Simulation of FBG
Simulation of FBG
Simulation of FBG
A Thesis
Presented to
The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
Rasika Dahanayake
May, 2016
SIMULATIONS OF STEP-LIKE BRAGG GRATINGS IN
SILICA FIBERS USING COMSOL
Rasika Dahanayake
Thesis
Approved: Accepted:
______________________________ ______________________________
Advisor Dean of the College
Dr. Sergei F. Lyuksyutov Dr. John Green
______________________________ ______________________________
Faculty Reader Dean of the Graduate School
Dr. Robert R. Mallik Dr. Chand Midha
______________________________ ______________________________
Faculty Reader Date
Dr. Alper Buldum
______________________________
Department Chair
Dr. David Steer
ii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the research was to build a model for simulations of Fiber
Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors under harsh conditions. In this thesis we were
nm, 1310 nm, and 1530 nm), also we introduced a novel 3D model of FBG. The
3D model of the FBG is used to study the modes of the fiber under varying
grating period (1310 nm, 908.62 nm, and 454.31 nm) and with varying number
of slabs in the grating (10, 50, and 100). The novelty of this work is an
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First I would like to thank Dr. Sergei Lyuksyutov for being my advisor and
taking me into your research group. I was able to learn and grow under your
guidance and advice during the project and throughout my time at the
University of Akron.
Then I would like to thank Professor Robert Mallik and Professor Alper
Pedram Esfahani and Liudmyla Barabanova for the help and guidance during
I am grateful to my parents for all the love and guidance they have given me
throughout my life.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Ruvini for the love and support. You
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………..….……...….….…vii
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………....…....……viii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….…...1
II. BACKGROUND…………………………………………………..………………...3
2.3.1. Waveguides…………………………………………….……….11
v
2.4.2. Types of FBG’s…………………………………….…………...25
2.4.3. Photosensitivity………………………………….….………....31
III. PROCEDURE…………………………………………………………………….43
V. CONCLUSIONS…..………………………………………………........…………82
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….....………84
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.2 Simulation results of the fiber with 10 gratings for different grating
periods……………………………………………………………………...…………..78
4.3 Simulation results of fiber’s with grating period Λ = 454.31 nm, and
different number of slabs…..…………………………………………...……………79
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.3.1 These are several of the electric field patterns for different LP modes in
a fiber. Red is for positive and blue is for negative values of the electric field
[22]............................................................................................................………19
2.4.1 The Original setup used by Meltz, Morey and Glenn [20].………………..22
viii
2.4.8 The defect Ge(1) in germania-doped silica fiber……………………………34
2.4.11 Diagram of the area (A) in the interval between -1 to 1. The area under
the function y is found by the integration [36]…………….…………………...…38
3.1 Basic model of the 2D fiber. Center circle is the core and the bigger circle
is the cladding……………………………………………………………………...….45
3.2 A close up of the triangular shaped mesh used for the 2D model………….48
3.4 The 3D model of the single grating with thickness Λ =454.31 nm……...….54
3.8 The grating with of the FBG with 10 slabs. Where the slabs in the core with
even number is assigned with the core material and the odd number is
assigned with grating material. The outer was cylinder was assigned with the
material of the cladding……………………………………………...…..….……….57
3.9 The grating with of the FBG with 50 slabs with each even numbered disk
assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk assigned with
grating material ……………………………………………………...……...............58
ix
3.10 The grating with of the FBG with 100 slabs with each even numbered disk
assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk assigned with
grating material …………………………………………………………….………...58
3.11 The tetrahedral mesh on the 3D model. Since the light propagates through
the core, it has a smaller mesh to increase the accuracy of calculations.
Cladding was given a larger mesh to decrease the unnecessary use of the
computer power……………………………….………………………………………59
3.12 A close up of the tetrahedral shaped mesh used for the 3D model……....60
4.1 LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right………………………………………………….………………………..……62
4.2 LP12 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right………………………………………………….……………………………..62
4.3 LP21 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right………………………………………………….……………………………..62
4.4 LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left compared to
simulated results of a few modes on the top right and on bottom, the simulated
results have the same outer diameter but the inner diameter is
changing………………………………………………………………………………..63
4.5 LP41 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right ………………………………………………………………………………..63
4.6 LP51 mode experimental on the left compared to simulated result on the
right……………………………………………………………………………………..64
4.7 LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right…………………………………………………….……………………..……65
4.8 LP02 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right…………………………………………………….……………………..……65
x
4.9 LP12 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right…………………………………………………….………………….....……65
4.10 LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left compared to
simulated results of few modes on the top right and on
bottom……………………………………………………………………………..……66
4.11 LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right……………………………………………………..…………..………..……67
4.12 LP02 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result on
the right……………………………………………………..…………..………..……67
4.14 LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result of
the transmitted wave on the right. The resultant mode indicates instability in
the mode……………………………………………………………..…………………70
4.15 Power distribution of the transmitted for the fiber with no FBG………..70
4.16 The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the middle and
the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted wave modes
are identical……………………………………………….……………...……………71
4.18 The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the middle and
the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted wave modes
are identical……………………………………………..…………………...………..72
4.20 Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and period 1310nm…….……….73
xi
4.21 LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result of
the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 1310nm. The sustained mode
