Crystal Forms
Crystal Forms
Crystal Forms
Crystal Forms
As stated at the end of the last lecture, the next step is to use the Miller Index notation to designate
crystal forms. A crystal form is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other by symmetry. To
designate a crystal form (which could imply many faces) we use the Miller Index, or Miller-Bravais Index
notation enclosing the indices in curly braces, i.e.
{101} or {11 1}
An important point to note is that a form refers to a face or set of faces that have the same
arrangement of atoms. Thus, the number of faces in a form depends on the symmetry of the crystal.
A general form is a form in a particular crystal class that contains faces that intersect all
crystallographic axes at different lengths. It has the form symbol {hkl} All other forms that may be
present are called special forms. In the monoclinic, triclinic, and orthorhombic crystal systems, the
form {111} is a general form because in these systems faces of this form will intersect the a, b, and c
axes at different lengths because the unit lengths are different on each axis. In crystals of higher
symmetry, where two or more of the axes have equal length, a general form must intersect the equal
length axes at different multiples of the unit length. Thus in the tetragonal system the form {121} is a
general form. In the isometric system a general form would have to be something like {123}.
A closed form is a set of crystal faces that completely enclose space. Thus, in crystal classes that
contain closed forms, a crystal can be made up of a single form.
An open form is one or more crystal faces that do not completely enclose space.
Example 1. Pedions are single faced forms. Since there is only one face in the form a pedion
cannot completely enclose space. Thus, a crystal that has only pedions, must have at least 3
different pedions to completely enclose space.
Example 2. A prism is a 3 or more faced form wherein the crystal faces are all parallel to the
same line. If the faces are all parallel then they cannot completely enclose space. Thus crystals
that have prisms must also have at least one additional form in order to completely enclose
space.
Example 3. A dipyramid has at least 6 faces that meet in points at opposite ends of the crystal.
These faces can completely enclose space, so a dipyramid is closed form. Although a crystal
may be made up of a single dipyramid form, it may also have other forms present.
In your textbook on pages 139 to 142, forms 1 through 18 are open forms, while forms 19 through 48
are closed forms.
There are 48 possible forms that can be developed as the result of the 32 combinations of symmetry.
We here discuss some, but not all of these forms.
Pedions
A pedion is an open, one faced form. Pedions are the only forms that occur in the Pedial class (1).
Since a pedion is not related to any other face by symmetry, each form symbol refers to a single face.
For example the form {100} refers only to the face (100), and is different from the form { 00} which
refers only to the face ( 00). Note that while forms in the Pedial class are pedions, pedions may occur
in other crystal classes.
Pinacoids
Domes
Domes are 2- faced open forms where the 2 faces are related to one
another by a mirror plane. In the crystal model shown here, the dark
shaded faces belong to a dome. The vertical faces along the side of
the model are pinacoids (2 parallel faces). The faces on the front and
back of the model are not related to each other by symmetry, and are
thus two different pedions.
Sphenoids
Sphenoids are2 - faced open forms where the faces are related to each
other by a 2-fold rotation axis and are not parallel to each other. The dark
shaded triangular faces on the model shown here belong to a sphenoid.
Pairs of similar vertical faces that cut the edges of the drawing are also
pinacoids. The top and bottom faces, however, are two different pedions.
Prisms
A prism is an open form consisting of three or more parallel faces. Depending on the symmetry,
several different kinds of prisms are possible.
Trigonal prism: 3 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 3 -fold rotation axis
Rhombic prism: 4 - faced form with all faces parallel to a line that is
not a symmetry element. In the drawing to the right, the 4 shaded
faces belong to a rhombic prism. The other faces in this model are
pinacoids (the faces on the sides belong to a side pinacoid, and the
faces on the top and bottom belong to a top/bottom pinacoid).
Tetragonal prism: 4 - faced open form with all faces parallel to a 4-fold
rotation axis or . The 4 side faces in this model make up the tetragonal
prism. The top and bottom faces make up the a form called the top/bottom
pinacoid.
Ditetragonal prism: 8 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 4-fold rotation axis.
In the drawing, the 8 vertical faces make up the ditetragonal prism.
Hexagonal prism: 6 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation axis. The
6 vertical faces in the drawing make up the hexagonal prism. Again the faces on
top and bottom are the top/bottom pinacoid form.
Dihexagonal prism: 12 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation axis.
Note that a horizontal cross-section of this model would have apparent 12-fold
rotation symmetry. The dihexagonal prism is the result of mirror planes parallel to
the 6-fold rotation axis.
Pyramids
A pyramid is a 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 faced open form where all faces in the form meet, or could meet if
extended, at a point.
