allowed for equilibration between the device
quite easy to interface the FDR soil moisture sensor with and the soil before making a reading.
a microcontroller. On the other hand, installation requires Tensiometers are devices that measure the tension or
extensive care. The presence of air gaps also affects the the energy with which water is held by the soil and are
accuracy of the readings. The overall performances of comprised of water-filled plastic tubes with hollow ceramic
the frequency domain reflectometry are summarized in tips attached on one end and a vacuum gauge and airtight
Table 3. seal on the other. The vacuum generates tension inside
the tube. A vacuum gauge connected with the tube
Tensiometric Methods measures the value of the tension. More water in the soil
Tensiometer Techniques: Tensiometer readings may be less will be the tension and vice versa. So, the reading of
used as indicators of soil water and the need for irrigation. the gauge gives the idea that how much water is present
When instruments installed at shallower depths of the inside the soil. These tubes are installed into the soil at
root zone reach a certain reading, they can be used to the depth at which the soil moisture measurement is
determine when to start irrigating, based on soil texture required. At this depth, water in the tensiometer
and crop type. Similarly, instruments at deeper depths of eventually comes to pressure equilibrium with the
the root zone may be used to indicate when adequate surrounding soil through the ceramic tip. When the soil
water has been applied. Careful installation and dries, soil water is pulled out through the tip into the soil,
maintenance of tensiometers are required for reliable creating tension or vacuum in the tube. As the soil is
results. The ceramic tip must be in intimate and complete rewetted, the tension in the tube is reduced, causing water
contact with the soil. This is done by auguring a pilot hole to reenter the tip, reducing the vacuum. Tensiometers are
out to the proper depth, making a soil water slurry mix available commercially in many different types of
with the soil removed and re-introducing this into the configurations and are inexpensive, non-destructive and
hole. Finally, the tensiometer tip is pushed into this easy to install and operate satisfactorily in the saturated
slurry. Soil is banked up around the tube at the soil range. If properly maintained, they can operate in the field
surface to prevent water from standing around the tube for long periods. Another important advantage of using
itself. A few hours to a few days are required for the a tensiometer is that they can allow measurement of the
tensiometer to come to equilibrium with the surrounding water table elevation and/or soil water tension when a
soil. The tensiometer should be pumped with a hand positive or negative gauge is installed. However, they are
vacuum pump to remove air bubbles. All available only able to provide direct measurements of the soil water
tensiometric instruments have a porous material in contact suction, allowing an indirect estimation of soil moisture
with the soil, through which water can move. Thereby, content. Furthermore, tensiometers are fragile and require
water is drawn out of the porous medium in dry soil and care during their installation and maintenance in the field
from the soil into the medium in wet soil. It is worth [97]. Automated measurements are possible but at a high
noticing, that in general, they do not need a soil specific cost and they are not electronically stable.

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 African J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

