Unpacking Self

I. THE PHYSICAL SELF: THE SELF AS IMPACTED BY THE BODY

• Self-Understanding is the individual’s cognitive representation of the self which consists of the
substance and the content of self-conceptions.

- The development of self-understanding in adolescence can be described from simple

to perplex and involves a number of aspects of the self.

• Physical Self refers to the concrete dimensions of the body, it is the tangible aspect of the
person which can be directly observed and examined.

- Physical Characteristics are the defining traits or features of the person’s body.

- can easily be distinguished with the naked eye

- Erik Erikson believed the importance of the body from early development because the
physical as well as intellectual skills will somehow serve as a basis to whether a person
has achieved a sense of competence and be able to manage and face the demands of
life complexities.

- William James considered the body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for
the origin and maintenance of personality.

• When children reach 10-12 years of age, puberty begins and they are now in the adolescent
period.

- This transition period in the human life span lasts from 18 to 22 years of age

- The age bracket of adolescence, however, may vary across different groups.

- The World Health Organization describes adolescents as young people whose age
ranges from 10 -19 years and are often thought of as a healthy group.

- According to healthy children.org, adolescence is divided into three periods:

1. Early Adolescence (11-14 years old)

2. Middle Adolescence (15-17 years old)

3. Late Adolescence (18-21 years old)

- In the Philippines, the Youth in Nation-Building Act (1994) defined youth according to
ages which cover between 15-30 years.

- Though there exists a difference in the age range for what in the Philippine society may
be considered as young, the physical changes that these youth undergo in the period of
adolescence are virtually the same as other adolescents anywhere in the world

PUBERTY: A PERIOD OF RAPID PHYSICAL CHANGES

According to Santrock (2016), puberty is not the same as adolescence because puberty ends prior to
the end of the adolescent period. But he recognized puberty as the most essential marker of the
beginning of adolescence.

• The changes that are experienced during puberty are different for girls and boys.

- Girls reached puberty earlier

- Menarche is the first menstrual flow

- Spermarche or semenarche is the first ejaculation or nocturnal emission (wet dreams).

• Puberty is a brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that

triggers the rapid physical changes that occur in the adolescent stage of human development

- Pituitary gland is the master endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates the
functions if all endocrine glands, including gonads (ovaries for girls and testes for boys).

- Chemical substances (hormones) secreted by gonads (sex glands) are distributed by

the blood stream throughout the body:

o Estrogen (for girls) – promote physical changes such as increase in height,

widening of hips and increase in fatty tissues in the breast of girls.

o Androgen and testosterone (for boys) – responsible for the boy’s growth of
facial and body hair, muscles and changes in the voice.

- Secondary sexual changes – physical changes that distinguish boys from girls

- Primary sexual changes – changes in the reproductive organs that prepare both boys
and girls from procreation

- Although human development is a progressive process, variations occur because of

individual differences (health, nurture, heredity)

BODY IMAGE

Santrock stated that one psychological aspect of physical change in puberty is that “adolescents
become preoccupied with their bodies and develop images of what their body are like.”

• Body image – refers to the way one sees himself /herself or the way he/she imagines how
he/she looks.

- How they see themselves can either be positive or negative.

- Recent research revealed that adolescents with the most positive body images are
engaged in health enhancing behavior such as eating a balanced diet and exercising
regularly.

- In general, girls are less happy with their body images than boys throughout puberty.
Adolescents with poor body images have negative thoughts and feelings about their
appearance which can either be true or not.
 - A healthy body image is made up of positive thoughts, feelings and acceptance of one’s
body and overall physical appearance.

- Imaginary audience – refers to an egocentric state where the individual imagines and
believes that many people are actively listening to or watching him or her. In social
psychology, this phenomenon is called spotlight effect which refers to the belief that
others are paying more attention to the person’s appearance and behavior that they
really are.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PERCEPTION OF THE PHYSICAL SELF

1. Personal Factors

a. Introspection and Self-Reflection – Looking inward is one of the simplest ways to achieve self-
knowledge.

- the process by which one observes and examines one’s internal state (mental and
emotional) after behaving in a certain way.

b. Self-Perception Theory – Bem in 1972 self-perception theory explains that since one’s internal
state is difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner states by observing their own behavior
– as if they are an outside observer.

- Physical perception includes all aspects of a person’s perception of his physical self

c. Self-concept – According to Hewstone, et al., (2015), self- concept is a cognitive

representation of self-knowledge which includes the sum total of all beliefs that people have
about themselves.

- A collection of all individual experiences involving one’s characteristics, social roles

values, goals and fears.

- Pertains to all characteristics the person enumerates when asked to describe who he is

- Physical self-concept – individual’s perception or description of his physical self,

including his physical appearance.

d. Personal Identity – the concept a person has about himself that develops over the years.

- Includes aspects of his life that he was born into like family, nationality, gender,
physical traits as well as the choices he makes, such as what he does for a living , who
his friends are and what he believes in

2. Social Factors

a. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal – According to Bowlby (1969), people learn about
their value and lovability when they experiences how their mothers or caregivers care for them
and respond to their needs.

- Caregiving that is consistent and appropriately responds to the infant’s needs promote
positive self-concept.
 - Caregiving that is neglectful and unresponsive creates a negative self-concept believing
that they are not worthy and that others cannot be trusted.

b. Maintaining, Regulating and Expanding the Self in Interpersonal Relationships – the sense of
self is continuously shaped through ongoing interaction with others or with significant
relationship partners. They act as “private audiences” with whom people carry an internal
dialogue. Oftentimes, however, people are not aware that they are being influenced by these
private audiences.

c. The Looking-Glass Self Theory – Charles Horton Cooley stated that a person’s self grows out of
society’s interpersonal interactions and the perception of others

- People internalize other people’s appraisal of them through more cognitively reflected
processes.

- Reflected appraisal are inferences regarding other’s appraisal of a person. It is gained

by observing how people react towards the individual.

d. Social Comparison – Hewstone et. Al (2015) cited the work of Leon Festinger in 1954
introduced another way of understanding oneself by comparing one’s traits, abilities, or
opinions to that of others.

- Is a process of comparing oneself with others in order to evaluate one’s own abilities
and opinions

- Upward Social Comparison – when an individual compares himself to others who are
better than him

- Downward Social Comparison – when an individual compares himself to someone who

is in a worse situation than he is especially when he is feeling low.

e. Social Identity Theory (Collective identity) – was formulated by Tajfel and Turner in 1979
which provides a framework about how people achieve understanding about themselves by
being a member of their group.