Ditrigonal pyramid: 6-faced form where all faces are related by a 3-fold
rotation axis. Note that if viewed from above, the ditrigonal pyramid would
not have a hexagonal shape; its cross section would look more like that of the
trigonal prism discussed above.
Rhombic pyramid: 4-faced form where the faces are related by mirror
planes. In the drawing shown here the faces labeled "p" are the four
faces of the rhombic pyramid. If extend, these 4 faces would meet at a
point.
Tetragonal pyramid: 4-faced form where the faces are related by a 4 axis. In
the drawing the small triangular faces that cut the corners represent the
tetragonal pyramid. Note that if extended, these 4 faces would meet at a
point.
Ditetragonal pyramid: 8-faced form where all faces are related by a 4 axis. In the
drawing shown here, the upper 8 faces belong to the ditetragonal pyramid form.
Note that the vertical faces belong to the ditetragonal prism.
Hexagonal pyramid: 6-faced form where all faces are related by a 6 axis. If
viewed from above, the hexagonal pyramid would have a hexagonal shape.
Dihexagonal pyramid: 12-faced form where all faces are related by a 6-fold
axis. This form results from mirror planes that are parallel to the 6-fold axis.
Dipyramids
Dipyramids are closed forms consisting of 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 faces. Dipyramids are pyramids that are
reflected across a mirror plane. Thus, they occur in crystal classes that have a mirror plane
perpendicular to a rotation or rotoinversion axis.
Ditrigonal -dipyramid: 12-faced form with faces related by a 3-fold axis with a
perpendicular mirror plane. If viewed from above, the crystal will not have a
hexagonal shape, rather it would appear similar to the horizontal cross-
section of the ditrigonal prism, discussed above.
Tetragonal dipyramid: 8-faced form with faces related by a 4-fold axis with a
perpendicular mirror plane. The drawing shows the 8-faced tetragonal
dipyramid. Also shown is the 4-faced tetragonal prism, and the 2-faced
top/bottom pinacoid.
Hexagonal dipyramid: 12-faced form with faces related by a 6-fold axis with a
perpendicular mirror plane. The vertical faces in this model make up a
hexagonal prism.
Dihexagonal dipyramid: 24-faced form with faces related by a 6-fold axis with
a perpendicular mirror plane.
Trapezohedrons
Scalenohedrons
Disphenoids
The rest of the forms all occur in the isometric system, and thus have either four 3-fold axes or four
axes. Only some of the more common isometric forms will be discussed here.
Hexahedron
A hexahedron is the same as a cube. 4-fold axes are perpendicular to the face
of the cube, and four axes run through the corners of the cube. Note that the
form symbol for a hexahedron is {100}, and it consists of the following 6 faces:
Octahedron
An octahedron is an 8 faced form that results form three 4-fold axes with
perpendicular mirror planes. The octahedron has the form symbol {111}and
consists of the following 8 faces:
(111), ( ), (1 1), (1 ), ( 1), ( 1 ), (11 ), and ( 11).
Note that four 3-fold axes are present that are perpendicular to the triangular
faces of the octahedron (these 3-fold axes are not shown in the drawing).
Dodecahedron
Tetrahexahedron
Trapezohedron
Tetrahedron
The tetrahedron occurs in the class 3m and has the form symbol {111}(the form
shown in the drawing) or {1 1} (2 different forms are possible). It is a four faced
form that results form three axes and four 3-fold axes (not shown in the
drawing).
Gyroid
Pyritohedron
The pyritohedron is a 12-faced form that occurs in the crystal class 2/m .
Note that there are no 4-fold axes in this class. The possible forms are {h0l} or
{0kl} and each of the faces that make up the form have 5 sides.
Diploid
The diploid is the general form {hkl} for the diploidal class (2/m ). Again there
are no 4-fold axes.
Tetartoid
Tetartoids are general forms in the tetartoidal class (23) which only has 3-
fold axes and 2-fold axes with no mirror planes.
In class we will fill in the following table in order to help you better understand the relationship
between form and crystal faces. The assignment will be to determine for each form listed across the
top of the table the number of faces in that form, the name of the form, and the number of cleavage
directions that the form symbol would imply for each of the crystal classes listed in the left-hand
column.
Before we can do this, however, we need to review how we define the crystallographic axes in relation
to the elements of symmetry in each of the crystal systems.
Triclinic - Since this class has such low symmetry there are no constraints on the axes, but the most
pronounced face should be taken as parallel to the c axis.
Monoclinic - The 2 fold axis is the b axis, or if only a mirror plane is present, the b axis is perpendicular
to the mirror plane.