indicates instability.……………….………………………………….….…………..73
4.22 Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and
grating period 1310nm……………………………………….………………………73
4.23 Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ………….74
4.24 LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result of
the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ.…………………………….………74
4.25 Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and
grating period 2Λ………………………………………...……………………………74
4.26 Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ…….......…75
4.27 LP12 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated result of
the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ.……………………………..………75
4.28 Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and
grating period Λ…………………………………………………………………….....75
4.29 For the fiber with 50 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave on left.
The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.………………………...……………...………...……..…………….…………76
4.30 Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 50 slabs and
grating period Λ……………………………………………………………………….76
4.31 For the fiber with 100 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave on left.
The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.……………………………...……………………….…………………………..77
4.32 Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 100 slabs and
grating period Λ……………………………………………………...………………..77
xii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
flexible from dielectric materials such as silica (Glass) or plastic, it’s a fiber
these fibers information can be transmitted. These fibers possess the ability to
wire cables.
In 1978 Ken Hill demonstrated the first Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG). A
and transmit others [7], Therefore FBG’s can be used as optical filters or as
laser propagation along a fiber core. After the discovery of external imprinting
1
technique by Gerald Meltz in 1989, FBG fabrication became possible at an
industrial level.
for a high temperature sensor. In this thesis we will be using finite element
analysis to build a basic model to study FBGs. The next step would be to study
2
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND
The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts, the Core,
the Cladding, and the Buffer. The Core is made of cylindrical dielectric
range. If we described the core to have a diameter of 2a the radius would be “a”
The cladding is the material that surrounds the core, even though the light
can be propagated through the core without the cladding, it is necessary for
the proper functioning of the fiber. We can describe the refractive index of the
Reducing the loss of light from the core to the air from transmission.
3
The buffer is an additional coating that is made out of plastic; it is used on
The relationship between the refractive indices of cladding and core can be
shown as,
n1 > n2
refractive index n1 and a cladding of refractive index n2, the fiber is in air,
4
2.2. Geometrical Optics
Geometrically the light ray entering the fiber should have an angle
small enough with the normal of the input face so that it would undergo total
For the light to be guided along the fiber by total internal reflection the
angle θ2 must be bigger than the critical angle θc of the core to cladding
interface[3].
𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
5
That is,
𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ≥
𝑛1
Therefore,
𝑛2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ≥
𝑛1
Now by using the Snell’s law for the input face interface, we can determine
Sinθ1,
𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑛0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0
𝑛1
Now, we can use the relationship of Sin2θ + Cos2θ = 1 to find a value for Sinθ0,
𝑛2 2 𝑛0 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 = 1 ≥ ( ) + ( ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃0
𝑛1 𝑛1
𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0 ≤ √ (2.2.1)
𝑛02
𝑛2
−1 √ 1
− 𝑛22
𝜃0 ≤ 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (2.2.2)
𝑛02
6
2.2.1. Numerical Aperture
defines the range of angles which the fiber can accept or emit light. In other
words it is the number that shows the Capacity the fiber has to gather light.
The higher the Numerical aperture is more light the fiber can gather.
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎
By using the equation (2.1.1.1) we can get and expression for NA,
7
2.3. Wave optics in fibers
the optical fiber. Since light is an electro-magnetic (EM) wave field vectors 𝐸̅
̅ = 𝜀0 𝐸̅ + 𝑃̅
𝐷 (2.3.1)
𝐵̅ = 𝜇0 𝐻
̅ (2.3.2)
and linear susceptibility𝜒𝑖𝑗 , where 𝜒𝑖𝑗 is a second rank tensor and is related to
8
Now we can consider the optical fiber (Figure 2.1.3). We can assume the
̅=0
∇∙𝐷
∇ ∙ 𝐵̅ = 0
Figure 2.2.2: Optical fiber with Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) and Cylindrical
coordinates (r,θ,z).
1
𝐸̅ = [𝐸𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑍) + 𝐸𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) ]
2
9
Now by using the Maxwell’s equations,
𝜕𝐵̅
∇ × 𝐸̅ = − (2.3.4)
𝜕𝑡
̅
𝜕𝐷
̅=
∇×𝐻 + 𝐽̅ (2.3.5)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸̅ 𝜕𝑃̅
̅ = 𝜀0
∇×𝐻 + (2.3.6)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 𝐸̅ 𝜕 2 𝑃̅
∇ 𝐸̅ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
2
+ 𝜇0 2 (2.3.7)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 𝐸̅
∇ 𝐸̅ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜀𝑖𝑗
2
(2.3.8)
𝜕𝑡 2
10
2.3.1. Waveguides
𝜇=1
1
𝐸𝑡 = ∑[𝐴𝜇 (𝑧)𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝜇 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐]
2
𝜇=1
𝜌=∞
+ ∑∫ 𝐴𝜌 (𝑧)𝜉𝜌𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝜌 𝑧) 𝑑𝜌 (2.3.9)
𝜌=0
Where:𝜉𝜇𝑡 is the radial transverse field distribution of the µth guided mode.
𝜉𝜌𝑡 is the radial transverse field distribution of the ρth radiation mode.