- People have a need for a positive social identity that is why they connect to a wider
social network.

- This idea assumes that as a member of the group they will not be discriminated by an
out-group.

- Social groups include gender, ethnicity, religion, profession, political membership, and
business organization.

SELF vs. IDENTITY

• Self – belongs to an individual level analysis which includes self-esteem, self-states, self-
efficacy and the like.

- The person that someone truly is or the entire person of the individual.
 - The total characteristics or qualities of a person both known and unknown to others
but known to oneself.

• Indentity – is based on societal or cultural level analysis such as cultural concept of oneself and
cultural make up which makes a person who he is.

- Is who a person believes she or he is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-
understanding

- The traits and characteristics, social relations, roles, and social group memberships
that define who one is.

- A way of making sense of some aspect or part of self-concept.

- Leary and Tangney (2012) explained that identities are not the stable markers of what
people expect to be, but rather are dynamically created in the moment

THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM: THE IMPORTANCE OF BEAUTY

• Culture – is defined as a social system that is characterized by the shared meanings that are
attributed to people and events by its members.

- A significant aspect of culture that strongly influences adolescents who are in a face-to-
face encounter with their physical selves is how their culture conceptualizes beauty.

- Beauty – the quality of being physically attractive or the qualities in a person or a thing
that give pleasure to the senses or the mind.

- In every culture and in every individual, the standards of beauty vary a lot.

THE FILIPINO CONCEPT OF BEAUTY

• Eurocentrism – defined as “a tendency to interpret the world in terms of European or Anglo-

American values and experiences”.

- Filipinos with Eurocentric features are seen everywhere in media.

• Colorism – an aspect of Eurocentrism defined as “the prejudicial or preferential treatment of

same-race people based solely on the color of their skin”.

SELF-ESTEEM AND THE IDEAL BODY IMAGE

• Self-esteem – the overall evaluation that a person has of himself which can be positive or
negative, high or low.

- Measure of self-worth based on some personal or social standard.

- A global evaluative dimension of the self.

- Is how valuable to himself and others the person perceives himself to be.

- People with positive or high self-esteem are happier, have a sense of accomplishment
and purpose and relate well with others.
- There are several factors that may affect a person’s self-esteem and physical
appearance is one of them. Factors that affect their perception of their bodies are
shaped both by the personal and social factors. Adolescent’s body image includes the
following:

1. Perception of their physical self when they look in the mirror

2. Feelings of like or dislike about the physical self that they see

3. Their thoughts and how they relate to their physical self

4. Perception of how people view them physically

- A person with a positive body image will have a high self-esteem and will often spend
more time taking care of their appearance.

- The attention that he gets for his physical beauty elevates the level of his self-esteem.

- When the person is not satisfied with what he sees which affects how he perceives
himself and feels that he will have a negative body image and a low self-esteem.

- The following are some aspects in culture that may have led to the aforementioned
misconceptions:

1. Society’s ideals of the perfect physical form which are: for women: white perfect skin,
small waistline, big breast and behind, long straight hair, long manicured nails, slender
and tall. For men: tall, tanned perfect skin, muscled physique, with 6-pach abs.

2. Images of perfection adolescents see in all types of media i.e. print, television, film
and internet. Mass media is a powerful tool that reinforces cultural beliefs and values.
Though young people may initially disagree with the set ideals of 7beauty, repeated
exposure via media lead them to believe in the misconceptions.

3. Since a standard has been set by society and reinforced by media, any characteristic
that does not conform to the standard is labelled as ugly. Body diversity in size and
structure due to genetic heritability is not tolerated. Being pretty and white skinned or
tanned and muscular had become associated with the intelligent, successful, popular,
healthy, and the disciplined. Opposite characteristics are associated with the dull, lazy,
ugly and the weak.
II. THE SEXUAL SELF

• Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual.

- Human sexuality is a topic that just like that just like beauty is culturally diverse.

- Ways in which it can be understood:

1. Historical

Ancient Greece

o Male assumes the dominant role

o Penis – (male symbol) viewed as the symbol of fertility.

o How the male body was structured was greatly admired.

o Wives – considered as objects to be possessed just like property.

o Women – forbidden to own property and had no legal and political rights. Not
allowed to read and write. Only function was to bear children

o Gyne – Greek work for woman. Means bearer of child.

Middle Ages (476 – 1450)

o Bore witness to the strong influence of the church, particularly on the matters
of sexuality.

o The church decreed that all sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were
considered evil.

o Women were labelled as either temptress (like Eve) or a woman of virtue (like
the Virgin Mary)

Protestant Reformation of the 16th century (1483 – 1546)

o Martin Luther, John Calvin and other Protestant leaders initiated a movement
against the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church.

o Protestantism believed that sexuality is a natural part of life and that priests
should be able to marry and have families.

o Martin Luther and John Calvin asserted that the reason for sexual intimacy
was to strengthen the physical and emotional bond between husbands and
wives and not just for procreation

17th and 18th century

o Puritans, a group of people who were discontented with the Church of

England rallied for religious, moral and societal reformation.
 o Had positive views on marital sex and did not condone sex outside of
marriage.

o Premarital sex- considered immoral

Victoria Era (1837 – 1901)

o Homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and considered to be threats to

social order.

o Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud became popular.

o People were not comfortable in discussing breast or buttocks, they used other
terms instead (like white meat or dark meat).

o Sex for women was just a marital duty and it was assumed that they were
pure and asexual.

o Women were told that they should not enjoy having sex, and if they did, there
was something wrong with them.

o Ejaculating more than once a month would greatly weaken a man

o Masturbation leads to blindness, insanity and death

o Despite all of thses beliefs, prostitution still flourished in London.

