Chapter 10

Trees
 Objectives
⚫ 10.1- Introduction to Trees
⚫ 10.2- Applications of Trees
⚫ 10.3- Tree Traversal
⚫ 10.4 - Spanning Trees
⚫ 10.5 - Minimum Spanning Trees
10.1- Introduction to Trees
Introduction to Trees…
Introduction to Trees

circuit disconnected
Introduction to Trees…
Proof: page 684
Introduction to Trees…

Some Page 686

terminologies:

Subtree
Root node (vertex)
Internal node
Leaf
Parent
Child
Siblings
Descendants
Ancestors
 Introduction to Trees…

Full Full Full

3-ary
Binary Ternary 5-ary

Some terminologies on binary tree:

Left child, right child, left subtree, right subtree
Introduction to Trees…

Ordered rooted tree

Some Tree Models

A Organizational Tree
Some Tree Models

A Computer File System

Some Tree Models

A Tree-connected Network of seven Processors

 Properties of Trees

Using Mathematic Induction.

Let nE be number of edges.
P(n): If the tree T having n vertices then nE=n-1
Basic step:
P(1): n=1, tree has the root node only → nE= 0 = n-1 → P(1) true
Induction step:
Suppose that P(k) is true for all k>=1, ie nE=k-1
Add a leaf vertex v to the tree T so that T having k+1 verteices still is a tree.
Let w be the parent of v.
Because T is connected and has no simple circuit → there is only one new edge
between u and v → nE= (k-1)+1 = k .
→ P(k+1) true
Proved.
Introduction to Trees…

m=3
i=4
n= 3.4+1=13

m=5
i=3
n= 3.5+1=16
Introduction to Trees…

m=3
n=13
i=12/3= 4
l= [(3-1)13+1]/3=9

m=5
n=16
i= 15/5=3
l= (4.16+1)/5= 13
 Introduction to Trees…
⚫ Level of a vertex: The length of the path from the
root to this vertex.
⚫ Height of Tree: The maximum of levels of vertices =
The length of the longest path from the root to any
vertex.
 Introduction to Trees…
A m-ary tree is called balanced if all leaves are
at levels h or h-1.

h=4 h=4 h=3

All leaves are at All leaves are at All leaves are at
levels 3, 4 levels 2,3, 4 levels 3
→ Balanced → Not Balanced → Balanced
 Introduction to Trees…
THEOREM 5: (Proof: page 692)
There are at most mh leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.

Proof: page 693

 10.2- Applications of Trees

⚫ Binary Search Trees

⚫ Decision Trees
⚫ Prefix Codes
 Constructing a Binary Search Tree

Construct a binary search tree for numbers: 23, 16, 43, 5, 9, 1, 6, 2, 33, 27.
Algorithm for inserting an element to BST

Complexity: O(logn)
Proof: page 698
 Decision Trees

The Counterfeit Coin Problem

 Decision Trees:
Sorting based on Binary Comparisons
 Prefix Codes

⚫ Introduction to Prefix Codes

⚫ Huffman Coding Algorithm
 Prefix Codes: Introduction

⚫ English word “sane” is stores 1 byte/character

➔ 4-byte memory block is needed (32 bits).
⚫ There are 26 characters → We can use 5 bit
only to store a character ( 25=32)
⚫ The word “sane” can be stored in 20 bits
⚫ May we can store this word in fewer bit?
Prefix Codes: Introduction

⚫ Construct a binary tree with a

prefix code.
⚫ “sane” will be store as
11111011100 ➔ 11 bits
11111011100 : s
11111011100 : a
11111011100 : n
11111011100 : e
➔ Compression factor: 32/11 ~ 3
Prefix Codes: Huffman Coding Algorithm

