approached diachronically in Historical Lexicology, which studies

1. Vocabulary, Lexicology, Lexicography the evolution of vocabulary (i.e. changes, the development of
The main task of a language is to serve as a means of mutual vocabulary in the course of time); or synchronically in -
communication and thinking (Vachek). We regard language as a Descriptive, Synchronic Lexicology, which studies the structure of
system of levels: phonic, grammatical and lexical (vocabulary, vocabulary, properties and function of words in a certain period.
lexicon, lexis). Each of the levels constitutes a system in itself. We can also compare vocabulary differences and/or similiarities
These subsystems are linked and mutually interdependent. of different languages by means of Contrastive, Confrontational
The description of the lexical system or lexical components of a Lexicology.
language includes: Lexicology, dealing with the meaning and use The objective of these lectures is to systematically describe
of words and their mutual relations, and Lexicography - the vocabulary of Standard English with commentaries on
dealing with the principles and procedures involved in writing, differences between British English and American English where
editing, or compiling dictionaries. necessary, as well as, between English and Slovak vocabulary.
1.1. LEXICOLOGY is the study of the properties, usage and origin 1.2. VOCABULARY is all the words that are used in a particular
of words, and regularities and relations in the vocabulary of a language. It is the system of lexico-semantic interdependent items
language. Traditionally it includes study of meaning (lexical (words or fixed collocations). Though the alphabetical format of
semantics: onomasiology and semasiology); history of words dictionaries encourages the view that vocabulary is a mere list of
(etymology); word-formation, and as a specific part the study of words and not a system, the fact is that, of the systems which
idioms. make up a language, vocabulary, by its character, is different from
Some definitions of lexicology: other systems. It is the least stable and has a relatively unlimited
...the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of words as number of items in it (compare e.g. phonic system with its limited
individual items. It thus differs from grammar, since the latter is by number of phonemes, Engl.: 44, etc). Phonic and grammatical
and large concerned with words only as members of classes entering levels form closed systems, while vocabulary is an open system.
into structures; though there is a measure of overlap... Lexicology deals The openness of vocabulary lies in the fact that it is constantly
with both formal and semantic aspects of words: and although it is changing, bringing in new words from other languages, (e.g.
concerned predominantly with the description of lexemes individually, French words in English), losing words, adapting others to new
it also gives attention to a vocabulary in its totality" (Jackson 1988: conditions, and so on. All these changes are due both to linguistic
244). and non-linguistic causes, but in most cases they are due to the
...the study of the formation, meaning, and use of words (Random combination of both. Words may drop out altogether as a result of
House Webster's College Dictionary 1991) the disappearance of the actual object they denote (OE:
...the study of the overall structure and history of the vocabulary of a wunden-stefna - a curved-stemmed ship, zar - spear, dart, Ginzburg
language (Collins English Dictionary 1985). 238). Some words were ousted as a result of the influence of
Research into vocabulary may concern general problems of borrowings (e.g.: "take, die" were taken from Scandinavian for OE:
vocabulary - General Lexicology, concerning any language; or "niman, swedan"; river, army, place from French replaced OE: ea,
problems of a particular language, e.g. English, Slovak, etc., here, stabs).
known as Special Lexicology. In both cases the study may be
 Sometimes words become dated and are used in narrow,
specialized fields, e.g. in poetry: billow (wave), steed (horse), slay
2. The Word, the Lexeme
(kill). Yet the number of new words that appear in the language is CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES.
much greater than those that drop out or become dated.
The definition of a word is one of the most difficult tasks in
A necessary conservatism exists at the core of the national
linguistics. Consider this question: Is "hand" a word? Is "hands" (pi. of
vocabulary, which must serve all sorts and conditions of speakers
from all generations, serve as the universal medium of hand) a word? If so, is it different word from "hand"! Some
communication. linguists have defined word as a minimal unit that can be used
independently; that is, a unit that can be used in isolation and that
As we have said, items of vocabulary are organized in a
does not consist of parts that can be used independently.
special way (microsystems). Formally, a word may be related to
According to this "hands" is a word, because the plural suffix -s
all other words which have the same root (i.e. words derived from
cannot be used in isolation; and so it is a different word from
the same root - word family, word cluster): act, actor, action,
"hand". Consider also another question: Since "hand" has for
reaction, activity,...; create, creativity, creation, creator, uncreative,...
example three quite different meanings, as in "lead sb by the hand",
Semantically it may be related to all other words of which its
"hand of a watch", "a factory hand", are these 3 words - hand1, hand2, and
meaning is a part, e.g.:. woman, lady, mother, aunt, daughter,... In
hand3 separate words or just one?
this way each item may be the centre of a special group, e.g.:
Some linguists found the way out of this difficulty in
mother, father, brother, sister, cousin, nephew, niece, grandson,
distinguishing the morphological word, the lexical word, from the
granddaughter,... We have to add that these groups may differ from
semantic word. This means that "hand" and "hands" are two
language to language (e.g. in Slovak: matka, otec, brat, sestra,
bratranec, sesternica, synovec, neter, vnuk, vnucka,...} and may change
morphological words, but they are two forms of the same lexical
their shapes from generation to generation. word, which most linguists prefer to call a lexeme (lexical item),
Each of the above mentioned parts of lexicology has its own the basic unit of vocabulary, a unit comparable to phonemes in
the phonic system . "Hand1", as in "lead sb by the hand", "hand2", as in
problems, and studies words from certain point of view. If we
describe it very simply, some of the phenomena which are "hand of a watch', and "hand3", as in "a factory hand", are three
accounted for in the area of lexical semantics are these: semantic words - which we may call sememe (an element of
- a word can have more than one meaning: head (a part of meaning) corresponding to a single lexical word (lexeme). It is
the body, a leader, a part at the top of an object) lexemes that are usually listed as headwords in a dictionary.
- different words can have the same/similiar meaning: The word (lexeme), as one of the fundamental units of a
small - little;; language, has many different aspects: it is a sequence of phonemes
- some pairs of words have opposite meanings: small - big; (sound forms - [haend, gau]); it is an arrangement of morphemes
- the meaning of some words can be analyzed into (morphological structure: hand, handful); it occurs in several forms
components: mare (female, horse), hen (female, chicken), doe (e.g. hand, hands; go, ivent, gone); and it may have one or more
(female, deer); meanings (signalling various meanings: hand1, hand2 and hand3).
- the meaning of some words are included in the meanings Some words have different spellings: judgement, judgment;
of others: plant (tree - birch), etc. caftan , kaftan ; amok, amuck; banian , banyan ; facia , fascia ; loath , loth ,
etc.
8
 These different aspects cause different approaches to words. 1. The extra-lingual reality in different language communities
Some definitions stress one individual aspect (formal or semantic), is not quite the same even if the functions of the compared facts
others stress as many aspects as possible, but most of them agree that are identical, e.g.:
a word is a unity of form and content. okno - window (sash window ) , chlieb - bread (cube , cut) , football -
Some definitions of the word (lexeme): futbal, butter - maslo , tea - caj, sandwich - sendvic.
"Word is an autonomous unit of a language in which a given Some elements of the extra-lingual reality have no parallel in
meaning is associated with a given sound complex and which is the other language community, e.g.: halusky, knedla (dumpling);
susceptible (capable ) of a given grammatical employment and able to tutor, campus, pie.
form a sentence by itself 2. There are cases when the identical extra-lingual reality is
(I. V. Arnold). analysed and named by various language communities differently,
Mathesius defines the word as "the smallest independently i.e. languages rarely divide up the world in exactly the same way,
utilizable segment of an utterance , characterized by reference to some e.g.:
element of the extra -lingual reality or some relations between the noha - leg , foot ; ruka - hand , arm ; rdno , doobedie , predpoludnie -
elements of that reality" morning ; prst -finger, toe ; okno , vyklad - window ;
(In: Vachek 1974).
"A unit of language , consisting of one or more spoken sounds or 2.2. THE BASIC FEATURES OF A LEXEME
their written representation , that functions as a principal carrier of
meaning , is typically seen as the smallest such unit capable of The term lexeme was introduced by Benjamin Lee Whorf in
independent use , is separated from other such units by spaces in
1938 Some definitions:
writing , and is often distinguished phonologically , as by accent or pause
(Random House Webster's College Dictionary 1991). "the meaningful spoken segment tliat can be used in isolation ."
(Vachek 1974)
2.1. WORDS AND THE FACTS OF THE EXTRA -LINGUAL "minimal unit of the vocabulary of a language that can have
REALITY independent meaning without being added to another ivord or word part; a
word." (Longman, 1987)
According to Vachek (1974), the central problem of lexicology is "a minimal lexical unit in a language , as a word or idiomatic
that of naming the objects, actions, i.e. the facts of the extra- phrase , esp . an abstract from underlying any inflected forms ."
lingual reality. The basic unit, or the naming unit in this process, is (RH Webster's College Diet., 1991).
referred to as the lexeme - lexical word, i.e. a word in all its meanings
and forms. its basic features are: 1. its conventional character
The process of naming the extra-lingual reality may lead in 2. its tendency to become universal /general
different language communities to different results, e.g.: dom,
house, Hause, maison, casa, etc. There can be two causes of such 1. By conventionality we mean that the sound form of a
differences: word (phonic structure) is not directly determined by the fact of the
extra-lingual reality - it is a matter of agreement, and