20th Century

o Interest in sexuality became more evident and accepted in society.

o The separation of church and state reduced the influence the church had over
sexual mores.

o Pregnancy can be controlled by natural and artificial contraception

o Increased incidence of sexually transmitted infections because of high risk

sexual activities.

o Rise of feminism allowed for changes in employment, home life, and sexual
standards for women

2. Biological

o Brain – initiates and organizes sexual behavior.

o Through the process of sexual reproduction, the next generation of human

beings are created by the fusion of egg cell and sperm cell.

o Secondary sexual changes – physical changes that distinguish the males from
females
Male

- Voice becomes much lower (breaks)

- Hair growth on chest, face, underarms, arms, legs and oubic area

- Increase in muscle size

- Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge

Female

- Breasts enlarge

- Hair growth under arms and pubic area

- Hip widens

- Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge

o Primary sexual changes – prepare the male and female’s body for procreation

Male

- Testes

- Penis

- Scrotum

- Seminal vesicles and prostate glands

Female

- Ovaries

- Fallopian tube

- Uterus

- Vagina

o When intercourse happens between a healthy, sexually mature male and

female then fertilization may take place and pregnancy (gestation period)
begins.

o First few weeks of gestation:

- Internal and external genital structures of all human fetus are the same

- Gender of the baby which is determined during fertilization is not yet

conspicuous. It can only be physically noted within 16th to 18th weeks of
pregnancy
 o Chromosomes – the threadlike structures found in the nucleus of each cell of
the body.

- Composed of genes which are the basic unit of heredity

- It is the sequence of DNA contained in the genes that gives instructions as to

how the body will be structured and how it will function.

- Human beings have 23 pairs (46) of chromosomes in the nucleus of each body
cell.

- Autosomes – first 22 pairs of chromosomes

- Sex chromosomes – (XX or XY) 23rd pair. It determines whether the individual is
male(XY) or female(XX).

- In the early stages of embryonic development, both sexes have similar internal
structures.

3. Sociobiological/Evolutionary

o This perspective studies how evolutionary forces affect sexual behavior.

o According to sociobiological theory, natural selection is a process by which organisms

that are best suited to their environment are most likely to survive

- Traits that lead to reproductive advantage tend to be passed on, whereas maladaptive
traits are lost.

- On the basis of human sexual behavior, it all begins with physical attraction

- Beauty is primarily an evolutionary standard for attracting the best male or female in
the lot to ensure that one’s genetic characteristics will be passed on to the next
generation

- Sexual preference (females with big breasts or for males with broad shoulders and
muscular torsos) is instinctively more for genetic survival than for pleasure or social
status.

4. Psychological

o Rosenthal (2013) also explained that sexuality is not a mere physical response. Rather,
it also involves emotions, thoughts and beliefs.

o According to Sigmund Freud, human beings are faced with two forces:

- Death or aggressive instinct (harm toward oneself or towards others)

- Sex instinct or libido (pleasure)

✓Does not only pertain to the sexual act rather it could also mean anything that
could give pleasure to the person
 ✓A person’s sexual energy is located in an area of the body at different
psychosexual stages. (erogenous zone includes the mouth, anus and genitals)

- Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

a. Oral stage – the child erogenous zone is the mouth which receives
gratification through eating and sucking

b. Anal stage – the erogenous zone is the anus in which sexual gratification is
derived from defecation

c. Phallic stage – erogenous zone is the genitals. Here the child experiences
sexual attraction towards the opposite sex parent.

Oedipus complex – boy child towards the mother

Electra complex – girl child towards the father

d. Latency stage – sexual impulses lie dormant as the child is occupied by social
activities such as going to school and playing

e. Genital stage – where the erogenous zone is again the genitals. At this time,
the sexual attraction is directed towards others, usually one of the opposite sex.

- Freud also regarded personality as composed of three structures:

a. Id – (pleasure principle) seeks for pleasure and aggression. Wants the person
to attain gratification immediately.

b. Superego – (moral principle) person’s sense of morality. Restricts the

demands of the id. Developed when children are taught the difference between
right and wrong.

c. Ego – (analytical principle) analyses the need of the id and its consequences as
dictated by the superego and thinks of ways to satisfy the need in an acceptable
manner.

o According to social learning theories, sexuality develops from behavior learned in

childhood from rewards and punishment, from imitation and identification and from
thoughts and perception.

5. Religious

o Judaism – holds a positive and natural outlook toward marital sex which they consider
as blessed by God and pleasurable for both man and woman. Sexual connections
provides an opportunity for spirituality and transcendence.

o Islam – family is considered of utmost importance, and celibacy within marriage is

prohibited. Muslim men are allowed to have up to four wives but Muslim women can
only have one husband. Sex is permitted only within marriage and extramarital sex is
penalized.
 o Taoism – originated in China. Sex is not only natural and healthy, but sacred union
necessary to people’s physical, mental and spiritual being. The sexual union is a way to
balance male and female energy.

o Hinduism – sexuality is seen as spiritual force, and the act of ritual lovemaking is a
means of both celebrating and transcending the physical.

o Roman Catholic – marriage is purely for intercourse and procreation. Pope John Paul II
confirmed the idea that married couples should engage in intercourse only for the
purposes of procreation as late as 1995 in the encyclical Evangelium Vitae. They further
believed homosexual orientation in itself is not sinful, but homosexual acts are immoral
and sinful. The use of birth control is strongly opposed but they agree to natural family
planning and prohibit abortion.

• Sexual Terminologies

- Sex – derived from the Latin word secare which means to divide

- Sexuality1 – means to unite.

- Sexual identity – includes sexual orientation (either homosexual or heterosexual), his

ability to manage sexual feelings (such as sexual arousal and attraction, activities,
interest and style of behavior) and his capacity to regulate his sexual behavior to avoid
undesirable consequences.

- Gender – characteristics of people as males or females. It is the lived role as boy or girl,
man or woman.

- Gender role - A set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should
think, act and feel.

- In DSM V (2013), the word sex and sexual refer to the biological indicators of male and
female or having the capacity to reproduce.

- Gender assignment – (natal gender) refers to the initial assignment as male or female
which usually occurs at birth.

- Gender reassignment – denotes an official and usually legal change of gender.

- Gender identity – is a category of social identity that refers to an individual’s

identification as male, female or some category other than male or female. It is a
person’s subjejective .sense of being a man or woman.

- Masculine – qualities and behaviors judged by a particular culture to be ideally

associated with or especially appropriate to men and boys

- Feminine - qualities and behaviors judged by a particular culture to be ideally

associated with or especially appropriate to women and girls.
 - Androgyny – those who have both masculine and feminine traits, feelings and
qualities.

- Asexuals – persons who do not experience sexual drives or attraction to either sex

- Hypersexual – persons with an excessive interest in sex to the point where it can cause
problems in one’s life.