In the equation (2.1.2.7) the polarization has been included by using the
the radiation modes. The power of the µth mode can be found to be |Aµt|2 in
1 +∞ +∞ ∗
1 𝛽𝜇 +∞ +∞
∗
∫ ∫ 𝑒̂𝑧 [𝜉𝜇𝑡 × 𝜉𝜈𝑡 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = [ ] ∫ ∫ 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝜉𝜈𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝛿𝜇𝜈
2 −∞ −∞ 2 𝜔𝜇0 −∞ −∞
(2.3.10)
11
Where: 𝑒̂𝑧 is the unit vector along the direction of propagation z.
For the guided modes 𝛿𝜇𝜈 is the Kronecker’s delta and is unity for
For the radiation modes 𝛿𝜇𝜈 is the Dirac delta function and is
From the equation (2.3.10) we can see that for the weakly guided case
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝜕
𝐻𝑡 = √ [𝑒̂𝑧 × 𝜉𝑡 ] (2.3.11)
𝜇0 𝜕𝑧
The fields Et and Ht also satisfies the wave optics equations a well as
For the waveguide in the optical fiber the mode fields in the core are J-
Bessel functions and for the cladding they are K-Bessel functions. The two sets
of orthogonally polarized solutions for the general case are given for the
12
For the core (r ≤ a),
𝑟 cos 𝜇𝜃
𝜉𝑥 = 𝐶𝜇 𝐽𝜇 (𝑢𝜇𝜌 ) ( ) (2.3.12)
𝑎 sin 𝜇𝜃
𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 √ 𝜉 (2.3.13)
𝜇0 𝑥
𝐽𝜇 (𝑢𝜇𝜌 ) 𝑟 cos 𝜇𝜃
𝜉𝑥 = 𝐶𝜇 𝐾𝜇 (𝜔𝜇𝜌 ) ( ) (2.3.14)
𝐾𝜇 (𝜔𝜇𝜌 ) 𝑎 sin 𝜇𝜃
𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 √ 𝜉 (2.3.15)
𝜇0 𝑥
Where the normalization parameters for the equations used above are,
2𝜋𝑎
𝜈= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑎 √𝑘12 − 𝑘22 (2.3.16𝑎)
𝜆
2𝜋𝑎
𝑢= √𝑛12 − 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
2
(2.3.16𝑏)
𝜆
𝜔2 = 𝜈 2 − 𝑢 2 (2.3.16𝑐)
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑛2 [𝑏 ( ) + 1] (2.3.16𝑑)
𝑛2
𝜔2
𝑏= 2 (2.3.16𝑒)
𝑢
13
Where: 𝜆 is the wavelength in vacuum.
depends on the properties of the fiber and the wavelength of the light wave,
𝜉𝑦 = 𝐻𝑥 = 0
Since we know the power carried by the fiber to be |Aµ|2 and by using
constant Cµ to be,
2𝜔 √𝜇0 ⁄𝜀0
𝐶𝜇 = √ (2.3.17)
𝑎𝜈 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜋𝑒𝜇 |𝐽𝜇−1 (𝑢)𝐽𝜇+1 (𝑢)|
Now by using the boundary condition for the core-cladding boundary for
the equations (2.3.12) & (2,3,14), we can find the eigenvalue equation for the
waveguide.
𝐽𝜇 (𝑢) 𝐾𝜇 (𝜔)
= (2.3.18)
𝑢 × 𝐽𝜇±1 (𝑢) 𝜔 × 𝐾𝜇±1 (𝜔)
14
2.3.2. Coupled-Mode theory
the waveguides would remain the same. Now we start with the wave equation
[6, 37].
𝜕 2 𝐸̅ 𝜕 2 𝑃̅
∇ 𝐸̅ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 + 𝜇0 2
2
(2.3.19)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The total polarization due the dielectric medium could be divided to two
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 + 𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (2.320)
Where, ̅̅̅
𝑃𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜒𝐸 𝜇
shown below.
𝜕 2 𝐸𝜇𝑡 𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,𝜇
∇2 𝐸𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 + 𝜇0 (2.3.21)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
15
Now we need to substitute the modes we got in the wave guides equation
(2.3.9) into the coupled wave equation (2.3.20), and then to further simplify the
relationship we can use the relation of the amplitude of the mode change over
a distance.
𝜕 2 𝐴𝜇 𝜕𝐴𝜇
≪ 𝛽𝜇 (2.3.22)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧
𝜇=1
𝜕𝐴𝜇 𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
∑ [−𝑖𝛽𝜇 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝜇 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐] = 𝜇0 (2.3.23)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜇=1
integrating the wave equation (2.3.19) over the cross section of the fiber and
propagation equation,
𝜇=1
𝜕𝐴𝜇 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽 𝑧)
∑ [−2𝑖𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝑒 𝜇 + 𝑐𝑐]
𝜕𝑧
𝜇=1
+∞
𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
= ∬ 𝜇0 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (2.3.24)
−∞ 𝜕𝑡 2
Above equation could be used to describe the coupling of the modes. This
includes both forward and backwards propagating modes. The total of the
16
We can write the electric and magnetic fields as given below.