10 11
convention, accepted by the members of a given community and base shows what he does), other examples: unhappy, duckling, etc.
then obligatory for all members if they want to understand one In compounds, the meaning is based on individual meanings of a
compound: bedroom , beefsteak , armchair, classroom , airmail (but:
another.
Different language communities may have different blackmail is an opaque word).
conventions, e.g.: ulica, street, rue, Strasse, calle, etc; If there is a relationship between newer or transferred
stressing different features of an object: dining-room - jeddlen, meanings and older or direct meanings we speak of the semantic
bedroom - spdlna . motivation, e.g.: mouth of the river (mouth), hand (of a clock), head (of a
The conventional character of a lexeme is not completely cabbage), face (of a clock), etc.
arbitrary. The structural composition of any new lexeme is also 2. The tendency towards universality. As a rule, a lexeme
determined by the structural make up of the lexemes semantically cannot name individual fact, object, etc., of an reality. Individual
related to it and already existing in the language, e.g.: writer, pens, chairs, desks in the room cannot have their own names. We
writing, writing-paper - write; player, playing-cards - play. must do certain abstractions, based on principles so as to
As a rule, only those new words are admitted into the language in correspond approximately to universal concepts, e.g.: chair (a
such forms which do not contradict the regularities of the piece of furniture for sitting, irrespective of the size, colour, etc.) The
language, e.g.: jeans - dzinsy, to sprint - sprintovaf. universal name is always the result of an abstraction on some level
Sometimes conventional character may be limited, especially which can be different in various languages (gaps):
in the expressions which imitate natural sounds and noises, and
influenced by the extra-lingual reality (rhythm, imitation of the Slovak:
noise: hiss, buzz); but it is not uniform in all languages, e.g.: English:
kikirikt, E : cock -a -doodle -do , F : coquericot; S : hav -hav , cousin bratranec, sesternica
E : boiv -ivozv ; S : be , E : baa -baa ; S : bim -bam , E : ding -dong . brother and sister *l surodenci
If there exists a relationship between phonic, structural make up husband and wife *2 manzelia
of a word (lexeme) and its meaning, nowadays, we speak of the teacher (female and male) ucitel, ucitelka
motivation of lexemes/words. If there is no relation we speak of non- student student, studentka
motivated words. Non-motivated words may have lost their pupil ziak, ziacka
motivation:
Engl.: window (Norse: wind eye), sheriff (shire, reeve - starosta), The lack of terms for some abstractions need not necessarily be
breakfast, shepherd, earn (OE: to harvest); In Slovak: biftek , stvrtok, qualified as a defect. Some languages are rich in the
tudor. terminology in some fields (usually most important ones for
If there are some similarities between the sound/noise of the them), but they lack in some others. Eskimo, for example, has
fact of reality and the word (sound form of the word) we speak of dozens of words for snow, in Javanese there are 20 words for "sit"
phonetical motivation , e.g.: hiss, buzz, mew, splash, cuckoo, giggle. and 10 for "stand". In some languages we have separate name for
If the morphematic structure suggests the idea /meaning of
the word, we speak of morphological (word-formation)
motivation, e.g. in "rethink, rewrite", the prefix "re-" suggests the formally and legally: siblings
idea of doing sth again. In "writer"', "-er" suggests the "doer" (the formally and legally: spouse (manzel, or manzelka)
12 13
"left hand" and for "right hand" but not for hand. Hawaii has no 3. Problems of Meaning
word for "weather", etc.
In English we have: street, road, lane, avenue, drive,
crescent, terrace, gardens, meivs, The branch of the study of language concerned with the
boulevard, square, place, circus; meaning of words or word equivalents is called Lexical Semantics (cf.
In Slovak: ulica, cesta, rad, namestie. Cruse 1986, Jackson 1988).

To conclude, a lexeme may be regarded as an abstract, Jackson (1988, 247) says: "...there exist a philosophical semantics and a linguistic
complex unit of a language, a sign which is conventionally semantics,... Philosophical semantics is concerned with the logical properties of
determined, by the whole process of its development, and built language and with the nature of formal theories and the language of logic.
up according to the existing patterns of elements already existing Linguistic semantics is concerned with all aspects of meaning in natural
in the language. languages, from the meaning of utterances in context to the meaning of sounds
in syllables. One branch of linguistics, which studies meaning in relation to
words, including both the meaning relations that words contract with each other
and the meaning relations that words have with extra-linguistic reality.
lexical semantics may be considered a division of the branch of linguistics
we have called lexicology".

Meaning is one of the most contraversial terms of language

and therefore there is no universally accepted definition of
meaning. Traditionally there are two principal approaches to
meaning: the referential approach (words - things, words -
concepts - things) and the functional approach (the meaning is
studied through its relation to other linguistic units). Present-day
views of meaning can be summed up thus: it is the relation
between words and our experience of the world; the place in a
syntactic (syntagmatic) string of items (collocations); the place in
the system of items (semantic fields) and the relation between
these items (synonyms, antonyms, etc.); a set of basic semantic
elements (components) expressed in words; meanings form a
semantic structure of a word.

3.1. TYPES OF MEANING

Traditionally we speak of two types of word meaning:
lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.

15
14
3.1.1. Grammatical meaning Some definitions of the lexical meaning:
"The meaning of a base morpheme or word, independent of its
This is the component of meaning expressed by inflectional use within construction." (Random House Webster's College
endings, individual forms or some other grammatical devices, e.g. Dictionary).
word order. The words "boys, houses, pens", etc., though denoting "It is the material meaning of the word , reflecting the concept
different objects have something in common. This common and the basic properties of the thing (phenomenon, quality, state, etc.)
element of the words (expressed by the ending -s) is the the word denotes." (Mednikova).
grammatical meaning of plurality. It is a part of meaning which "Realization of naming of a notion (concept), emotion or objects
varies from one inflectional form to another; the meaning by means of definite language system subject to the influence of
expressed by the words form, i.e. the meaning of the relationship grammar and vocabulary pecularities of that language" (Arnold )
manifested not in the word itself, but in its formal grammatical
part (as inflectional endings). The lexical and grammatical meanings make up the word
Examples of words with grammatical meaning of: meaning, as neither can exist without the other. In some parts of
tense: hoped , worked, spoke ; case : girl's, boy's; speech the prevailing component is the grammatical type of
number: boys, tables, girls, children. meaning, and the lexical meaning is relatively vague, compare the
meaning of prepositions and nouns, e.g. think of sb; one of the
Some examples of grammatical meaning in words are boys, the roof of the house; in others, it is comparatively distinct:
identified by the position of these words in relation to other units; in, on, or under the table.
e.g. speaks, writes, hopes are used only after : he, she, it. The
meaning of some words (esp. part-of-speech meanings) that have 3.1.3. Denotational and Connotational Meaning
only one form (such as prepositions, some adverbs, conjunctions),
The lexical meaning may be traditionally analysed further as
can be identified only by their distribution, e.g.: "to come in"
including denotational and connotational components.
(adverb); in, on, or under the table (preposition).
Denotational (denotative, nominative, conceptual) meaning.
3.1.2. Lexical meaning One of the functions of words is to denote things, concepts,
Comparing word-forms of one and the same word, we find etc., (to denote means to serve as a name for an object). This
out that there is another component of meaning - identical in all reference to identical objects, etc., making communication possible,
and based on the relation of the word to extra-lingual reality (not
forms of the word, i.e. the meaning of the base or root in a set of
depending on the context), is known as denotational meaning. It is
inflectional forms, e.g.: go, goes, went, going, gone (in this case: the
the basic dictionary meaning of a word.
component denoting the process of movement). This is the lexical
meaning - the component of meaning proper to the word as a Mathesius termed it a nucleus of meaning, i.e. the content proper of the
linguistic unit, i.e. reccurent in all the forms of this word. lexeme, without any regard to the situation that is reflected in the
context. (InVachek)