Orthorhombic - The current convention is to take the longest axis as b, the intermediate axis is a, and
the shortest axis is c. An older convention was to take the c axis as the longest, the b axis intermediate,
and the a axis as the shortest.
Tetragonal - The c axis is either the 4 fold rotation axis or the rotoinversion axis.
Isometric - The equal length a axes are either the 3 4-fold rotation axes, rotoinversion axes, or, in
cases where no 4 or axes are present, the 3 2-fold axes.
{010} {001}
Symmetry #Cleavage #Cleavage
#Faces Form #Faces Form
Directions Directions
1
2
2/m
2/m2/m2/m
4/m2/m2/m
4/m 2/m
{110} {111}
Symmetry #Cleavage #Cleavage
#Faces Form #Faces Form
Directions Directions
1
2
2/m
2/m2/m2/m
4/m2/m2/m
4/m 2/m
A zone is defined as a group of crystal faces that intersect in parallel edges. Since the edges will all be
parallel to a line, we can define that the direction of the line using a notation similar to Miller Indices.
This notation is called the zone symbol. The zone symbol looks like a Miller Index, but is enclosed in
square brackets, i.e. [uvw].
For a group of faces in the same zone, we can determine the zone symbol for all non-hexagonal
minerals by choosing 2 non-parallel faces (hkl) and (pqr).
To do so, we write the Miller Index for each face twice, one face directly
beneath the other, as shown below. The first and last numbers in each line
are discarded. Then we apply the following formula to determine the indices
in the zone symbol.
For example, faces (110) and (010) are not parallel to each other. The
zone symbol for these faces (and any other faces that lie in the same
zone) is determined by writing 110 twice and then immediately below,
writing 010 twice. Applying the formula above gives the zone symbol
for this zone as [001].
Note that this zone symbol implies a line that is perpendicular to the face with the same index. In other
words, [001] is a line perpendicular to the face (001). It can thus be used as a symbol for a line. In this
case, the line is the c crystallographic axis.
Although a crystal structure is an ordered arrangement of atoms on a lattice, as we have seen, the
order may be different along different directions in the crystal. Thus, some properties of crystals
depend on direction. These are called vectorial properties, and can be divided into two categories:
continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous vectorial properties depend on direction, but along any given the direction the property is
the same. Some of the continuous vectorial properties are:
Velocity of Light (Refractive Index) - For all minerals except those in the isometric system, the
velocity of light is different as the light travels along different directions in the crystal. We will
use this directional dependence of light velocity as an important tool in the second half of the
course. Refractive Index is defined as the velocity of light in a vacum divided by the velocity of
light in the material. Because the velocity of light depends on direction, the refractive index
will also depend on direction.
Thermal Conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct heat is called thermal conductivity.
Like light, heat can be conducted at different rates along different directions in crystals.
Electrical Conductivity- The ability of a material to allow the passage of electrons is called
electrical conductivity, which is also directionally dependent except in isometric crystals.
Thermal Expansion - How much the crystal lattice expands as it is heated is referred to as
thermal expansion. Some crystals expand more in one direction than in others, thus thermal
expansion is a vectorial property.
Discontinuous vectorial properties pertain only to certain directions or planes within a crystal. For
these kinds of properties, intermediate directions may have no value of the property. Among the
discontinuous vectorial properties are:
Cleavage - Cleavage is defined as a plane within the lattice along which breakage occurs more
easily than along other directions. A cleavage direction develops along zones of weakness in
the crystal lattice. Cleavage is discontinuous because it only occurs along certain planes.
Growth Rate - Growth rate is defined as the rate at which atoms can be added to the crystal. In
some directions fewer atoms must be added to the crystal than in other directions, and thus
some directions may allow for faster growth than others.
Solution Rate - Solution rate is the rate at which a solid can be dissolved in a solvent. In this
case it depends on how tightly bonded the atoms are in the crystal structure, and this usually
depends on direction.
Crystal Habit
In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space available
for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted environment, it is possible
that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However, crystals sometimes develop certain
forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily apparent from these
common forms. The term used to describe general shape of a crystal is habit.
Equant - a term used to describe minerals that have all of their boundaries of approximately
equal length.
1. Define the following as they relate to crystal forms: (a) Pedion, (b) pinacoid, (c) prism, (d)
pyramid, (e) dipyramid, octahedrn, (f) dodechahedron.
3. What is a zone and what notation do we use to indicate a zone or a direction in a crystal?
4. Given the symmetry of a crystal and a form symbol, be able to determine the number of faces
that occur in the form (as in the example tables, above).
5. What is the difference between a continuous vectorial property and a discontinuous vectorial
property? Give some examples of each.