Tensiometers are the devices used to sense the water days. At this depletion rate, tension can exceed 80 cb
tension inside the soil (Figure 4). They provide useful within three days, breaking the water column (tension).
information for planning irrigation and managing soil The soil may then appear dry and the crop may show
moisture levels to the best advantage to maintain healthy visible signs of stress. Because tension was broken and
landscape plants. The principle of tensiometer is the the tensiometer is no longer functioning correctly,
measurement of soil tension that is, the force that is however, the gauge shows a low tension (high soil
required by the plants to acquire water from the soil. moisture). Thus the irrigator concludes that the
When the glass tube is put into the soil at the root level, tensiometer is unreliable. Tensiometers should be read
the water is allowed to move out through the permeable every day (sometimes twice a day in very sandy soils)
ceramic tip. The water will move out only when the soil is until you obtain a feel for how fast the soil dries after
not saturated i.e. the water content in the soil is not rainfall or irrigation. Whenever tension is broken, the
highest. When the water present in the tube goes down tensiometer must be serviced. This includes refilling the
into the soil, a vacuum is generated inside the tube. Most instrument with boiled water and checking it with the
commercially available tensiometers use a vacuum gauge vacuum pump. Adding a little food coloring to the boiled
to read the tension created and have a scale from 0 to 100 water makes it easier to see whether water is still present
centi-bars (one bar or 100 centi-bars of pressure or in the tensiometer. Air bubbles in the water column tend
tension is equal to 14.7 psi). The practical operating range to collect at the top of the barrel and appear clear
is from 0 to 75 centi-bars. If the water column is intact, a compared to the colored water. The water column should
zero reading indicates saturated soil conditions. always be free of air bubbles and water should always be
Readings of around 10 centi-bars (cb) correspond to field stored in the reservoir. It may be necessary to add water
capacity for coarse-textured soils, while readings of to the reservoir during the season even if tension is not
around 30 cb can approximate field capacity for some broken.
finer-textured soils. The upper limit of 75 cb corresponds Soil water tension, soil water suction, or soil water
to as much as 90% depletion of total available water for potential are all terms describing the energy status of soil
the coarse-textured soils but is only about 30% depletion water. Soil water potential is a measure of the amount of
for silt loam, clay loams and other fine-textured soils. energy with which water is held in the soil. A soil-water
This limits the practical use of tensiometers to coarse- characteristic or water release curve shows the relation
textured soils or too high-frequency irrigation where soil between soil water content and soil water tension.
water content is maintained high. Tensiometric Soil water tension is related to water potential. This also
methods estimate the soil water matric potential that is not water content but the potential of the soil to
includes both adsorption and capillary effects of the soil. provide water to plants. As the soil dries and soil water
The matric potential is one of the components of the total tension increases, the water potential decreases. As the
soil water potential that also includes gravitational soil water content increases due to additions from
(position concerning a reference elevation plane), osmotic rainfall or irrigation, the soil-water tension decreases and
(salts in soil solution), gas pressure, or pneumatic soil water potential increases. The tensiometer allows
(from entrapped air) and overburden components. us to monitor these fluctuations in soil water potential.
The sum of matric and gravitational potentials is the main The tensiometer reading is accurate as long as air does
driving force for water movement in soils and other soil- not enter the tube—the system must remain hydraulic.
like porous media. Unlike water, air readily expands and contracts as
The tensiometer should be installed to one-half of the pressure changes and air in the tensiometer tube causes
effective root depth. The porous tip must be in good inaccurate measurements. Even if the instrument does not
contact with the adjacent soil. Field experiences with have any leaks, air dissolved in the water will accumulate
tensiometers have been mixed. When properly installed during normal operation. This air must be removed
and maintained, tensiometers are reliable. Unsatisfactory periodically by refilling the tensiometer with water to
results are usually caused by inadequate maintenance. restore reliable operation.
Sandy soils, which are best suited for tensiometers, have
low levels of plant-available water. In coarse, sandy soils Advantages and Disadvantages: It provides direct and
the water content may decrease from field capacity to less continuous readings. No power supply is required.
than 20 percent of the plant-available water within three Variable-length tensiometers are available to take any

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 African J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

Table 4: Summary of evaluation criteria for tensiometer soil moisture measurements

SN Evaluation parameters Performance of the technique
1 Principles used and methodology Depends on the suction produced by water into a sealed tube coming into equilibrium with the
soil solution through a porous medium. The tip of the ceramic cup is placed into the soil.
Water is drawn outside to form equilibrium suction is created inside the tube. Depending on the
amount of suction produced moisture content is indicated.
2 Logging capacity Only when using transducers
3 Installation method Permanently inserted into the augured hole
4 Soil type not recommended Sandy or coarse soils
5 Affected by salinity No
6 Field maintenance Yes
7 Accuracy ±0.01 bar
8 Safety hazard No
9 Advantages Instantaneous approximate soil moisture content.
10 Disadvantage High maintenance, tension breaks, freezing temperatures.