16 17
... the explicit or direct meaning or set of meanings of a word or words are neutral but some are stylistically coloured (marked),
expression , as distinguished from the ideas or meanings associated with e.g. parent (bookish, without emotive charge); father (neutral); dad
or suggested by it. (informal); offspring (formal: potomok).
(Random House Webster's College Dictionary)
3.1.4. Meaning and semantic fields. Collocational meaning
the main component, direct meaning of a word , immediately
referring to objects phenomena , actions and qualities in extra -lingual To understand a word fully, we must know not only what it
reality (referent ) and reflecting their general understanding by the refers to, what it implies (outer relationship), but also its relation to
speaker. (Mednikova) other elements of vocabulary (inner relationship), we must know
The second component of the lexical meaning is the where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related
connotational (connotative) meaning, supplementary meaning, meanings. In short, words also have another source of meaning.
i.e. attitudinal and emotional factors that a word suggests or The meaning of a word derives also in part from the
implies. It includes the emotions or associations that surround a existence or non-existence of other words semantically or formally
word (indirect reference) - emotive charge and/or stylistic value related e.g. in the semantic field (domains as: kinship terms,
(stylistic shades) of the word. Components of meaning are colour terms, names for parts of the human body, etc.). This may
dependent on the context. be clear when comparing two languages. In Slovak the meaning of
the word "bratranec" is determined by the existence of the word
Emotive charge (colouring) - is an element of emotive "sesternica". In English we have only one word "cousin" while in
evaluation as a part of the connotational meaning, expressing Slovak two words: bratranec and sesternica. (See also 6.2.5).
emotional, expressive, evaluative overtones. Questions of word meaning is connected also with the ability
If we compare such words as: child, kid, brat; girl, girlie; dear, of words to combine with other words. Words can be/are usually
deary; mother, mummy; cat, pussy, hack, journalist: we can see that the combined (collocate) only with certain words. If we want to
difference between them is in the emotive charge. The emotive master a language properly we should know what words of the
charge of "kid, girlie, deary, mummy, pussy, hack" is heavier than of "child , language are most likely to occur together, i.e. what are the typical
girl, dear, mother, cat, journalist" . collocations. We can say: great man, great amount, great shame, large room ,
The emotive charge prevails in some parts of speech large man , large amount, heavy desk , etc. but not "large shame", etc.
(interjections) but may be absent in others (pronouns, Collocational (collocative) meaning is the meaning that arises from
prepositions, conjunctions). The emotive charge should be collocation.
distinguished from subjective emotive implications or association of
the word, e.g. the word "hospital" has a different association for a The term collocation is used in these ways:
patient and for a healthy person. - a tendency to (the likelihood of) co-occurrence, i.e. the way
in which some words regularly collocate, e.g.: commit collocates
Stylistic reference (colouring) with crime, chair with comfortable and blond with hair.
Words differ not only in their emotive charge but also in - the combination of words that regularly occur together (are
their stylistic elements. Some words are used only in certain natural to native speakers, collocate in predictable way): strong
coffee , by accident , blond hair , etc .
situations despite their identical denotational meaning. Most of the

18 19
 Collocations may be lexical and grammatical. man woman boy girl cow bull calf lamb ram
Collocations should not be confused with "association" of HUMAN + + + + - - - - -
ideas, i.e. links between ideas expressed in words (home, family; MALE + - + - - + + - + - +
doctor, illness). Some collocations are predictable, others are so FEMALE - + -+ + -+ -+ - -
natural hurried forward
widely used that have no predictable collocates at all: have, get, be.
Languages differ in their collocations: in English we can say: walk + - +
heavy smoker , heavy rain , heavy /light traffic , but not: strong /big smoker,
march - + +
strong rain, etc., on the other hand in Slovak we have: silny /tuhy run - + +
fajciar; silny /husty dazd . (The meaning of "strong smoker"
limp - - +
is not the same as: "silny/tuhy fajciar").
It is not always so easy to decide which components are
relevant and whether they are + or -, for example: z's porridge +
3.2. COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS OF MEANING LIQUID or -LIQUID?
The meaning of words can be analysed into components or a The componential analysis may be best applied to
series of semantic features and expressed in words. This type of distinguishing the meaning of words that are semantically related.
analysis is called componential analysis. It describes words in terms We distinguish two broad types of semantic components: those
of shared and non-shared meaning features. Some words, that are used to identify a semantic domain: common
especially those organized into semantic (lexical) fields, have components; and those that serve to distinguish words from each
certain features in common For example the words: man, father, other within a semantic field -diagnosticcomponents:
uncle can be referred to as: HUMAN, ADULT, MALE; while the run [+ move] [+ by feet] [+ quickly]
word boy as: HUMAN, MALE, NON-ADULT. Thus we can sprint [+ move] [+ by feet] [+ as quickly as possible]
establish whole systems of relationships, using a set of [+ over a short distance] (Rudzka et al 1981)
components, e.g: (Diagnostic components may be in concrete things formal or
functional, relating to their forms or their function).
mother (HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALE)
father (HUMAN, ADULT, MALE)
girl (HUMAN, NON-ADULT, FEMALE) 3.3. POLYSEMY
boy (HUMAN, NON-ADULT, MALE) Monosemantic and polysemantic words
The words boy and girl are distinguished from the words Polysemy is the term used to describe a single word with
mother, father by the component NON-ADULT, the words mother and several different but closely related meanings. As we have seen,
girl are distinguished from the words father and boy by the words are generally units of more than one meaning. A word that
component FEMALE. The component HUMAN distinguishes all has more than one meaning in the language is called polysemantic
these words from non-human creatures. (polysemous). Monosemantic (monosemous) words - words
In componential analysis, components such as these are having only one meaning - are comparatively rare in occurance;
presented as either/or (i.e. binary) choices and are expressed as + they are usually technical, scientific terms, e.g.: noun, phoneme,
or -, for example: + MALE, - MALE, + FEMALE, - FEMALE, etc. vowel, molecule, hydrogene