1
𝐸𝑡 = (𝐴 𝜉 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑣 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝐵𝜇 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝜇 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐) (2.3.25)
2 𝑣 𝑣𝑡
1
𝐻𝑡 = (𝐴 𝐻 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑣 𝑧) + 𝑐𝑐 − 𝐵𝜇 𝐻𝜇𝑡 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝜇 𝑧) − 𝑐𝑐) (2.3.26)
2 𝑣 𝑣𝑡
Now by substituting the fields into the equation (2.3.22), we can come
+∞
𝜕 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
= ∬ 𝜇0 𝜉𝜇𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (2.3.27)
−∞ 𝜕𝑡 2
Now to find the modal power in the core of the fiber we use a term η,
which is defined as the ratio of the power confined in the core to the total power.
For the LP modes we can use the closed form given below,
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∗
2 ∫𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 (𝑒𝜇𝜌 × ℎ𝜇𝜌 ) 𝑧̂ 𝑑𝐴 𝑢2 𝜔2 𝐾2𝜇 (𝜔)
𝜂= = 2 ( 2+ ) (2.3.28)
1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∗ 𝑣 𝑢 𝐾𝜇−1 (𝜔)𝐾 𝜇+1 (𝜔)
(𝑒 × ℎ ) 𝑧̂ 𝑑 𝐴
2 ∫𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜇𝜌 𝜇𝜌
From the beginning we have being using two modes for the fiber
17
eigenvalues for the equations (2.3.12) and (2.3.14), for particular v-numbers.
eigenvalue.
eigenvalue u.
𝑢 2
𝛽𝜇𝜌 = √𝑘21 − ( ) (2.3.29)
𝑎
By looking at the Figure 2.3.1 and from the above equations we can see
that there many possible modes, but a fiber cannot sustain all the modes. The
modes that a fiber can sustain is determined by the v - number. The mode
LP 𝜇𝜌 can only be sustained if the v - number is greater than the cutoff vc.
The cutoff vc values depends on the refractive indices of the fiber, the diameter
18
Figure 2.3.1: These are several of the electric field patterns for different LP
modes in a fiber. Red is for positive and blue is for negative values of the
19
2.4. Fiber Bragg Gratings
subsection.
Introduction section. It was K.O Hill et al who discovered Fiber Bragg Gratings
FBG’s were discovered during an experiment that was done using germania-
doped silica fiber, and the laser used for this experiment was a visible argon
ion laser. During the experiment it was discovered that the light directed
that the It was suggested that a standing wave pattern was formed due to the
reflected wave from the end of the fiber. This, in turn, modulates the refractive
index grating inside of the fiber core. The modulation of the refractive index
20
at the Canadian Communications Research Center were the reasons and at
that time.
[10] and K.O. Hill et al [11]. This phenomenon was the generation of second-
work on how argon laser radiation affects germanium-doped silica [15] showed
that germania doped silica can be affected by any argon laser. This discovery
optical fibers [16] and to writing single mode gratings in fibers [17]. The two-
21
Figure 2.4.1: The Original Setup used by Meltz, Morey and Glenn [20].
Figure 2.4.2: The interference pattern created inside of the fiber [21].
22
An interference pattern created inside the fiber, which inscribe the
grating into the fiber core. The period of the grating, (Λ) is given by,
𝜆𝑢𝑣
Λ= (2.4.1)
𝜗
2 𝑆𝑖𝑛( 2)
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜆𝑢𝑣
𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 Λ = (2.4.2)
𝜗
𝑆𝑖𝑛( 2)
Here the 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 depends on the wavelength of the light and the mode at
which the light propagates, this is the element that decided the velocity of the
grating made out of silica. When a laser beam is incident on it, the light
traveling through the mask creates thus creating a grating inside the fiber
core. In this technique the 0th diffraction order is suppressed so the damage in
the fiber core is minimized. The grating period can be varied depending on the
phase mask period and the distance between the phase mask and the grating.
23
Figure 2.4.3: Phase Mask technique used to fabricate gratings in a fiber [23].
method. In this method the laser beam is focused at a point in the fiber core,
and then moved to another point. The process repeated and the difference
24
2.4.2. Types of FBG’s
There are two different ways we can group FBGs: By the conditions
under which the FBGs are produced, and by the structure of the gratings.
Type I
Type I FBGs are also known as standard gratings are the most common type
used in telecommunication, and in temperature sensing for T< 80oC. They are
Type IA
Hydrogenated optical fibers are typically used to fabricate this type of FBGs.
They present regenerated gratings [25] created after erasure of Type I FBGs.
25
Type IA gratings were introduced in 2001 [24] with the purpose to
greatly increased and the Bragg wavelength is shifted in the red region.
Type II
damage threshold of the fiber core. The energy laser pulses would melt the core
creating areas with modulated refractive index turning in to FBG. Since this
type of FBGs based on periodic damage in the fiber core is known as “damaged
1000oC.
Type IIA
grating is created. Unlike to the type IA gratings in these gratings the Bragg
created.
Here we consider the structure of the FBGs inside of the fibers. The
the refractive index. The refractive index profile of the grating could be either
uniform or apodized.
compared to the apodized profile. Here the refractive index difference between
the grating and the fiber core remains constant, that is if the is the fiber core
has a refractive index n1 and the grating has a refractive index n3 the inside
the grating the refractive indices would change to n1 or to n3. Inside the fiber
only the grating period would change depending on the grating type.