• The Phases of Human Sexual Response

- Masters and Johnsons categorized the human erotic response into four stages which
they called the Human Sexual Response Cycle (HSRC):

1. Excitement

2. Plateau

3. Orgasm

4. Resolution

- Sexual response varies from person to person and sexual fulfillment can occur without
the completion of all phases described by Master and Johnson.

- Rosenthal (2013) has included the stage of desire prior to excitement which is a drive
or motivation to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities.

- The Triaphasic Model of Sexual Response was introduced by Helen Singer Kaplan which
includes only sexual desire, excitement and orgasm.

- The Erotic Stimulus Pathway Theory by David Reed includes four stages:

Seduction – all actions that enhance attractiveness such as what people wear and how
they act.

Sensation – sound, touch and smell that affect arousal.

Surrender – orgasm

Reflection – a positive or negative sexual experience that affects future sexual patterns

• The Chemistry of Lust, Love and Attachment

- Attraction – is a characteristic that causes pleasure or interest by appealing to a

person’s desires or tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the other

- Criteria of beauty are subjective and vary over time in different cultures.

- The universal hallmarks of beauty include characteristics of symmetry, averageness,

skin, hair, eyes, height, weight and age.

- Fisher et al., (2006) concluded that, rather than defining love as an emotion, “being in
love” can be considered a strong motivation – an addictive craving to be with the person
(Hewstone et al., 2015)
 - Early passionate love is best characterized as a “motivation or goal oriented state that
leads to various specific emotions, such as euphoria or anxiety.

- Unlike many emotions, love is not associated with any specific facial expressions, and it
is focused on a single reward.

- The emotions associated with love – elation, anxiety, joy, fear – may come and go. But
the motivation to be with the beloved – remains.

- The Phases of Romantic Love (Helen Fisher and colleagues, 1998 Lust Phase, Attraction
Phase, Attachment Phase, hormones

• John Lee’s Love Style

1. Eros – this type of love creates initial excitement of a new relationship. A romantic
and passionate love which emphasizes physical attraction and sexual desire.

2. Agape – altruistic and selfless love. The person shows his love without expecting to
receive the same in return.

3. Ludus – For ludic lovers, love is just a game, something for fun or entertainment.

4. Mania – intense feeling which may lead to obsessive and possessive love towards the
loved one.

5. Pragma – practical and business-like love.

• The Triangular Theory of Love (by Robert Sternberg, 1986)

 - According to Sternberg, love is made up of three components:

1. Intimacy – includes the desire to give and receive emotional closeness, support,
caring and sharing.

2. Passion – the hot component of love which can be described as intensely romantic or
sexual desire for another person usually accompanied by physical attraction and and
physiological arousal.

3. Commitment – the cold component of love. It is the decision to maintain the

relationship through good times and bad times.

- Sternberg also described several types of love based on the above components:

1. Liking (intimacy)

2. Infatuation (passion)

3. Empty love (commitment)

4. Romantic love (passion and intimacy)

5. Companionate love (intimacy and commitment)

6. Fatuous love (passion and commitment)

7. Consummate love (passion, intimacy and commitment)

• The Chemistry of Love

- The chemistry of love explains how several chemical substances in the body have been
found to naturally influence the experience of love:

1. Dopamine (DA) and Norepinephrine (NE) – neurotransmitters involved in mood,

motivation, attention and excitement.

2. Serotonin – neurotransmitter associated with mood, obsession, sex and sleep.

3. Phenylethylamine (PEA) – a neurochemical that can increase the levels of DA and NE

especially in the pathways involving mood and pleasure. This has been called the “love
drug” because high level of this substance has been associated with love and orgasm
and to people who are happy with their relationship.

Amphetamine – like PEA is partially responsible for the feelings of euphoria and
exhilaration experienced during infatuation.

4. Oxytocin and vasopressin – neuropeptides released from the pituitary gland. The
oxytocin causes the uterus to contract during childbirth and allows the release of
breastmilk. It is also important in trust, empathy, emotional accessibility, pair bonding
and close relationship. It also promotes positive judgments. Vasopresin is also important
in pair bonding and social behavior, memory formation, as well as blood pressure.
 5. Endorphins – were named for “endogenous morphine”, the body’s natural opiates,
similar to the man-made drugs morphine and heroin. If PEA, DA, and NE are responsible
for cocaine-like euphoria in the beginning of a relationship, at some point in time it may
drop losing the feeling of exhilaration. After the infatuation ends and if the long-term
relationship is continuous, endorphin levels may increase. It gives a feeling of security,
euphoria and peace.

- The psychology of love shows that there are psychological theories that would explain
why people fall in love.

1. Behavioral Reinforcement Theory – When someone received a reward such as free

ride or other favours from another, a positive feeling may be experienced. The better
the feelings associated with the behavior of a person, the more likely it is for the
behavior to be repeated.

2. Physiological Arousal Theory – This explains the most acceptable theories about
emotions: the bodies experience a physiological change first, then people assign an
emotion to that physical sensation. It is based on the interpretation of the brain

3. Evolutionary Theories – This explains that love arose due to some sociobiological
need. Males tend to look for young, healthy female mates to carry their offspring.
Females prefer males who have the resources to support them and their offspring.

- Based on social psychological data, the factors that would determine with whom
people fall inlove are:

1. Physical attractiveness

2. Reciprocity

3. Proximity

4. Similarities

• Diversity of Sexual Behavior

1. Sociosexual behavior – is sexual behavior involving more than one person. Generally
expressed in:

Heterosexual behavior (male with female)

Homosexual behavior (male with male or female with female)

2. Solitary behavior – is self-masturbation or self-stimulation with the intention of

causing sexual arousal, a feeling of pleasure and often results in orgasm.

- Masturbation is treated differently in different cultures.