20 21
 The majority of words are polysemantic (polysemous), e.g., head concerned here with the relationship between the old and new
may have these meanings: meanings, i.e. between primary and derived meanings; for example:
1. part of the body; 2. the end where the head rests: at the h. of the bed/ "head" (as a part of the body) - is the primary meaning; "head" in "at the
grave; 3. the mind or brain: his heart rules his h.; 4. a headache: I've got a head of the army" - derived meaning; similarly: fowl - originally vtak, now
bad h.; 5. sb who is in control of sth, h. of an organization; hydina (See also 3.5).
6. thing like a head in form or position:/!, of a cabbage, of a pin, etc. Though the main source of polysemy is a change in the
semantic structure of the word (new meanings added to the ones
The same can be said of the words: crown, eye, hand, face. However, already existing, some old meanings disappearing), it may also
words are polysemantic only in the language. In actual utterance arise from homonymy.
(i.e. in speech) they occur only in one meaning, and it is the context
that makes the concrete meaning of the word clear, e.g.: "It cost him
3.3.1. Polysemy and Context
his head . That horse won by a head . At the head of the page . The head of
a school'. Some meanings are clear without any context, such as when
Polysemy may be viewed synchronically and diachronically. the word is used in isolation; others are determined by the context,
Synchronically we study and understand polysemy as the i.e. only when the word is used in a certain context: "He made the
coexistence of various meanings of the same word at a certain story up out of his (own ) head"; "at the head of the department" . "He
period. We are interested if the meanings are equally can't swim." My head is swimming".
representative, or which meaning can be clear in isolation (basic, Context is:
central, direct meaning, having 1st. place in the dictionary), and "words that come before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc,
which can be clear only in certain contexts (minor, figurative, helping to show what its meaning is."
transferred , d e riv e d m eaning ) . (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 1989)
The more objective criteria is, however, the frequency of the "minimum stretch of speech necessary and sufficient to determine which
meanings. of the possible meanings of the polysemantic word is used ."
All of the interrelated possible meanings, shades of meaning, (Arnold 1973)
emotional colouring, and stylistic peculiarities of the polysemantic "... the parts of a written or spoken statement that precede or follow a
word in a language form its semantic structure which is rarely specified w ord or passage and can influence its m eaning or effect" .
identical in different languages, i.e. there is no guarantee that it will (Random House Webster's College Dictionary 1991)
denote the same set of things in another language, e.g.: "the parts of a discourse or treatise which precede and follow a specified
face 1. tvar, oblicaj 2. vyraz (tvare), vyzor; vzhl'ad:/. of the city 3. passage and may fix its true meaning"
priecelie, predna strana: the f. of the building 4. opovazlivosf, (Chamber's 2Oth Century Dictionary 1984).
trufalosf, bezocivost 5. lice (coho), titulna strana 6. fasada 7. cifernik.
Context may be: 1. linguistic (lexical and grammatical);
Compare also: E: window, S: 1. okno; 2. vyklad; finger - prst (na 2. context of speech situation (extra-lingual).
ruke).
Diachronically, polysemy is connected with changes in the 1. Linguistic context includes two elements: lexical and
semantic structure of individual words. As the word may retain its grammatical.
previous meaning, and at the same time acquire new one(s), we are
22 23
a/ Lexical context or the meaning by collocation. ring give him a ring - (piece of metal; call him on the telephone)
The identification comes from groups, elements with which the She: Now that we're engaged, dear, you'll give me
word is used. For example: a ring, won't you?
heavy : He: Yes, dear, certainly. What's your telephone
- with things of great weight (tazky):table, suitcase; number?
- with natural phenomena (silny, velky): rain, storm, wind, cold,
frost;
- with a doer: smoker, drinker,etc. 3.4. HOMONYMS, HOMOPHONES, HOMOGRAPHS
pretty : woman; mess;
handsome : man , profile ; price , sum ; The problem of polysemy versus homonymy raises the
thick : line , ice ; forest; question, "Where is the border line between the different meanings of a
take : a book , a pen ; a tram , a bus , a train (to go by ...) word and the meanings of two homonymous words?
Different language communities may stress different features and
use different context word, such as: as like as two peas (in a pod) - 3.4.1. Homonyms are words coinciding in their sound forms or their
podobaf sa ako vajce vajcu ; as fit as fiddle - zdravy ako buk , ako ryba ; spelling and sound forms together but different in their meaning
drink like a fish - ako diiha ; heavy rain - silny ddzd . and distribution, e.g.: spring (season, jump), (to) know -
b/ Grammatical or syntactical context is when the meaning is no, right - (to) write, sun - son
determined by the syntactical structure, that is, the grammatical The criteria in synchronic study necessary to differentiate
(mainly syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine between different meanings of one word and the meanings of two
various meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g.: homonymous words may be:
"make" (to force): make sb do sth -He made her laugh - graphical -(having different spellings): night - knight, die - dye,
(rozosmial ju); (to become, turn out to be): make + male - mail , beer - bier .
adj + noun - She will make a good wife /teacher semantic -(there is no connection between the meanings): race
(bude z nej dobra manzelka/ucitelka); (competition, group of people), seal (animal, official mark), light (not
"have" have sth + past participle (dat co urobif) -have heavy, not dark).
one's hair cut; have the clothes cleaned ; have the distributional : saw -1 saw , nose - he knows , book - to book
roof repaired . Nouns have articles and may be followed by verbs. Verbs
have different functions. But the precise distinction between
2. Context of speech situation polysemy and homonymy is often difficult to make.
There are cases when the meaning is determined by the actual Traditionally there are two recognized types of homonyms:
speech situation, e.g.: Homonyms proper identical in sound and spelling and different in
key A: I forgot the key. (It's locked.) Is it locked? meaning:
B: Never mind, play it in the key of C. fair (Adj, N ), bear (N, V ); toast (hrianka , pripitok ), club (klubovna,
His speech was all in the same key. palica), soz/e (rozsah , supina ) ,sefl / (tulen , pecaf ) ;/oz ?e , sound , bank.

24 25
Homophones identical in sound but different in spelling: and to propose a toast, buttered toast; textile industry, his patience and
meanings: industry; a light coat, good light; send by mail, male and a female; a long
row, to row a boat; a long way, long before.
steal - steel, meat - meet, two - too , bare - bear , peace - piece , air - heir ,
cite - site - sight, die - dye , fair - fare , hair - hare , son - sun , flour - M: Anna, has lawyer Jones had anysuits yet?
floiver , tale - tail , see - sea A: Oh, yes, mother; he has a new blackswzf of the latest cut.
Homonyms may be studied from different standpoints. Some A: What's the difference between a soldier and girls? B:
words are homonymous in all their forms - full homonyms The soldier faces powder. Girls powder faces.
(homonymy of words, usually within the same word-class): race -
races, spring - springs; or only in some forms of the word - partial J: Mr. B., what is a bore ?
homonyms (homonymy of word forms): Mr.B.: A boar is a wild hog, Johny, why?
to know , (he ) knows, a nose , noses; sea , seas, see , (he ) sees, saw , seen ; J: Well, sister says you are a regularbore, but I don't think you look
to find , (he ) found , to found ; bear - to bear , borne much like a hog.

According to the types of meaning they may be classified into E: Oh, Maud! I must hurry home from school today; mamma is
lexical homonyms - differing in lexical meaning: dyeing .
sun - son , die - dye , seal (a stamp , an animal) tale - tail , m arch - M: Why, Emma, aren't you disrespectful, coming to school,
March (a long march, the month of March). and your mother dying?
E: Why no! She is only dyeing my old pink dress.
grammatical homonyms - the difference is confined to
grammatical m eaning : (he ) asked -(he was ) asked
Sources of homonymy
Sometimes the difference may be in both lexical and
grammatical meanings -lexico-grammatical homonyms The English language is very rich in homonymy (OED: 2540)
spring - to spring , a red rose - the sun rose , weak - week , to earn - urn . and it is said that this is due to the monosyllabic structure of
Lexical-grammatical homonyms can be of two types: English words commonly used (Jespersen: 89% monosyllabic, 9,1%
a. without any semantic relation between them disyllabic). This may be the result of the different development of
(a rose - it ro se } , several meanings of the same words, such as: flower and flour
b. different in their grammatical meaning and partly different (originally one word), box (tree - buxus; container), or the result of
in their lexical meaning (cases of conversion) love - to love, converging or accidental sound evelopment of originally distinct words
answer - to answer. into identical ones: I - eye [ai] (OE: Ic - eaye), love - to love (OE: lufu
- lufian). Homonyms may also be the result of borrowing from other
Examples: languages, for example: race is derived from ON: "ras"
I think that this "that" is a conjunction but that "that" that that man used (competition), and from F: "race" (group of people); port
was a pronoun. (Arnold) (Oporto-wine and L: harbour) or of word-formation especially the
shortening of words e.g. advertisement - shortened to "ad" in contrast with
"to add"; similarly pop from "popular" and "to pop".