⚫ Counting occurrences of characters in a text ➔

frequencies (probabilities) of each character.
⚫ Constructing a binary tree representing prefix
codes of characters.
➔ The set of binary codes representing each
character.
➔ Coding source text
 Prefix
Codes:
Huffman
Coding
Algorithm
Prefix Codes: Huffman Coding Algorithm
 Game Trees: The Game Nim
There are
some piles
of stones (
ex: 2,2,1).
Two players
will take
turns
picking
stones from
one pile.
The player
picks the
last stones
is loser.
Game Trees : Tic-tac-toe
Game Trees…
Game Trees…
 Traversal Algorithms

⚫ At a time, a vertex is visited

⚫ Operations are done:
– Process the visited vertex, e.g. list it’s information
– Traversing recursively subtree.
⚫ Bases on orders of tasks, traversals are
classified into:
– Preorder traversal. N L R
– Inorder traversal. L N R
– Postorder traversal. L R N
 10.3- Tree Traversal

⚫ Traversal a tree: A way to visit all vertices of the

rooted tree.
– Universal Address Systems
– Traversal Algorithms
– Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Notation
Universal Address Systems
Preorder Traversal

a, b, e, f, c, d, g, h, i

?
Preorder traversal - example
a
Pre-order traversal: N L R •

• • •
a
• • • b c d
•
b c d • • • •
• • e f g h
• •
e f g h

a b e f c d g h

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Inorder Traversal

e, b, f, a, c, g, d, h, i

?
 Inorder traversal - example
a
•
in-order traversal: L N R
• • •
b c d
a
• • • • • • • •
b c d e f g h
• • • •
e f g h

e b f a c g d h

40
Postorder Traversal

e, f, b, c, g, h, i, d, a

?
 Postorder traversals -
examples
a
post-order traversal: L R N •

• • •
a
• • • b c d
•
b c d • • • •
• • e f g h
• •
e f g h

e f b c g h d a

42
 Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Notation
⚫ Expression Trees
 Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Notation
⚫ Expression Trees
 Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Notation

⚫ Infix form:
operand_1 operator operand_2 x+y
⚫ Prefix form:
operator(operand_1,operand_2) +xy
⚫ Postfix form:
(operand_1,operand_2)operator xy+
⚫ How to find prefix and postfix form from infix
form?
(1) Draw expression tree.
(2) Using Preorder traverse → Prefix form
Using Postorder traverse → Postfix form
Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Notation
Infix form

Prefix form

Postfix form
Infix, Prefix, and Postfix Notation
 Spanning trees
⚫ Introduction

48
 Spanning trees
Definition.
Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of
G is a subgraph of G that is a tree
containing every vertex of G.

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 Remov EdgesThat Form Simple Circuits.
50
 THEOREM 1
A simple graph is connected if and only if it
has a spanning tree.

51
 Depth-First Search

52
 The edges selected by
depth-first search of a
graph are called tree
edges.
All other edges are
called back edges.

53
54
 Breadth-First Search

55
56
 Backtracking Applications
⚫ Graph Colorings
⚫ Then-Queens Problem
⚫ Sums of Subsets

57
 Graph Colorings - example

58
 The n-Queens Problem

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 Minimum Spanning Trees

Which links should be made to ensure that there is a path

between any two computer centers so that the total cost of
the network is minimized?
➔ minimum spanning tree: a spanning tree that has the
smallest possible sum of weights of its edges.

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 Algorithms for Minimum Spanning
Trees
⚫ Prim’s algorithm (1957 by Robert Prim) (originally
discovered by Vojtech Jarník in1930).
⚫ Choosing any edge with smallest weight, putting it into
the spanning tree.
⚫ Add to the tree edges of minimum weight that are
incident to a vertex already in the tree, never forming a
simple circuit with those edges already in the tree.
⚫ Stop when n−1 edges have been added.

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62
 Kruskal’s algorithm (by Joseph
Kruskal in 1956)
⚫ Choose an edge in the graph with minimum weight.
⚫ Add edges with minimum weight that do not form a
simple circuit with those edges already chosen.
⚫ Stop after n−1 edges have been selected.

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64
 Summary
⚫ Introduction to Trees
⚫ Applications of Trees
⚫ Tree Traversal
⚫ Spanning Trees
⚫ Minimum Spanning Trees
⚫ Thanks