- Erotic dreams are involuntary images that occur when people are asleep. Can result in
vaginal lubrication and penile erection and orgasm. In males, these are called nocturnal
emission or wet dreams.
 - There are, however, sexual behaviors that majority of societies will always consider
wrong or deviant:

o Having intercourse indiscriminately with several partners

o Engaging in paraphilic behaviors (exhibitionism, voyeurism, sexual sadism and

masochism)

- Rosenthal (2013) defined sexual orientation as a person’s predisposition or inclination

regarding sexual behavior, emotional attachment or physical attraction to one or both
sexes. The phrase ‘sexual orientation’ is preferred over ‘sexual preference’ which
implies a conscious or deliberate choice of a sexual partner. The following are types of
sexual orientations:

1. Homosexual – refers to a person whose sexual orientation is toward another of the

same sex.

a. Lesbian – a woman whose sexual and romantic attraction is toward men

b. Gay – a man whose sexual and romantic attraction is toward other men

2. Heterosexual – is a person whose sexual orientation is toward others of the opposite

sex.

3. Bisexual – a person who may be sexually oriented to both men and women.

4. Pansexual – a new sexual orientation of persons who are sexually attracted to people
regardless of their sex or gender identity. “Pan” is a Greek word for “all or every”.
Thus,they may also be called “gender blind” for they believe that gender and sex are not
determining factors for getting sexually attracted to others.

5. Transgender – according to DSM V (2013), refers to the broad spectrum of individuals

who transiently or persistently identify with a gender different from their natal gender.
Transexual denoted an individual who seeks, or has undergone a social transition from
male to female or female to male, which in many, but not all, cases also involve a
somatic transition by cross-sex hormone and genital surgery (sex reassignment surgery)

Gender dysphoria – if there is a distress that may accompany the incongruence between
one’s expressed gender or gender identity and one’s assigned gender.

• Sexually Transmitted Infections

1. HIV/AIDS – Human Immunodeficiency Syndrome is a virus while Acquired

Immunodeficiency Syndrome.

- HIV is a virus while AIDS is a condition or syndrome.

- HIV can lead to infections that attack and destroy the CD4 (Tcells) of the
immune system which is the body’s natural defense against such illness as
tuberculosis, pneumonia and cancer.
 - HIV without treatment can lead to AIDS but not all cases of HIV develop AIDS.

- Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a combination of medications that are used to

prevent HIV from replicating to protect the body against the virus and infection.
However, ART is not a cure.

2. Genital Herpes – this is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a large family of

viruses of different strains. These strains produce other non-sexually transmitted
diseases such as chicken pox and mononucleosis.

3. Gonorrhea – caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae which thrives in the

moist mucous membranes linings of the mouth, throat, vagina, cervix, urethra, and the
anal tract.

4. Syphilis – caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, a spirochete. If left

untreated, syphilis may progress through four phases: Primary (chancre sores appear),
Secondary (general skin rashes occur), latent (a period that can last for several years
with no overt symptoms), and tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness, paralysis, skin
ulcers, liver damage, mental problem and even death may occur).

5. Chlamydia – this is one of the most common STI, named for Chlamydia trachomatis,
an organism that spreads through sexual contact and infects the genital organs of both
sexes.

• Methods of Contraception (Artificial and Natural)

1. Hormonal Method of Contraception (prevents the release of an egg or ovulation)

a. Oral contraceptives (pills) – These are daily oral contraceptives. Some contain
estrogen and progestogen; others are progestin only and is over 99% effective if
used according to instructions.

b. The patch – it is a small patch you stick on to the skin that releases estrogen
and progestogen. It stops ovulation and is over 99% effective if used according
to instructions.

c. The ring – The contraceptive vaginal ring is a small plastic ring a woman
inserts into her vagina every month and releases hormones to stop ovulation. It
is over 99% effective if used appropriately based on the instructions.

d. Implants – The contraceptive implant is a small flexible rod that is placed

under the skin of the upper arm by a health professional and releases
progestogen to stop ovulation.

e. Injectible – The contraceptive injection which is a long-acting reversible

contraception does not depend on you taking it daily and is more than 99%
effective

2. Barrier Methods (methods that physically or chemically block the sperm from
reaching an egg and provide a barrier between direct skin to skin contacts)
 a. Diaphragm – it is a soft dome made of latex or silicone and is used with
spermicide. It is put into the vagina to cover the cervix and is 92-96% effective
when used correctly.

b. Cervical caps – these are similar to the diaphragm, though they are generally
always made of silicone. They are put into the vagina to cover the cervix and are
92-96% effective when used correctly.

c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides –Male condom is made up of thin

latex put over the penis to stop the sperm from entering vagina. It is 98%
effective when used exactly according to instructions. The female condom is
made of thin polyurethane that loosely lines the vagina and stops sperm from
entering. It is 95% effective if properly used

3. Behavioral Methods

a. Rhythm or Calendar Method – it is a way to determine a woman’s most fertile

and infertile times by charting the menstrual cycle. It is also known as natural
familyplanning or fertility awareness.

b. Abstinence or celibacy – it refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse

c. Outercourse – it is a sexual activity that does not include the insertion of the
penis into the vagina

d. Withdrawal (latin – coitus interruptus) – it happens when a man removes his

penis from the vagina and ejaculates outside of the woman’s body

4. Sterilization (procedures that make an individual permanently incapable of conceiving

or fertilizing a partner)

a. Tubal ligation/sterilization – it is the surgery for woman in which fallopian

tubes are tied to prevent eggs from travelling to the uterus so a woman cannot
get pregnant

b. Vasectomy – it is an operation in which the surgeon makes a small cut in the

upper part of the scrotum then ties or blocks the vas deferens. Men can still
have orgasm or ejaculation after the operation

5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – it is a small device that is placed in the uterus by a doctor
to prevent pregnancy

6. Emergency Contraception (EC) – it is a measure that protects against pregnancy after

unprotected sex has already occurred. It could be through IUD or higher dosage of pills.
III. THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF

• According to John Heskett, a British writer and lecturer on the economic, political, cultural and
human value of industrial design, design combines ‘need’ and ‘desire’ in the form of a practical
object that can also reflect the users identity and aspirations through its form and decoration.

- He explains that there is a subconscious effect of design in everyday life. This reflects
the personal identity wherever the person is: home, work, and restaurant or at leisure
park.

• Roland Barthes (1915-1980) the French critical theorist, was one of the first to observe the
relationships that people have with objects, and in particular looked at objects as signs or things
which could be decoded to convey message beyond their practical value.

- In 1950s he popularized the field of Semiology (the study of objects as signs).

- A sign is anything that conveys meaning. It was Barthes who revealed that everyday
objects are not just things but a complex system of signs which allows one to read
meaning into people and places.