Fig. 4: Tensiometer

variable depth moisture measurement. Minimal skill is electrolyte. The device consists of a porous block made
required to read the reading of gauge. It is an inexpensive of gypsum or fiberglass containing two electrodes linked
system. However, the response time is relatively slow. to a wire lead. When the device is buried into the soil
Careful handling of equipment is required. It requires surface, water will enter or exit the block until the matric
frequent maintenance. The overall performances of the potential of the block and the soil are the same. Then, the
tensiometer are summarized in Table 4. electrical conductivity of the block to the matric potential
for any particular soil is calculated using a calibration
Resistive Sensor (Gypsum): One type of electrical curve. Its ability to absorb water and to come into
resistance block, the gypsum block, has been in use since equilibrium with the medium makes it a convenient
the 1940s. Porous blocks of gypsum are used in one of the soil moisture sensor. The resistance between the
most common dielectric constant techniques employed block-embedded electrodes is determined by applying a
for measuring soil moisture content in the field (Figure 5). small AC voltage (to prevent block polarization) using a
The gypsum block is cylindrical or rectangular. The Wheatstone bridge. Since changes to the soil electrical
electrodes are embedded into the block. The dry gypsum conductivity would affect readings, gypsum is used as a
block is inserted into the soil. A small voltage is provided buffer against soil salinity changes (up to a certain level).
to the electrodes. The electric resistance between the The inherent problem is that the block dissolves and
electrodes measures the tension of the soil. If water is degrades over time (especially in saline soils) losing its
present in the soil, it is absorbed by gypsum block and calibration properties. It is recommended that the block
comes in equilibrium with soil water. Hence, the resistance pore size distribution matches the soil texture being used.
between the electrodes will decrease and vice versa The readings are temperature dependent (up to 3%
and gives information about the water content of the soil. change/°C) and field measured resistance should be
A gypsum block sensor constitutes an electrochemical corrected for differences between calibration and field
cell with a saturated solution of calcium sulfate as the temperatures.

48
 African J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

Fig. 4: Gypsum block

Table 5: Summary of evaluation criteria for gypsum block soil moisture measurements
SN Evaluation parameters Performance of the technique
1 Principles used and methodology The electrical conductivity of a porous medium in contact with the soil. The electrical resistance
between electrodes embedded in a porous medium (block) is proportional to its water content,
which is related to the soil water matric potential of the surrounding soil. Electrical resistance
reduces as the soil, hence the block, dries.
2 Logging capacity Yes
3 Installation method Permanently inserted into the augured hole
4 Soil type not recommended Sandy or coarse soils, avoid swelling soils
5 Affected by salinity >6 ds/m
6 Field maintenance No
7 Accuracy ±0.01bar
8 Safety hazard No
9 Advantages Measurement of soil moisture in the same location in the field over an extended period.
10 Disadvantage Each block requires individual calibration. Calibration changes with time.
Provides inaccurate measurements. Life of device limited

Electrical resistance blocks consist of two electrodes gypsum, the water content and thus the electrical
enclosed in a block of porous material. The block is often resistance of the block does not change dramatically at
made of gypsum, although fiberglass or nylon is suctions less than 0.5 bar (50 cb). Therefore, resistance
sometimes used. Electrical resistance blocks are often blocks are best suited for use in fine-textured soils such
referred to as gypsum blocks and sometimes just moisture as silts and clays that retain at least 50 percent of their
blocks. The electrodes are connected to insulated lead plant available water at suctions greater than 0.5 bar.
wires that extend upward to the soil surface. Resistance Electrical resistance blocks are not reliable for determining
blocks work on the principle that water conducts when to irrigate sandy soils where over 50 percent of the
electricity. When properly installed, the water suction of plant-available water is usually depleted at suctions less
the porous block is in equilibrium with the soil-water than 0.5 bar.
suction of the surrounding soil. As the soil moisture Blocks are installed in the soil similar to the procedure
changes, the water content of the porous block also for tensiometers, ensuring intimate contact with the
changes. The electrical resistance between the two surrounding soil and are allowed to come to water tension
electrodes increases as the water content of the porous equilibrium with the surrounding soil. Gypsum blocks
block decreases. The block's resistance can be related require little maintenance and can be left in the soil under
to the water content of the soil by a calibration curve. freezing conditions. Being made of gypsum, the blocks
To make a soil water reading, the lead wires are connected will slowly dissolve, requiring replacement. The rate of
to a resistance meter containing a voltage source. dissolution is dependent upon soil pH and soil water
Because of the pore size of the material used in most conditions. As discussed above, gypsum blocks are best
electrical resistance blocks, particularly those made of suited for use in finer-textured soils. They are not