26 27
3.4.2. Homographs (a) Linguistic causes. The commonest form (taken by this
influence) is the so-called ellipsis - in a phrase made up of two
In discussion on homonymy we can come across words that words, one is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner:
are somehow related to homonyms, called homographs, i. e. words (cut-price) sale, daily, weekly (newspaper), propose (marriage), to be
different in the sound form and meaning but accidentally identical in expecting (a baby), perm (permanent wave),pub (public house), etc.
spelling, e.g.: Another cause is differentiation or discrimination of
to lead [li:d] - lead [led], tear [ti ] - to tear [tea], bow [b»u] (luk, slacik, synonyms, e.g.: "time" and "tide" used to be synonyms, nowadays
masla) - bow [bau] (poklona, poklonit sa), 'record - to record "tide" means regular movement of water.
[ri'ko:d], row [rau] (rad ) - [rau] (hadka), Polish [au] - polish [o], Some semantic changes may be accounted for by the influence
minute [minit, mainju:t], wind [i] (vietor) - to wind [ai] (krutif , of a peculiar factor usually referred to as linguistic analogy. If one
tocif ) , / read [i:] - he read [e ] . member of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning, other
members of this set change their meaning, too, e.g. verbs
synonymous with "catch": grasp, get, etc. acquire also the meaning
3.5. SEMANTIC CHANGES "understand".
(b) Extra-linguistic causes. The semantic change of words is
Semantics, treated diachronically, studies the change in caused by various changes in the life of the speech community
meaning which words undergo. Word meaning, as we have (economic, social, political, Cultural etc.). The institutions, objects, or
mentioned before, is liable to change in the course of history. Very concepts change in the course of time, the words which denote
few words, except those recently coined, retain their original them are retained but tie meaning of these words has changed,
meanings throughout their history and migration from one e.g.:
language to another. car (orig. wheeled vehicle, kara), atom (Gr. atomos: indivisible),
Examples are: fond (orig.: foolish, foolishly credulous), wealth (orig. well-being, happiness), fee (poplatok, origin.: cattle and
glad (orig.: bright, shining), husband (OE: money), pen (pero, orig. feather).
master of the house), infant (nonspeaking),
person (mask), typewriter (typist). 3.5.2. Nature of semantic change.
No matter what the cause is, a necessary condition of any
In the process of study we have to discriminate between 3 semantic change is some connection, or association between the old
aspects of a semantic change: and the new meaning. There are. as 3 rule, two kinds of association
1. - the cause of semantic change (why?); involved:
2. - the nature of " (how?);
3. - the results of " (what?); (a) similarity of the meanings - metaphor - based on the fact
that one of the two referents in some way resembles the other, e.g.:
3.5.1. Causes of semantic change hand (of a body, of a clock), face, head, leg (of a table, animal), mouth (of a
They may be: (a) linguistic river, tunnel), foot (of a hill, a page), eye (of a needle), teeth (of a saw),
(b) extra-linguistic. crest (of a hill, a wave, orig. hrebienok kohuta), cock (of a gun),
hammer (of an ear), an icy glance, fox (cunning person);
28 29
(b) contiguity (spojitosť, suvislost, vzťah) of meaning - metonymy - At the same time the content of the notion is being enriched as it
one of the two referents makes part of the other or is closely includes a greater number of relevant features - narrowing,
connected with it, e.g.: restriction of the meaning or specialization, e.g.:
deer (orig. beast), hound (orig. dog), fowl (orig. bird), meat (OE:
"win (OE: winnan - to fight), crown (monarchy), glass (pohar), iron food), starve (OE: die), glide (klzat sa, vznasat sa).
(zehlicka), the chair (chairman), kill (hit on the head), hand (hand
writing), book (OE: beech, buk). - The reverse process is extension, generalization or widening of
meaning, e.g.:
Common words may be derived from proper names:
watt, sandwich, raglan, ohm; china, champagne, tweed, bikini; the Y - ready (orig. prepared for a ride), bird (young bird), rubbish (OE:
fliite House, W att Street, Pentagon; rugby, bedminton broken stones), arrive (come to the shore), camp (military camp),
junk (rubbish, useless stuff; orig. sailor's: old rope).
Other types may be:
- exaggeration of meaning - hyperbole - exaggerated statement not to (b) Changes in the connotational meaning include:
be taken literally:
- pejorative development of words - acquiring derogatory emotive
wait for an eternity (long time); I haven't seen you for ages; / can sleep
charge (a sense of disapproval), e.g.:
for a year; swallow a gallon of water; it's terribly late (very late ) ;
boor (grobian, neogabanec, orig. villager, peasant), villain (nicomnik,
splendid achievement (excellent achievement).
lotor, orig. farm servant), knave (darebak, lump - boy), collaborator
- substitution of the words of mild or vague connotation (spolupracovnik, kolaborant), harlot (maidservant in Chaucer),
- euphemisms - for the words thought to be offensive, hdrsh or notorious (widely known), witch (wise man/woman).
blunt, e.g.:
- ameliorative development of words - improvement of the
pass away (die), gay (homosexual), restroom, (washroom, bathroom); in
connotational component of meaning (or the loss of an original
WWII instead of the word "kill", the phrases: "he's bought it, he's
sense of disapproval); it is a change of words due to their referents
had it, he's had his time" were devised (Barber).
coming up the social scale, e.g.:
minister (orig. meaning: servant), queen (woman), knight (young
3.5.3. Results of semantic change servant), marshal (horseboy), constable (stable companion), steivard
Results can be observed in the change of the denotational (person taking care of pigs), fortunate (good, bad fortune, now:
meaning of the word (restriction, extension of meaning) or in the lucky).
alteration of its connotational component (deterioration or
amelioration of meaning, accompanied by the change in the - the loss of intensity of meaning is seen in the words: awful,
denotational meaning). dreadful, frightful; acquiring also positive meaning: smashing,
shattering.
(a) Changes of denotational meaning. Types.
- This occurs when a word, formerly representing a concept of These three aspects - the sociolinguistic aspect, - the psychological
a broader scope, has come to render a concept of a narrower scope. classification and - logical classification should be viewed as three
When the meaning is specialized the word can name fewer objects. essentially different but inseparable aspects of one and the same
linguistic phenomenon and any change of meaning could be
30 31
investigated from the point of view of its cause, nature and its 4. Morphemic and Word-Formation Structure
results. For example, the same extra-linguistic causes may bring
about different results: knight (a change of meaning from "boy of Words
servant" to "young warrior") - ameliorative development; boor (a
change of meaning from: a "villager" to a "rough, rude man"); -
pejorative development. Words can be divided into smaller meaningful parts -
morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units into
which a word can be divided, but which, unlike words, do not
occur in speech independently. A word may consist of one
morpheme only, e.g.: go, love, look, hope; use-fid, love-ly, un-happy
Morphemes homonymous with a word are called free
morphemes, e.g.: go, look, hope, act; those used only with another
morpheme are called bound morphemes, e.g.: -ly, un-, -ness, etc. The
majority of English morphemes are bound.
The basic common elements of words - their lexical centres
within a word family are called - root morphemes (roots). They are
usually tree: friend, friend[y, friendship; act, action, actor, activity, etc.
Other linguistic elements attached to the root, at the beginning or
at the end of it, are affixational morphemes (which are bound):
-ly, -ship, un-. The latter when preceding the root are called
prefixes (im-happy, //-legally, a-like); those fixed to the end of the root
are called suffixes (use-less, govern-ment, meet-ing, act-or).
Affixes can also be divided according to their function.
Inflectional affixes are used to build new forms of the word (act-s, act-
ed). Derivational affixes are used to build different words (act-or,
act-ive). Some affixes (suffixes ) may be inflectional and
derivational, e.g. -s: colours (farby, zastava), customs (zvyky, clo), works
(zavod), developmerits (udalosti), clothes (saty ), directions
(instrukcie), news.
One morpheme may be represented by different forms:
describe - description , apply - application . These forms are called
allomorphs. An allomorph is one of the forms of a morpheme
differing from the basic form by certain sounds/letter make up. It is its
realization.

32 33
 According to the number of morphemes we can distinguish: e.g.: educate - education, memory - memorize, describe - description,
- monomorphemic words - root words - with only one morpheme (one explode - explosion , fly - flight
root): boy, girl, man, play, usual
Many of these differences are simply spelling problems,
- polymorphemic words - with at least two morphemes:
causing spelling difficulties. The others are different in base form
- derived words - including a root and one or
and present more than spelling problems:
more morphemes: boyhood, friendly, disarm,
(describe - description , explode - explosion , give - gift, omit - omission ,
- compound words - including at least two
introduce - introduction; run - runner, bury - burial, fly -flight).
roots: armchair, boyfriend, classroom
From the point of their structure, bases may be of three types:
In this type of analysis - morphemic (morphological) level -
simple: (one root; morphologically non-motivated):m'ce(ly),
we are interested in the morphemic structure, the number and
poet(ess), cMd(hood);
types of morphemes in a word (morpheme being the basic unit).
derived: (one root + affix; morphologically motivated):
But the word structure may be analysed also from the point of
governmental), classification), peaceful(ness);
building new words. Here, in the word-formaton level of analysis
compound: (two roots): sportsmanship), fulfilment),
we are concerned with basic units: word-bases (stems)3 and
workman(ship), (superhighway.
derivational affixes; and the relation between two parts: the affix
and the rest of the word; their function and the possibilities of Consequently, there are the following types of words:
combination and ways of creating a new word, or the study of - simple words, which cannot be broken down into smaller
patterns on which words are created. Word-formation analysis or meaningful units (words with simple morphologically
structure need not to be identical with the morphemic one, e.g. non-motivated bases): play, bed, house, nice;
dass-ifi-cation (morphemic), classifi-cation (word-formation); - derived words - derivatives (formed from a simple word
act-iv-ity, activ-ity; un-friend-li-ness, {un[(friend)-li]}-ness, /base by adding an affix ) : disadvantage, player,
un-man-li-ness. impossible, frighten , nicely;
The base is the basic part of the word which is common to all - compound words - compounds: (made up of two or more words/
the other forms of the word - the remaining part after an affix is bases): bedroom, sportsman, armchair, mother-inlaw,
taken away: act-s, act-ed, act-ing; friend-ly, friendli-ness; good-tempered.
un -professional profession -a \.