• In Semiotic Analysis, objects function as signifiers in the production of meaning. They construct
a meaning and carry a message, which as a member of a culture one can understand

- Barthes argued that all things, verbal or visual, could be viewed as a kind of speech or
language.

• Semiotic is the study of signs that Barthes introduced. Examine how words, photographs,
images and objects can work as a language to communicate a range of ideas, associations and
feelings.

Two elements of signs:

- Signifier – physical form

- Signified – mental concept

• Theory of the meaning of material possessions – suggests that material goods can fulfil a range
of instrumental, social, symbolic and affective functions

1. Instrumental functions – the functional properties of a product

2. Social symbolic functions – the personal qualities, social standing, group affiliation
and gender role

3. Categorical functions – the extent to which material possessions may be used to

communicate group membership status

4. Self-expressive functions – a person’s unique qualities values or attitudes.

ECONOMIC SELF PRESENTATION AND IDENTITY

 • Economics – defined as the study of things that a person is lacking, of how people
make use of the things that they have, and of making the right decisions. It is the
condition of the person, group or region as regards to material prosperity.

• Economic self-sufficiency – is the ability of individuals and families to consistently

meet their needs

• Economic consciousness – the result of socialization and professionalization of the

subject that acquires a particular significance in human affairs. It includes social
perceptions, attitudes,relationships, and opinions of personal/social groups about
different economic objects and phenomena

• Economic identity – is a psychological phenomenon that results from social

categorization

SYMBOLIC MOTIVES

• Status – the extent to which people believe they can derive a sense of recognition or
achievement from owning and using the right kind of product, can be an important
motivator of behavior. Materialism is the importance ascribed to the ownership and
acquisition of material goods in achieving major life goals

• Affective Motives – is a concept in Environmental Psychology. Affect (emotions) serves

as a motivator of pro-environmental behavior

Anticipated affect – is when a person is expecting to feel good or guilty when doing
something.

Anticipated positive affect (excitement, pride, happiness) and Negative affect (anger,
sadness, frustration) are important predictors of whether to buy or not to buy the
product.

THE ROLE OF CONSUMER CULTURE ON THE SENSE OF SELF AND IDENTITY

• Consumer identity – is the pattern of consumption that describes the consumer.

• Consumerism – is the preoccupation with and an inclination towards the buying of

consumer goods. It is also based on the theory that an increasing consumption of goods
is economicallydesirable.

• Behavioral Finance – is a new field that combines behavioral and cognitive

psychological theory with conventional economics and finance to provide explanations
for why people make irrational financial decisions
IV. THE SPIRITUAL SELF

THE PRACTICE OF RELIGION: BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL BEING AND POWER

• Supernatural being – is a being that is better, and more powerful than any creature in
the natural world. The supernatural or above natural includes all that cannot be
explained by the laws of nature, including things characteristics of or relating to ghosts,
gods, or other types of spirits and other non-material beings, or things beyond nature.

THE CONCEPT OF DUNGAN (SPIRIT OR SOUL)

• Animism – is one of the oldest beliefs which is taken from the Latin word anima
meaning breath or soul. It is the belief that everything in nature – living things like trees,
plats and even non-living rocks or streams have their own spirit or divinity

• The soul or spirit in the different regions of the Philippines

1. Kaluluwa – Tagalogs

2. Gimokud – Bagobos

3. Makatu – Bukidnons

4. Dungan – Ilonggos (when the person is alive); “Kalag” or detached, free when he is
dead

5. Ikaruruwa by the Ibanags

6. Kadkadduwa – Ilokanos (when the soul is in the physical body and it is seen as a
constant companion; karuruwa when it departs

• The soul according to the indigenous Filipino is known as kaluluwa, ikaruruwa or

karuruwa. It is taken from the root word duwa which means two. The soul has two parts
– physical part (where it is connected to the body and its life); spiritual (where it exists
on his own)

• For the Ibanags, the soul is the principle of life in man. Body is the matter, soul is the
form. As longs as body and soul are one unit, man is alive. Death is the separation of the
soul from the body

• For Ilonggos, soul cannot be seen by the human eye. Sometimes the Dungan may
show itself in for of insects or a small animal like lizard

• For the Bisayans, the Dungan may leave the body voluntarily while the person is
asleep. It is believed that whatever happens to the Dungan happens to the physical
body as well. Dungan is not located in any specific part of the body rather it is believed
to grow proportionately with the person’s body. It is normally weak at birth that is why
babies are said to be susceptible to usug, the unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors
of a strong of a strong body to a weak one by holding, talking or just looking at the
weaker one.
 • The Bisayan Dungan has secondary meaning of willpower. A strong Dungan is the
intellectual and psychological capacity to dominate or persuade others to one’s way of
thinking. A person with a lot of willpower is said to have a strong Dungan. The death of
Dungan leaves the body through the nose, eyes, ears and other body orifices and
eventually goes with the air or the wind towards the upper regions. There it waits until it
can find another body to enter

RITUALS AND CEREMONIES

• Ritual – is a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed

according to a prescribed order. It consists of a sequence of activities involving gestures,
words, and objects, performed in a specific place, according to set of sequence. It is
usually prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community.
Rituals are formalized behaviors that is set aside from everyday life that allow
communities to explore their religious and/or cultural worlds through action

• Rites – refer to the spoken word used in ritual to convey meaning and value, to evoke
an image through the use of metaphor, or elicit commitment or loyalty to a cause, set of
beliefs, community or person/s. Functions of rituals include:

1. Symbolic expression of actual social relations, status, or roles of individuals in a

society

2. Transcendent, numinous (spiritual) reality that shows the ultimate values of a

community

3. A set of behaviors and beliefs that are symbolic of social, psychological, or numinous
realities (non-rational functions)

• The function of rituals according to Van Gennup (1929), may involve activities that can
be both secular and/or spiritual as well as healing and/or destructive

• Ceremony – refers to movements or gestures expressing feelings or beliefs beyond the

limitations of speech. It can be elaborate or simple, formal or intimate. It is also a set of
formal actions performed as prescribed by a ritual or a custom such as in a wedding
ceremony. It may also be a conventional social gesture or act of courtesy.

RELIGION, SPIRITUALITY AND IDENTITY

• Religion - is an organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals and symbols that increases an
individual’s connection to a sacred or transcendent other.

- May also be referred to as an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and

rules used to worship God.