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 African J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 12 (3): 37-55, 2020

sensitive to changes in soil water tension from 0 to 100 cb. measurement of soil moisture content in the same location
High soil salinity affects the electrical resistivity of the in the field over extended periods, although this is limited
soil solution, although the gypsum buffers this effect to by the dissolution and degradation of the block [41].
a certain degree. Like tensiometers, electrical resistance Nonetheless, the key disadvantage of this technique is
blocks should be soaked overnight before they are that it requires individual calibration of the porous blocks
installed in the field. A soil probe should be used to make for each location and for each measurement interval,
a hole to the desired installation depth. The hole should which limits the gypsum block life span [46]. The accuracy
be slightly larger than the moisture block so the block of this method is affected by both salt and temperature
slips in easily. After placing the resistance block in the [41]. The overall performances of the gypsum block are
hole, backfill the hole with a thick soil slurry using soil summarized in Table 5.
from the installation depth. Since fine-textured soils do
not dry as rapidly as sandy soils, resistance blocks do CONCLUSION
not need to be read as frequently as tensiometers.
Normally, three to four readings per week are adequate. There are several ways to monitor soil water, with
The electrical resistance of soil-water is affected by varying costs and accuracy. Although it is common for
substances dissolved in the water. The exchange of water growers to estimate soil moisture by feel, appearance, or
between the soil and the block throughout the irrigation time between irrigation events, soil moisture can be more
season may gradually alter the electrical resistance of the accurately and effectively monitored using a variety of
block and eventually alter the calibration. This is not a commercially available soil moisture monitoring systems.
serious problem in North Carolina soils unless highly The effectiveness of the monitoring system is dependent
saline water is used for irrigation. Since electrical on proper placement and installation. The sensors or
resistance blocks are inexpensive, however, new sampling should be in locations that represent the overall
calibrated blocks should be installed at the beginning of field, garden, or landscape. Avoid placing sensors where
each growing season. there are variations due to shade, nearby structures, or at
A meter is used to read the electrical resistance of the top of a hill or bottom of a depression. Since there is
moisture blocks installed in the ground. The blocks significant variation across fields, it is recommended that
come in a variety of configurations but generally several sensor locations be used for large fields. Consider
incorporate two electrodes embedded in a gypsum soil type, plant distribution and irrigation when placing
material. The block may be entirely gypsum or covered the sensors or sampling. Several methods are available for
with a porous material such as sand, fiberglass, or monitoring soil moisture. Each has advantages and
ceramic. Meters are portable and are intended for use in disadvantages, but when installed and calibrated
reading a large number of blocks throughout one or more properly, they all can be effective tools measuring soil
fields. Since the blocks are porous, water moves in and water content. Knowing the soil moisture content will
out of the block in equilibrium with the soil moisture. enable us to manage irrigation effectively based on plant
Meter resistance readings change as moisture in the block moisture needs, soil water storage capacity and root zone
changes which, in turn, is an indication of changes in the depth and characteristics. Timely and adequate but not
amount of water in the soil. The manufacturer usually excessive irrigation promotes water conservation and
provides calibration to convert meter readings to soil profitability.
tension. Proper installation is important for reliable
readings. Good soil contact with the block is essential. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Follow manufacturer's and Extension Service guidelines
for installation and use of the blocks and meter. We are deeply grateful and indebted to all sources of
Resistance methods are suitable for most soils and the materials used for reviewed this manuscript have been
readings cover most of the soil moisture ranges of duly acknowledged.
concern to irrigation management. The blocks tend to
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