"...that part of a word which remains unchanged throughout its

paradigm (system of gram, forms) and to which grammatical inflections
and derivational affixes are added" . (Mednikova)
In English, the base may be identical with roots in
monomorphemic words: act, happy, boy, girl. However, sometimes the
form of the base, when occurring with a suffix, is different from the "The results of the two levels of analysis of word-structure do
form of the base without a suffix, not always coincide. Even, when they do, they are interpreted
differently."
3 Quirk distinquishes between a stem (=root) and a base.
34 35
5. Word-Formation and its Problems Homonymous, e.g.: -en (used to form both the same and
different word-class: 1. adj., made of: wooden,
Word-formation is the process of building words by means of golden; 2. verb, be, have, become: ripen,
existing elements of language according to certain patterns and strengthen , sharpen ); -al (noun : burial,
rules.5 It may be viewed synchronically and diachromcally. arrival; ad } .: formal, natural)
We distinguish these ways of word-formation (slovotvorne
Synonymous, e.g.: -hood , -ship (brotherhood , friendship )
postupy) in English:
-or , -er , -ist (actor , teacher , artist)
- principal processes: affixation
compounding We have to distinguish between productive and
conversion nonproductive affixes, as only some affixes are used to form new
words in a given period (productive a.): -ic, -er, anti-(atomic,
- minor processes: shortening (clipping and acronymy) economic, footballer, antimilitary, antiwar). The degree of
blending productivity varies. Among these, some are more productive than
back-formation others.
formation by sound interchange - Affixes and a base (root morpheme) constitute the meaning of
shift of stress the word, the base forming the semantic centre or nucleus, and
sound imitation affixes playing a dependent role in the meaning of the word.
folk etymology Suffixes may have also a grammatical meaning.
word manufacture - Possibilities of combinations of the base and affixes are
limited; certain bases can be combined only with certain affixes:
5.1. AFFIXATION (derivation) noun bases for example with -hood, -ling, -ful, -less, -ize/-ise:
childhood , brotherhood ; painful, painless , beautiful ; characterize ;
A process of building new words by adding an established duckling). The prefix un- is prefixed to adjectives (unhealthy,
prefix or a suffix to the existing base - prefixation and suffixation . unequal}; to adjectives derived from verb bases + the suffix -able
In the study of affixation, it is important to take into (unbelievable, unbearable); to participial adjectives (unstressed ); to
consideration the following problems. We have to realize that: adverbs (unfortunately); to verbs (undress). The meaning of a derived
- Affixes have their own meanings. Affixes may be: word depends also on the combination of the base and affixes (-ish
Polysemantic, e.g.: -er (1. s.o. who does sth: dancer, teacher; with a noun base: childish, and with an adjective base: brownish).
2. sth that does sth:boiler, mower, opener; - Affixes may be of different origin (Latin, French, Greek:
3 o. who makes sth: hatter; 4. s.o. who lives, comes -ette , -able , inter - : kitchenette , comfortable , internationa ) .
from : Londoner , New Yorker ;. We can also observe combinations: native base + foreign affix
(bearable, readable, edible, goddess, which is not very frequent in Slovak);
5 We consider word-formation as a part of lexicology, because or foreign base + native affix (beautiful, countless); foreign
the result of it is a new word and not a new grammatical form. base + foreign affix (Antifascist; in Slovak pianista , violoncelista ).

36
37
 5.1.1. Suffixation (derivation by adding suffixes to a base) Adjective -forming suffixes :
In English, suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective -able /ible : comfortable , fashionable , favourable , sensible ;
formation. A suffix usually changes not only the lexical meaning of -ic /atic : atomic , heroic , economit, historic 6, poetic ,
a word but also its grammatical meaning or its word-class, e.g.: systematic ;
bake - baker , class - classify , beauty - beautiful. The word can be -ful : beautiful , useful , helpful , faith fu l , ca refu l , d o ubtful ;
modified in the meaning and/or changed from one part of speech to -y: bloody , dirty , healthy , sunny , muddy , wealthyptormy ;
another : man - manly , beauty - beautiful. Sometimes the process of -less: useless , homeless , helpless , faithless , careless ;
affixation produces changes in stress and sounds in a word: -al /tal /ial /tlal : personal, critical, influential, preferential;
democrat [demakrat], democratic [dem #kr«tik ], democracy [dim'okwsi]. -ive/ative/itive: active, creative, sensitive;
There are numerous ways of classification of the suffixes in -ant/ent: pleasant, differen t , excellent;
linguistic literature. We will mention only some of them. -en: wooden , golden , woolen ;
-like : childlike , businesslike , ladylike ;
Classification of suffixes according to the word-classes: -ing: amusing , interesting , charming , opening , painting ;
Noun -forming suffixes : -ous: dangerous, famous, mysterious, envious;
-or: actor , visitor , director , instructor , inspector , -ish: bookish , childish , foolish , selfish ;
conductor, -ly: friendly , lovely , manly , motherly ;
-er /eer : speaker , reader , writer ; opener ; engineer profiteer ,
-ist: scientist, satirist, novelist, journalist, Verb -forming suffixes :
-ess: hostess , stewardess , actress , poetess , princesswaitress ; -ize /ise (hi. Brit.) : civilize , characterize , modernize , signalize ;
-ty /ity : cruelty , certainty , stupidity , purity , oddity ; -ify/fy/efy: sim plify , glorify , beatify , fa lsify ;
-ure /ture : failure , closure , exposure ; mixture ; -en: deepen , frighten , sharpen , lengthen , strengthen ;
-dom : freedom , kingdom , officialdom , gangsterdom ;
-age: passage , marriage , shrinkage , postage ; Adverb -forming suffixes :
-ance/ence: appearance , performance , preference , reference ; -ly: formally , calmly , easily , coldly , nicely , monthly ;
-hood: likelihood , brotherhood , neigbourhood , manhood , -ward /wards : homeward , eastward , afterwards, backwards;
falsehood ; -wise /ways : clockwise , likewise , crosswise , otherwise ,
-ing : reading , opening , beginning , lining ; lengthwise , crossways , sideways ;
-ion /sion /tion /ition /ation : operation , action , combination , -fold : twofold , threefod ;
application , permission , description , competition ;
-ness: kindness , goodness, willingness , consciousness ,
coldness ; economic (crisis, development)
-y/ery: d iffic u lty , enquiry , expiry ; robbery , slavery ; economical (woman, methods, car)
-ship : partnership , ownership , membership , kinship ; historic (event, city, battle, building)
-ment: government, development, movement, agreement, historical (records, novel, fact, research)
management, refreshment; classic (novel, western, example, performance)
-t: complaint, restraint; classical (style, architecture, language)