27
Figure 2.4.4: Representation of uniform refractive index profile FBGs [30].
the chirped FBG the grating period changes as a linear function with distance.
This gives the grating the ability to reflect multiple frequencies of light. In the
28
tilted FBG, the grating period stays uniform but the grating is tilted at an
outside a chosen interval. Inside the interval it could have different variation
In the Figure 2.4.5 the uniform positive index profile shows a simple
changes as a Cosine function inside the interval. A phase of the refractive index
modulation is shifted the middle of the grating for the discrete phase shift
index profile.
29
Figure 2.4.5: Apodized refractive index profile FBGs [30].
30
2.4.3. Photosensitivity
refractive index under exposure to radiation and is related to the defects in the
Below are the two chemical reactions between the chlorides and the oxygen
The core of the fiber made of silica is mixed with germanium. Silica
the germanium atoms replace some silicon atoms. Since germanium has 5
electrons in the valance band, only four will be in the bond with either oxygen
31
Figure 2.4.6: The 3D Tetrahedral crystal structure of silica [35].
introduced the model based on Ge-Si bonds in the oxygen deficient centers are
called “wrong bonds” and these bonds are broken releasing electrons when
irradiated by UV light.
32
Figure 2.4.7: Graphical representation of “wrong bonds” broken under
exposure of UV light. (a) Wrong bonds structure, (b) GeE’ structure, (c) oxygen
vacant silicon atom, and (d) free electron released from the reaction.
There are three different types of defects in the germania-doped silica fibers,
in all of these the middle atom is a germanium atom. Germanium atom has
five electrons in the outer layer, only four of these electron would be in bond,
the 5th would be an unpaired electron. When the germania atom bound to 4
silica it gives Ge(1) defect (Figure 2.4.8). In the Ge(2) defect (Figure 2.4.9) one
of the silica would be replaced by germania. In the GeE’ defect (Figure 2.4.7(b))
33
Figure 2.4.8: The defect Ge(1) in germania-doped silica fiber.
34
2.4.4. Applications of FBG’s
regimes described in [38]. The experimental setup for the study of the thermo-
optic coefficient in FBGs contains two light sources (Figure 2.4.10). They
include two lasers: one a 20 mW laser emitting light at 532 nm, and the second
optical fibers with a core of diameter 9.15 µm. Both fibers are placed in ceramic
capillary tubes and inside of a 24’’ long split hinge tube furnace heated up to
1200oC. One fiber contains the FBG and the second one is without one. The
peak wavelength of the FBG at room temperature (20 oC) is about 1310.135
nm with a bandwidth between 16.8 and 25.7 GHz for 1 and 3 dB.
35
The radiation reflected by FBG is detected by a photo detector
detected light is subject to change with the temperature. The detected change
is displayed on the screen of the optical spectrum analyzer. The visible light
passing through the both fibers is observed on the screen. One pattern is from
the regular fiber and the other is from the fiber with the FBG. The transmitted
light is recorded using a CCD camera in order to study the observed LP modes
of the two fibers. The diffraction efficiencies measured using the power ratio of
the light reflected on the FBG with respect to the coupled light.
36
2.5 Finite Element Analysis and COMSOL Multiphysics Programming.
mechanics, now it’s used commonly in solving various problems. The FEA can
The general procedure of the FEA is to study the problem and then
simplify the problem to a model. The next step is to build a model for the
simulation, add a mesh, the material properties and define the boundary
conditions. Physics formalism is the key to define the functions and solve the
equations.
The FEA uses numerical techniques to find the solutions for boundary
equations is impossible. For simplicity the FEA divides the interval of the
take a simple integral, and use numerical methods to calculate the solution
37
Let’s take the function,
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 6
Now, to find the area (A) under the function y, between -1 and 1,
1 1
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 6)𝑑𝑥
−1 −1
Figure 2.4.11: Diagram of the area (A) in the interval between -1 to 1. The
exact value of A.
1 1
1 1 38
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 6)𝑑𝑥 = |( 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥)| = 2 ( + 6) = ≈ 12.667
−1 3 −1 3 3
38
The total area A could be divided into N number of subsections. Then a
The most simple is a constant that is equal to y at the midpoint of each of the
subsections. This constant or the function along with the length of the section
Figure 2.4.12 presents the number of subsections with the error 5.26%.
When 8 subsections are used the error is 0.08%. It is clear that the accuracy of
depends on the number of the subsection (or the sub-intervals) and the function
used during the approximation process. The selection of a mesh produces more
39
Figure 2.4.12: Graphical representation of numerical integration of the
a friendly interface to design and build simulations for research purpose. The
40
negative side of COMSOL is that the program’s ability solving complex models
PDEs templates make model the systems with either nonlinear or linear
program has a modeling console which has built in basic shapes including the
mesh but the user defines the mesh. The COMSOL is mostly considered as an
FEA based program. Finite volume method (FVM) is very similar to FEA,
The calculations are performed as in FEA. The boundary element method uses
integration methods to solve the equations, as in our study. Also, the particle
41
calculate the trajectory of particles and give the ability simulating interaction
the solving process, since the FEA allows a user to combine different physics
modules.