- An interest, a belief, or an activity deemed to be of utmost importance to a

person or group.
 • William James defined personal religion as the “feelings, acts, and experience of
individual men in their solitude, so far the apprehend themselves to stand in relation to
whatever they may consider divine.”

• Top 10 religions in the world by population

1. Christianity -2.1 billion followers

2. Islam – 1.5 billion followers

3. Hinduism – 900 million followers

4. Buddhism – 376 million followers

5. Sikhism – 23 million followers

6. Judaism – 14 million followers

7. Bahaism – 7 million followers

8. Confucianism – 6.3 million followers

9. Jainism – 4.2 million followers

10. Shintoism – 4 million followers

• Religiousness – is the degree by which one is affiliated with an organized religion in

terms of the person’s participation in the prescribed rituals and practices, connection
with its beliefs, and involvement with its community believers

• Spirituality – involves experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent

manner and living in a way that benefits others and society. It could also be related to a
search for the sacred (may signify a person, object, principle, or a concept that
transcends the self)

• Spiritual identity – the persistent sense of self that addresses ultimate questions about
nature, purpose, and meaning of life.

MAGIC AND WITCHCRAFT

• Magic – is the power of apparently influencing the course of events by using

mysterious or supernatural forces. It is the ability to use supernatural forces to make
impossible things happen.

• Magician – the one who performs the magic like casting spells and summoning spirits.
It is derived from the Old French magiciien, “magician or sorcerer” which is rooted in the
Greek word for magical, magikos or magos.

• Sorcerer – is translated from the Greek word pharmakos, and carries with it the idea
of medicine, magic potions, drugs, and poison

• Wizard – is one who is thought to be acquainted with the secrets of the nonmaterial
or unseen world
 • Necromancer – is one who is seeking unto the dead. It is a term that includes all forms
of attempt to make contact with departed spirits.

• Barang – is the Filipino term for a sorcerer. It is used to describe malignant sorcery or
familiar spirits (usually a swarm of destructive insects, specifically carnivorous beetles)

• Mambabarang – is a person who practices barang

• Binarang – is the target of the sorcery or witchcraft

• Kulam – the Tagalog term for voodoo or witchcraft. It is one of the most well-known
aspects of Philippine folklore.

• Mangkukulam – a person who uses black magic or spells on a victim.

• Albulario/mananambal – is a Filipino practitioner of traditional medicine; he is also a

medicine man who is also capable of performing sorcery. Albulario is a Filipino
witchdoctor, folk healer or medicine man

• Most Filipinos aside from being superstitious people believe in the mythical creatures
of local folklore which includes the aswang, mananaggal, kapre, dwende, sirena, syokoy,
engkanto, sigbin, tikbalang, tianak and many others.

FINDING AND CREATING MEANING IN LIFE

• Logotherapy - a term coined by Victor Frankl, an existential philosopher. Logos is a

Greek word which stands for meaning. Logotherapy aims to help the person search for
the meaning of his existence

• Three basic principles on discovering meaning in life:

1. Meaning in life – in logotherapy, man should see existence as experiencing life’s ups
and downs. Finding meaning in life does not mean that people should strive to become
perfect.

2. Will to meaning – The meaning that one attaches to experience is not obvious. Since
the meaning varies from person to person and situation to situation, it is quite
challenging discover what the experience means to be fulfilled. The meaning given to
one’s life may also vary at any given moment

3. Freedom to will – People are given the freedom to make life choices which includes
how they respond to life events. People can discover meaning through the values that
they attach to things connected with their lives. Values can be creative (artistic
expression or by creating a work doing a deed) experiential (interacting with social
environment or by experiencing something or encountering someone) and attitudinal
(the attitude people take toward unavoidable suffering).
V. THE POLITICAL SELF

THE MEANING OF POLITICS

• Politics – is derived from Greek word Politika: which is etymologically defined ‘affairs of the
cities’. Politics is the process of making decisions that applies to all members of a group. It is the
ability to govern and control over a group of people in a community, state or nation. It can be
inferred from this view that a person’s ability to influence others by making a decision for them
is one of the essential qualities in one’s political self.

• Deutsch and Gerard determined the two types of social influence:

1. Normative Influence – based on conforming to the positive expectations of others;

people tend to avoid behaving in ways that will lead to social punishment or disapproval

2. Informational Influence – based on accepting the information obtained from others as

evidence of reality

• Leadership – is the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the
group (Myers, 2015)

• Leadership style – is a pattern of leadership behavior which is repeatedly shown as

evident across a variety of situations. It can be classified as follows:

1. Autocratic leadership – is leadership that is directive, non-participative, and

domineering

2. Democratic leadership – is leadership that is participative, communicative, and

egalitarian

3. Laissez-faire leadership – is hands-off leadership, with few attempts made to

influence others.

• With regard to what leaders and followers offer to one another, the following are the
leaders’ descriptions:

1. Transactional leaders – leaders who focus on the proper exchange of

resources, who give followers something in exchange for something the leaders
want

2. Transformational (charismatic leaders) – are leaders who focus on aligning

the group or organizational goals with the followers’ need and aspirations by
developing an appealing vision (whereby organizational needs are placed above
self-interest)

3. Laisses-faire leaders - are leaders who engage in ‘non-leadership’, that is they

avoid making decisions, hesitate in taking action and are often absent when
needed.
 • Open Space Technology (OST) – is an approach to purpose-driven leadership which
initially has no formal agenda but eventually leads to a specific or important purpose or
task.

Principles of OST

1. Whoever comes are the right people

2. Whatever happens is the only thing that could have happened

3. Whenever it starts is the right time

4. When it’s over, it’s over

• The Law of Two Feet – “When you find yourself neither learning nor contributing, use
your two feet and go to some more productive places.”

DEVELOPING A FILIPINO IDENTITY: VALUES, TRAITS, COMMUNITY, AND INSTITUTIONAL

FACTORS

• Pakikipagkapwa-tao – is the shared sense of identity and consciousness of the ‘other’.

It is treating others with respect and dignity as an equal not someone that is beneath
the individual

• Family orientation – is regarded as important among Filipino families. When Filipino

parents are old and cannot take care of themselves, they are very rarely brought by
their children to institutions like Homes for the Aged. They are expected to care for their
old family members. When Filipinos turned 18, they are not expected to move out of
their parents’ home unlike in Western countries

• Ability to find joy and humor in everything – In spite of experienced adversities and
struggles in calamities, Filipinos are optimistic and always positive

• Flexibility, adaptability and creativity – sometimes referred to as ‘diskarte”.