38 39
According to the base the suffix is added: il- (before 1): illegal, illiterate, illegible;
- to verbal bases: -or/er, -ing:actor, writer, meeting; ir- (before r): irregular, irrespective, irrational;
- to a noun base: -ful, -ist: beautiful, novelist; non-: nonalcoholic, nonsmoker, nonpolitical; (sometimes
- to an adjective base: -ly, -ness:nicely, goodness; contrast with un-: non-scientific - unscientific);
de-: decentralize, decode, defrost, devalue, debone,
Classification based on sense expressed by a suffix: de -escalate ;
- agent of the action (suffix indicates the doer):
b/ higher or lower degree, measure or size
-er, -ant, -ist: writer, boiler, servant,
super-: supersonic, superhuman, supertanker, supernational;
disinfectant, novelist, journalist;
semi-: semivowel, semidarkness, semiconductor, semifinal;
- status, collectivity: -ship, -ery.friendship, slavery, bravery; hyper-: hypercritical, hypersensitive, hyperactive;
- diminutiveness (emotional relation): -y/ie, -let, -ling: ultra - : ultrahigh, ultrashort, ultraviolet;
daddy, birdie, starlet, streamlet, booklet, over-: oversimplify, overstaffed, overtime, over-populated;

c/ repetition or making it possible

piglet, duckling/ducky, gosling, Johny, doggie, deary
re-: redecorate, reread, reunited, reconsider, rebuild, recycle;
en-/em -: enrich, enlarge, embitter (roztrpcif);
5.1.2. Prefixation
A prefix usually changes or concretizes the lexical meaning of d/ time and place, order relation
a word and only rarely its word-class: smoker - non-smoker, write - post-: postwar, postgraduate, postpone;
rewrite. Prefixes are used to form new verbs: circle - encircle, large - inter-: interplanetary, international, intercontinental;
enlarge, courage - encourage, able - enable, rich - enrich pre-: prewar, prehistoric, prearrange;
ex-: ex-president, ex-convict, ex-husband, ex-film-star;
Prefixes may be divided into: e/ number and numeral relation:
a/ negative or oppositional bi-: bilateral, bilabial, bi-monthly;
un- (the most frequent, usually with adjectives, adverbs; uni-: unilateral, unisex, unicycle, unidirectional;
showing negative attitude, often unstressed) auto-: autobiography, autopump, auto-suggestion;
- simple negation: unable, unfair, unclear, unhappy; multi-: multinational, multistorey, multilingual;
- showing the opposite (with verb stem): pack - f/ attitude, collaboration, membership, counterreaction
unpack, unmask, unzip;
anti-: antisocial, antiwar, antifreeze, antinuclear;
dis-: disagreeable, disobedient, dissimilar, dislike;
counter-: counter-offensive, counter-revolution;
a-: amoral, atypical, asymetric, apolitical (also
pro-: pro-English, pro-vice-chancellor;
unpolitical, untypical);
in-: informal, injustice, inability, insensitive, g/ pej oration
inexperience; mis-: misinform, mislead, misjudge, misuse;
im- (before p, b, m): impossible, immoral, impatient, pseudo-: pseudo-scientific, pseudo-intellectual
imbalance;
40 41
 5.2. COMPOUNDING (H91). According to Quirk there is a tendency to write in AE as one
Compound words (compounding) may be approached and word or separate, in BE hyphenated, e.g.:
BE: airbrake, call-girl, dry-dock, letter-writer (but
studied from different points of view. Diachronically, compounding
(composition) is a process of building new words by combining at H89, L87: air brake , dry doc % .
least two bases (roots). Synchronically, a compound word is a word AE: air brake, call girl, dry dock, letter writer
consisting of two or more bases (roots), e.g. armchair, editor-in-chief,
forget-me-not, out-of-the-way (adj.). Some words taken historically are The same holds true for the stress. Compounds as a rule have
not the result of compounding, though Synchronically they have the one stress: the main stress is on the first word, e.g:
"armchair , "blackbird , "blackboard , "slowcoach , "silver -fish , "redskin
same structure, e.g. breakdown, passer-by, baby-sit (phrasal
derivation, back-formation). (insect.),
word groups have: "arm "chair, "black "bird , "black "board , "slow
Synchronically we take into consideration these facts: "coach , "silver "fish , "red "skin
A. correlation between a compound word and a word group;
B. mutual relations of the components of a compound word According to their correlation with free phrases (word groups) we
(types of composition, structure, type of relationship); distinguish compounds with these structures:
C. the relation of the whole to its elements (degree Adj. + noun: hothouse, madman, blackboard, blackmail,
of motivation). red -brick ;
Noun + adj./participle: duty-free, worldwide,
A. Correlation between a compound word and a word group. snow -white , long -legged , leadfree ;
The criteria for distinguishing the compound word from the Noun + noun: windmill, steamboat, toothache,
word group are phonetical, grammatical, graphical and semantic. honeymoon , boy -friend ;
A compound word may be characterized, unlike a word group, by Adj. + adj./participle: bitter-sweet, Anglo-American,
its inseparability, i.e. it cannot be interrupted by another word; its widespread, easy-going, ready-made,
semantic unity; its unity of morphological and syntactic Verb + noun: pickpocket, cutthroat, playboy, draw
functioning; and certain phonetical and graphic features. However, bridge , breakwater ,
the borderline between compounds and word groups is not always Noun + verb (formed by back-formation): baby-sit,
clear-cut. housekeep , housebreak, day -dream
There is no one formal criteria that can be used for a general Adverb + ad}./participle: far-fetched, everlasting
definition of compounds in English (Quirk). No criteria is normally well-known, underdeveloped
sufficient for establishing a word unit.
From the orthographical point of view, there are no hard and B. Mutual relations of the components of a compound
fast rules of spelling in English. A compound may be written as Components of a compound may be joined together and
one word: fireman, bedroom ; or hyphenated- tax-free, king-size; or
accordingly classified according to ihetype of composition
written as separate words: flowerpot, floiver-pot, flower pot (Quirk); - without connecting elements: armchair, classroom,
sitting room, sitting-room; horse chestnut (W91, L87), horse-chestnut
raincoat, dark -blue , paperback ;

42 43
 - with a linking elements: C. The relation o/the whole to its elements.
- vowel or consonant: sportsman , nowadays, handi- If we take into consideration the semantic relation of the
craft, Anglo -Saxon , statesman , speedometer ; whole to its elements we notice that they are not the same in
- preposition or conjunction (phrasal compound): different compounds. According to the degree of motivation and
mother-m -law , matter-of-fact; semantic relation between components and the whole, we
(adj . ) : good -for -nothing , commander -m -chief , distinguish:
out-of-the -way , barman <um -waiter. bread -and -butter; - completely motivated (the meaning of the whole is easily
deduced from the lexical meaning of its components):
According to the structure or different ways of compounding , we home-made, good -looking , sunbeam ;
distinguish: - partially motivated : handbag , handbook ,
- simple compounds (consisting of simple bases): - idiomatic, demotivated, non-motivated (the meaning of
bedroom , fireplace , workshop , shopwindow , aircraft; the whole is difficult to deduce ) - .slowcoach , blackmail,
- derivational compounds (one base is derived): chatterbox , bluestocking , blackboard , wallflower (person ),
good -hearted , blue -eyed , loudspeaker, goalkeeper, nightcap , frogman , buttercup .
airsickness , money -lender ;
- compounds with at least one clipped base: A-bomb, Compounds may be also classified according to the
N -bomb, sci-fi; word-classes (and function) into:
- compounds with a compound base: aircraftman, super- nouns: endocentric - one element determines the other:
highway ;
(one semantic centre ) - .bedroom , beehive , airship ,
Two base compounds are the most typical. shopwindow ;
exocentric -(no semantic centre ):cutthroat, pickpocket,
According to the type of relationship between components: scarecrow (strasiak ), redskin ;
- coordinative compounds: bitter-sweet, skyscraper, adjectives : snow -white , long -legged , hard -zvorkingtime -consuming ,
deaf-mute ; short-sleeved , Anglo -French
- reduplicative : fifty -fifty , gee -gee , walkie -talkie ; verbs: blackmail, housekeep , nickname , honeymoon
- subordinative compounds : armchair, bedroom , black - (these were produced by conversion ); to double -book ,
bird , software (determining and determined part ) . fine -tune ;
adverbs: downstairs, double -quick , over -night;
Subordinative compounds may be syntactic (resembling word prepositions : into , onto , within , throughout;
order in word groups - Germanic types): highway, railway, pronouns: somebody , anyone , myself;
blackboard; or asyntactic (against the rules of syntax - French types): conjunctions : whenever, however, nevertheless ;
world -wide , snow -zvhite , home -made , secretary -general. Coordinative
compounds make comparatively small group; the majority of Compounding in English is the most typical way of building
compounds are subordinative. for nouns, and adjectives. Compound verbs are few in number.
Diachronically they are the results of conversion or back-formation.