42
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE
The first step for simulations using COMSOL is to decide which model
to build. When using COMSOL for simulations, both the model we build and
the physics depend on the dimensions used. Two and three dimensional models
were chosen for our simulations. Next we picked the physics module and then
tolerance” under the geometry. Here, geometric entities that have a distance
43
3.1. 2D Step index fiber Model
The 2D Step index fiber model in the COMSOL library was used as a
starting point. The premade model was modified for our simulation purposes.
The physics module for the simulation was “Electromagnetic waves” and
study, thus the program calculated the difference created for a given fiber.
Building the model started with setting the parameters for the fiber.
Parameters such as the refractive indices, wave length of the light and radius
cladding
1530[nm]
44
After setting the parameters we started to build the exact model. The
cladding was built using the COMSOL “geometry builder” to draw a circle,
following a smaller circle in the middle. The circles had the same axis with the
Figure 3.1: Basic model of the 2D fiber. Center circle is the core and the bigger
The next step was assigning the materials for the fiber core and the
cladding. Doped Silica (n1 = 1.4457) was chosen for the core and silica glass (n2
45
After building the model of the fiber, we set the wave equation and the
boundary conditions for the model. Equation 3.1.1 represents the wave
∇ × (∇ × 𝐸) − 𝑘02 𝜖𝑟 𝐸 = 0 (3.1.1)
𝜆 = −𝑖𝛽 − 𝛿 (3.1.2)
𝜖𝑟 = (𝑛 − 𝑖𝑘)2
𝜔
𝑘0 = 𝜔√𝜀0 𝜇0 =
𝑐0
Where 𝑘𝑧 is the plane wave number in the z-direction; 𝑧 is the unit vector in z-
direction; E is the incident electric field; 𝛿 is the real part of the solution
responsible for the damping; 𝛽 is the eigenfrequency; 𝑛 is the real part of the
free space; 𝜇0 is the permeability of free space and 𝑐0 is the speed of light in
vacuum.
46
The boundaries of the fiber were set to be perfect electric conductors.
Thus the EM waves could pass through the boundaries while obeying laws of
physics. The initial value of the EM waves inside the Fiber was set to be zero.
Before and at the point start of the simulation of the experiment there would
Next the mesh for the model set which also affects the accuracy of the
yield higher accuracy but at the cost of requiring more computing power. The
mesh contained triangular shaped elements with sizes between 2.5 µm and
0.005 µm. Setting the mesh was the final step of building the model.
After the model was built, mode analysis calculation settings were
chosen. For the effective mode index with the green light (f=5.6565E-14), the
modes for the model were calculated (effective mode indices were 1.446 and
1.44). The program was set to numerically calculate and find 100 modes around
47
Figure 3.2: A close up of the triangular shaped mesh used for the 2D model.
48
3.2. 3D Model for Fiber Bragg grating
The 3D model was inspired by the experimental research from ref. 38.
The model build for the 3D simulations is genuine and built from the scratch.
FBG and FBG’s with different numbers of gratings. The parameters and
materials were remained the same. The fiber without the FBG was used as a
control model.
Table 3.2 shows the list of parameters used for the FBG models. In the
model the material used were based on the previous experimental research
[38]. For the fiber cladding, the silica grass with refractive index of 1.4378 was
chosen. For the fiber core doped silica with refractive index of 1.4457 was
chosen with the step index grating made of another doped silica with refractive
index 1.4460. To find the period of the grating we rearranged the equation
𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔
Λ=
2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
49
Table 3.2: Table of Parameters for the 3D fiber Simulation
core
cladding
index
light
(x is the number of
slabs)
50
The physics module and the wave equation of the simulation was similar
to the 2D model, however, the 3D wave equation was solved. The electric
∇ × (∇ × 𝐸) − 𝑘02 𝜖𝑟 𝐸 = 0 (3.1.1)
𝜆 = −𝑖𝛽 − 𝛿 (3.1.2)
𝜖𝑟 = (𝑛 − 𝑖𝑘)2
𝜔
𝑘0 = 𝜔√𝜀0 𝜇0 =
𝑐0
Where: E is the incident electric field; 𝛿 is the real part of the solution
responsible for the damping; 𝛽 is the eigenfrequency; 𝑛 is the real part of the
free space; 𝜇0 is the Permeability of free space and 𝑐0 is the speed of light in
vacuum
The boundary of the fiber was set to be perfect electric conductor for the
cladding and air boundary. The boundary where the light enters and leaves
the fiber had needed a special condition. Here, the scattering boundary
condition was used. This boundary condition made the boundary transparent
51
for a scattered wave and the incident wave. The incident light was set to have
As like the 2D model the initial value of the EM wave was set to be zero. Thus
Where: 𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑟 is the directional vector of the wave; 𝑘 is the wave number; 𝐸
is the incident plane wave; 𝐸0 = (−1,1,0) in (x,y,z) directions for the simulation
simulations. All of the fibers had the same core and cladding radii and the
materials but the length of the fiber was changed according to the length of the
grating. The first model was the fiber without the grating. The model was a
simple model consisting of two cylinders; one to form the core and the second
was the cladding. The cylinders were assigned with the materials mentioned
above.