• Filipinos learned to become resilient and acquired a good ability to survive. Being
hardworking, industrious, and resourceful, Filipinos are very determined and
persevering in accomplishing whatever they set their minds to.

• Three main traits that underlie the Filipino and Filipino values are:

- Pakikipagkapwa-tao (smooth interpersonal relationship)

- Being familyoriented

- Mapagmahal (loving and caring)

• Spirit of cooperation or bayanihan – also referred to as damayan.

• Being onion-skinned or balat-sibuyas – described as easily affected by slight insult.

• Use of “po” and “opo”

VI. THE DIGITAL SELF

• Digital literacy – is defined as those capabilities possessed by individuals who are living,
learning and working in a digital society

• Online disinhibition – is the lack of restraint one feels when communicating online in
comparison to communicating in-person

- Positive effect: users can exhibit extraordinary acts of kindness and charity

- Negative effect: anonymity and altered psychological environment may allow users to
communicate more objectionable needs and desires onto others.

- Two categories:

o Benign disinhibition

o Toxic disinhibition

- Cyberbullying – is bullying that takes place using electronic technology. It is the willful
and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computer, cellphones and other
electronic device. It can be in the form of harassing, threatening, humiliating, hassling of
peers, spreading rumors, creating web pages, videos and fake social network profiles to
make fun of others. It can also be through taking photos and videos of others without
their knowledge and distributing them online.

- Cyber harassment – is the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) to

harass, control, manipulate or habitually disparage a child, adult business group without
a direct or implied threat of physical harm. It is the adult form of cyberbullying

I, ME, MYSELF AND MY USER ID ONLINE IDENTITY

• Digital identity (DI) – refers to anything that describes a persona an individual presents
across all the digital spaces that he/she is represented in.

• Symbolic markers – express one’s identity to others and helps them make sense of it
themselves. These are the signals that represent who the person is offline such as hair,
clothes and body modification. On the other hand, there could be another self-
presentation if a person goes online.

• Internet disembodiment – refers to the identity, soul or spirit separate from physical
body. Social media allows people to adopt identities independent of the bodies and the
markers it contain. According to Turkle (1995), on the internet, people can be whoever
they want to be.

• User ID – lets a person associate a persistent ID for a single user with that user’s
engagement data from one or more sessions initiated from one or more devices.

• Username – is also called login name, logon name, sign-in name, sign-on name which
is a unique sequence of characters used to identify a user and allow access to a
computer system, computer network, or online account
 • Dissociative imagination – consciously or unconsciously, people may feel that the
imaginary characters that “created” exist in a different space, that one’s online persona
along with the online others live in a make-believe dimension, separate and apart from
the demands and responsibilities of the real world.

• Solipsistic introjection – a notion that it’s only in their heads or minds. When people
don’t know what a virtual person looks or sounds like, people tend to assign traits to
those individuals which is an imaginary interaction with the introjected character

• Dissociative anonymity – as the word “anonymous” indicates, a person can have no

name or atleast not the real name. People don’t have to own their behavior by
acknowledging it within the full context of who ‘they” really are.

SELF-PRESENTATION STRATEGIES AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

• Self-presentation – is a range of strategies that people adopt to shape what others

think of them

1. Self-promotion – the person who is using self-promotion is trying to show that he/she
is competent, effective, or a winner. This person expects respect. He/she speaks proudly
about their experience, education or achievement. He/she always makes people aware
of their accomplishments

2. Ingratiation – a person using ingratiation in presenting oneself to others has a desire

to be likeable. They expect affection. This person takes an interest in one’s personal
lives to show them that they are friendly. He/she often uses flattery and favours to
make others like them.

3. Exemplification – has an intention to achieve worth from others. He/she expects

others to feel guilty by their actions. This person tries to appear like a hard-working
dedicated employee to make other feel less worthy that they are. He/she stays at work
late so that people will know that they are hard-working

4. Intimidation – tries to appear dangerous or ruthless. He/she expects others to be

afraid of them. People do this when they are expecting others to finish a task.

5. Supplication – would like to appear helpless (handicapped or unfortunate). He or she

aims to achieve nurturance from others. This person would act as if they know less than
others so people will help them out. He/she pretends mot to understand something to
gain someone’s help.

• Self-enhancement – the tendency to think of oneself in a favourable light

• Impression management – refers to a deliberate attempt to distort one’s responses in

order to create a favourable impression with others.

IMPACT OF ONLINE INTERACTIONS ON THE SELF

• Although online encounters are easy and more convenient than real life encounters,
facial expression, body language, eye contact and conversation skills suffer.
 • Studies showed that ‘others’ on the internet constitute a distinctive “looking glass”
that produces a “digital self” that differs from the self formed offline

BOUNDARIES OF THE SELF ONLINE

• Personal boundaries – are the set of guidelines, rules or limits that a person creates to
identify reasonable, safe and permissible ways for people to behave towards them and
how they respond in case someone breaks these rules or oversteps the limits

• Asynchronicity – allows a person to think more carefully about he/she would like to
say before posting, which could help when someone has trouble with face to face
interactions.

PRIVATE VS. PUBLIC

• In the public mode, the post will be treated as an open book

• Because of security, many online users are using the private mode. Invisibility is also a
gauge to misinterpret oneself

PERSONAL/INDIVIDUAL VS. SOCIAL IDENTITY ONLINE

• Social identity – is usually based on group affiliation

• There is a paradigm shift with regards to identity. In the modern era (enlightenment
through 20th century), identity is described as fixed, stable and unitary. In post-modern
period (now), identity is considered as fluid, multiple and socially constructed. Sherry
Turkle pointed out that people have different roles in different settings.

• In sociology, identity theory (Stryker, 1980) explained that individuals have “role
identities”. It is the character and the role an individual devises as an individual devises
as an occupant of a particular social position. “Self” is hierarchical ordering of identities
by salience. The greater the commitment on an identity, the greater the salience of the
identity. Salience of identity influences behavioral choices in a situation.

GENDER AND SEXUALITY ONLINE

• Gender intensification hypothesis – states that psychological and behavioral

differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of
increased socialization pressure to conform to masculine and feminine gender roles.