52
Figure 3.3: The 3D model of the fiber.
Next a model for a single grating was made, which was built exactly as
the 3D fiber but with the length of the fiber equal to the period of a grating.
This let us to study the behavior of light when it is passing through a single
piece of grating.
53
Figure 3.4: The 3D model of the single grating with thickness Λ =454.31 nm.
The next step was to build fiber models with the grating. These models
were started by building the grating with 10 slabs. 3 models of the fiber with
10 slabs were built with different grating periods (1310 nm, 908.62 nm and
454.31 nm) in order to study the dependence of the wave propagation through
a fiber on the grating period. Then the number of slabs was increased to 50 and
100 slabs. The purpose was to study the dependence of the wave propagation
through the fiber with the number of the slabs in the grating. The first step
was to build the grating, which was shaped to a cylindrical disk with above
54
mentioned radius of the core. The thickness of the disk was set to be the grating
period and then the grating was cloned to form the desired number of slabs.
55
Figure 3.6: The 3D model of the FBG with 50 slabs.
56
A model was created to simulate a FBG with a step index grating. After
the model was built, the even numbered disks were assigned with the material
of the core and the odd numbered disks were assigned with the grating
Figure 3.8: The grating with of the FBG with 10 slabs. Where the slabs in the
core with even number is assigned with the core material and the odd number
is assigned with grating material. The outer was cylinder was assigned with
57
Figure 3.9: The grating with of the FBG with 50 slabs with each even
numbered disk assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk
Figure 3.10: The grating with of the FBG with 100 slabs with each even
numbered disk assigned with the core material and the odd numbered disk
58
The mesh of the 3D model was set similar for all the models. Fine mesh
settings result with high accuracy. The mesh elements were tetrahedral
shaped with sizes in between 3.5 µm and 0.15 µm. The smallest possible
Figure 3.11: The tetrahedral mesh on the 3D model. Since the light propagates
through the core, it has a smaller mesh to increase the accuracy of calculations.
Cladding was given a larger mesh to decrease the unnecessary use of the
computer power.
59
Figure 3.12: A close up of the tetrahedral shaped mesh used for the 3D model.
A study for the 3D model was to calculate “Boundary mode analysis” and
“Frequency domain”. For the boundary mode analysis, the effective analysis
and in the visible range. The simulations were done for different EM waves.
The modes calculated were the modes around the effective refractive index. As
in the 2D model the program was set to find 100 modes around the effective
mode index. The frequency domain could be set to have a range of frequencies
but for our simulation the same frequency that was used in the boundary mode
60
CHAPTER IV
the step index fiber. The simulations provide 100 possible modes for the
particular selected model. Of these 100 possible modes some are identical and
some of them are not stable modes. Therefore only few of the 100 modes could
be chosen to represent the LP modes. The models chosen for the simulations
were all identical except for the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves used.
The experimental results of the fiber bragg grating modes represent the
represent the power distribution. The equation used to plot is shown below,
coordinate
61
Simulation results for the 530 nm light waves.
Figure 4.1: LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.2: LP12 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.3: LP21 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
62
Figure 4.4: LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left
compared to simulated results of a few modes on the top right and on bottom,
the simulated results have the same outer diameter but the inner diameter is
changing
Figure 4.5: LP41 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
63
Figure 4.6: LP51 mode experimental on the left compared to simulated result
on the right.
sustain a variety of modes. The majority of the results were duplicate solutions
of the same stable mode. There were 6 unique stable modes and the highest
stable mode was LP51. Interestingly, the 530 nm wavelength light was not able
64
Simulation results for the 1310 nm IR waves.
Figure 4.7: LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.8: LP02 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.9: LP12 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
65
Figure 4.10: LP01* (donut shape) mode experimental [40] on the top left
compared to simulated results of few modes on the top right and on bottom.
1310 nm and 1530 nm were able to sustain a variety of mode. But the majority
of the modes were duplicate results of the same mode. The 1310 nm wavelength
was able to sustain 4 different modes. The highest mode sustained by 1310 nm
66
Simulation results for the 1530 nm IR waves.
Figure 4.11: LP01 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.12: LP02 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
and 1530 nm wavelengths were able to sustain the LP02 mode, which was the
67
The simulation results for the 2D model are summarized in the
modes
From table 4.1 we can see that the shortest wavelength (530 nm) was
able to sustain 6 different stable modes and it was able to sustain stable modes
sustained by the fiber was decreased. The second lowest wavelength (1310 nm)
sustained 4 different modes and the highest wavelength (1530 nm) was able to
sustain only 2 different modes. Similarly the highest mode possible by the fiber
was also decreased as the wavelength increased. The second lowest wavelength
(1310 nm) sustained modes up to LP12 mode and the highest wavelength (1530
68
4.2. Results of the 3D model
simulations provide modes that are possible in the 3D fiber. The simulation
was set to provide 100 possible modes for the selected model. An interesting
result for the 3D model was that each fiber model was able to sustain only one
simulated as a control. Then the rest of the model was modifies by the number
of the slabs and the grating period. IR light with wavelength 1310 nm was
to represent the power distribution. The equation used to plot is the power
shown below,
coordinates
69
Simulation results of the Fiber without a FBG.
Figure 4.14: LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
result of the transmitted wave on the right. The resultant mode indicates
Figure 4.15: Power distribution of the transmitted for the fiber with no FBG
70
Simulation results for a single grating with grating period, 2Λ = 908.62 nm,
Figure 4.16: The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the
middle and the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted
71
Simulation results for a single grating with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm,
Figure 4.18: The experimental LP12 [39] on the right, incident wave on the
middle and the transmitted wave on the right. Both incident and transmitted
and Λ = 454.31 nm (Figure 4.22) resulted in LP12 mode. When the length of a
fiber was changed to the size of a grating the mode sustained by the fiber was
clearly changed from PL11 to LP12. Even without adding a grating the change
of the length of the fiber affected the stable mode sustained by the fiber.
72
Simulation results of the fiber with grating period of 1310nm and 10 slabs.
Figure 4.20: Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period
1310nm
Figure 4.21: LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
result of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 1310nm. The sustained
Figure 4.22: Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10
73
Simulation results of the fiber with grating period, 2Λ = 908.62 nm and 10
slabs.
Figure 4.23: Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period 2Λ
Figure 4.24: LP11 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.25: Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10
74
Simulation results of the fiber with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm and 10 slabs.
Figure 4.26: Incident wave of the fiber with 10 slabs and grating period Λ.
Figure 4.27: LP12 mode experimental [39] on the left compared to simulated
Figure 4.28: Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 10
75
Simulation results of the Fiber with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm and 50
slabs.
Figure 4.29: For the fiber with 50 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave on
left. The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and LP21
modes.
Figure 4.30: Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 50
76
Simulation results of the Fiber with grating period, Λ = 454.31 nm and 100
slabs.
Figure 4.31: For the fiber with 100 slabs and grating period Λ, incident wave
on left. The transmitted wave (right) seems to form a combination of LP12 and
LP21 modes.
Figure 4.32: Power distribution of the transmitted wave of the fiber with 100
77
Table 4.2: Simulation results of the fiber with 10 slabs for different grating
periods
Grating Incident wave Transmitted wave LP Mode
Period (experimental)
1310nm
2Λ =
908.62
nm
Λ=
454.31
nm
From table 4.2 we can see that as the period of the grating is decreased
and fulfills the Bragg condition the mode became more stable. Furthermore
the mode of the fiber change from unstable LP11 to a stable LP12.
78
Table 4.3: Simulation results of fibers with grating period Λ = 454.31 nm, and
different number of slabs.
10
50 Combination of
LP12 and LP21
modes
100 Combination of
LP12 and LP21
modes
Table 4.3 shows that the number slabs does have an effect on the stable
mode of the fiber. As the number of the slabs got higher the mode changed from
LP12 to combination of LP12 and LP21. The fibers with 50 and 100 slabs show
a mode that is changing to form a combination of LP12 and LP21 modes, but
79
As mentioned earlier for the 3D model the simulations were only able to
sustain one stable mode for the each simulation. The simulation results for the
sustained
result.
period 2Λ
stability
result.
80
Fiber with 10 slabs LP12 The mode sustained is sharp and
Fiber with 50 slabs LP12 + LP21 The mode sustained resemble the
modes.
Fiber with 100 slabs LP12 + LP21 The mode sustained appears to be
appears to be increased.
81
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
with theoretical and experimental [39, 40] results and found to be in a good
that lower wavelengths are able to sustain higher order modes and a higher
number of stable modes. The highest possible mode for 530nm light was LP51
A novel use of the 3D COMSOL model in this thesis was the introduction
of a step like grating composed of 10, 50 and 100 slabs of refractive index
varied between n1 = 1.4457 and n3 = 1.4460 introduced in the silica fibers. Each
slab of the grating is a cylinder with radius of rcore = 9 µm and height of grating
periods 1310nm, 908.62 nm and 454.31 nm. Each slab is placed consecutively
with refractive indices alternating between n1 & n3 to form the grating. Each
model in the 3D simulations was set to calculate 100 possible modes, but each
model was able to sustain only one stable mode. It was found that the fiber
without a FBG was able to sustain only the LP11 mode. The single grating
82
For the Bragg grating composed of 10 slabs when the grating period was 1310
nm and 908.62 nm, it was able to sustain LP11 mode, but when the grating
period was changed to 454.31 nm (to satisfy the Bragg condition) the stable
mode sustained was LP12 and with higher stability. The stability of the modes
strongly depends on the grating period. Tuning the period close to the Bragg
condition produced higher stability in the mode. Increasing the number of slabs
modes versus LP12. The number of slabs in the grating affected the stable mode
83
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generation in optical fibers”, Opt. Lett. 5, 48-50 (1980)
84
12. U. Österberg and W. Margulis, “Efficient second harmonic in an Optical
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14. M.C. Farries, P. St.J. Russell, M.E. Ferman, and D.N. Payne, “Second
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17. D.P. Hand and P. St. J. Russell, “Single mode fibre gratings written into a
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Technical Digest, pp. 21C3-4, Japan (1989).
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