44 45
 Some linguists also speak of: Synchronically, it is difficult to say which word is derived
rhyme-motivated compounds: hokey-pokey, hobnob, brain-drain; and which is primary. Therefore the conversion is regarded as a
ablaut motivated compounds: flip-flop, tick-tock, zig-zag, wishy-washy. type of derivative correlation between two words making up a
conversion pair. The two words differ only in the paradigm (and
5.3. CONVERSION function ) .
The process of coining new words in a different wordclass Conversion in present day English usually involves
without adding any derivative elements is called conversion (zero monosyllabic words (of a simple morphological structure), conversion from
derivation, root formation, functional change, shift). As a result the derived words is rare. It is the predominant method of English
two words are homonymous, though grammatically different, e.g.: verb-derivation (word-formation). (It is the context that
shows whether a word is to be taken as a noun, verb or adjective).
face - to face , back - to back , answer - to answer
Transition of one word category into another without any The major types of conversion are:
derivational changes (Mathesius 1975)
1. The formation of verbs from nouns:
Transfer of a word from one word class to another (Barber 1993)
saw - to saw , nurse - to nurse , hand - to hand ; to phone ,
The formation of a neiu word through changes in its paradigm , with zero to wire , to mask , to mail;
morpheme (Ginzburg 1966). - They are rarely formed from other parts of speech:
dry - to dry , clean - to clean , down - to down , dirty - to dirty ,
Conversion is one of the principal ways of forming words in open - to open ; to empty , to calm , to narrow , to up (prices .)
Modern English. As a type of word-formation it exists in various
languages. Specific to English vocabulary is its intense occurrence. 2. The formation of nouns from verbs:
This type of word-formation presents one of the characteristic to break - break , to walk - walk , to step - step , an answer , taste .
feature of Modern English. - They are rarely formed from other parts of speech:
The causes that made conversion so widely spread are to be American - an American , black - a black , cold - cold .
approached dinchronically. Nouns and verbs have become
identical in form as a result of the loss of endings: 3. The formation of adjectives (mostly used attributively) from
OE: weorc (n ) - wyrcan (v, work ) , carian (v ) - cara (n, care ), lufu nouns:
(n ) - lufian (v, love ), slepan (v ) , slaep (n, sleep ), drincan (v ) , drinca an orange - an orange car , secret - secret agent
(n, drink). Nouns may be also derived/rom phrasal verbs (called
This loss of endings gave rise to grammatical homonymy (care, love, also phrasal derivation):
work ) . to make up - a make -up , to pull over - pullover , to black (sth
Diachronically, conversion is a way of forming new words on the out - a blackout; breakdown , getaway , build -up , comeback , hangup ,
analogy of semantic patterns in the language. put-down.
Distinction can be made between cases of conversion as such Conversion may be:
(bus - to bus, weekend - to weekend ) and those due to the a . full : a hand - to hand , call - to call , brake - to brake , to run - a
disappearance of inflections in the course of the development of the run , calm - to calm , to go - go ;
English language (care , love , work ). b. partial : to smoke - to have a smoke
46 47
 According to some linguists partial conversion is a kind of ref (eree , reference , col ) , m a , pa , m od cons (modern conveniences ) , porn
double process when first a noun is formed by conversion from a (pornography ) , deli (delicatessen ) , bi (bisexual ) , mimeo (mimeograph )
verbal stem, and then, this noun is combined with such verbs as: Shortened variants of words are used as an independent
have, give, make, take, e.g.: have a chat, look, swim, walk; give a laugh , lexical units. Some of them occur both in oral and written speech,
a cry , a whistle ; take a ride , a walk
others only in oral speech: maths (US: math), sis, doc. In most cases a
Other linguists add here certain types of substantivation shortened word exists in the vocabulary together with the longer
because of their restriction in their syntactic occurrence: word from which it is derived - they usually differ in emotive
private - a private (the private's uniform, a group of privates); charge and/or stylistic reference (prof - slg., professor - neutral; doc -
similarly: captive, conservative, criminal, female, intellectual, male, native. coll., doctor - neutr). Some linguists consider them as word-variants,
The degree of substantivation may be different. others as two distinct synonymic words.
Partially substantivised are : We distinguish the following types of lexical abbreviation: -
the blind , the dead , the English , the poor , the rich ; the wounded (no pi.) , final clipping (words that have been shortened at the end
the beautiful (krdsno ) , the good, etc . - apocope [spokspi]): lab, ad, gym, mac, photo, exam, taxi
Less restricted are : a daily, a regular, a roast, a gay, a crazy. - initial clipping (words that have been shortened at the beginning
- aphaeresis [aefi«risis ] ) :ce //o (violoncello ), phone (telephone ),
Quirk, Bauer and some others add here also the cases of bus , plane , van (caravan );
formations by sound interchange and shift of stress (see p. 50). - medial clipping (words in which some syllables or sounds
have been omitted from the middle - syncope [sinfcapi]):
5.4. SHORTENING AND MINOR TYPES fancy (fantasy ) , specs , maths , pants (pantaloons ) , binocs
(binoculars ) ;
OF WORD-FORMATION - words that have been clipped at both ends: flu (influenza), tec
(detective ) , fridge (refrigerator ) , shrink (head -shrinker ) , Liz
5.4.1. Shortening (Clipping and acronymy) (Elizabeth ) .
Shortening is a process in which part of the original word is 2. Graphical abbreviation -Acronymy
taken away. It expresses the trend of Modern English towards Graphical abbreviation is restricted in use to written speech.
monosyllabism. We distinguish between shortening of words in Words formed from the initial letters or parts of the words are
written speech and in oral speech. called acronyms - signs representing words: Oct, R.S.V.P. Rd, St,
1. Shortening of spoken words - Clipping (or lexical Dr, Mr. Some of them penetrate into oral speechiMP, SOS, napalm.
abbreviation/shortening, curtailment) - cutting off one or more We distinguish these acronyms:
syllables of a word. Word clipping is typical for nouns in modern a/ read as ordinary word (spelling pronunciation):
English, e.g:
UNESCO, UNO, RAF, Wac [waek] (Wonaen^s Army Corps),
van (caravan ) , fan (fanatic ) , gym (gymnastics , gymnasium ) , bus YUPPIE/yuppy [j/^i] - young urban professional), radar (radio
(omnibus ), permanent wave ), Sam (Samuel), Ed (ioard ), Alf(red ) , detection and ranging), laser (light amplification by stimulated
Jap (anese ), grandma , varsity (university ) , doc (tor ), examdnation ), emission), AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome),
VAT [vi: ei ti: or vaet], NATO.
48
49
 b/ initial abbreviations with alphabetic reading: Latest examples: dawk (dove + hawk)
V IP , TV , MP , SOS, MA , FBI , CIA, do, HP . aroology (architectural ecology)
autocide (automobile + suicide)
Latin abbreviations: channel (channel + tunnel)
a.m., p.m., e.g., i.e., etc. [etseto], AD, viz (namely). shoat (sheep + goat)
Currently they are used also without fullstops: eg, ie, pm. In most cases blends (portmanteau [po:tmaent u] words)
In some cases only the first component is shortened: V-day belong to the colloquial layer of words. There are, however,
(Victory Day), H-bomb, ID-card. numerous blends belonging to terminology: transistor (transfer
Clipped forms are also used in compounds: resistor), bit (binary digit), travelogue (travel monologue).
org-man (organization man),sci-fi (science fiction).
5.4.3. Back-formation (back derivation)
Some pecularities of clipped words and acronyms: The formation of a simpler word from a structurally complex
1. In the sentence they take on grammatical inflections: one, or the derivation of new words by substracting a real or
exams, M.P.'s. supposed affix from existing words. The great majority of words
2. They may be used with the definite or indefinite formed by back-formation in English are verbs. The process is
articles: a bike, the radar, the BBC. based on analogy:
3. They may be combined with derivational affixes and typewrite (typewriter), beg (beggar), burgle (burglar), edit (editor),
also be used in compounding: MP-ess, hanky televise (television), automate (automation), difficult (difficulty),
(handkerchief), nightie (nightdress), radarscope. baby-sit, house-break, house-keep, to laze, to broke (broker), drawing
4. Clipped words are characteristic of colloquial speech, though room (withdrawing room), paratroop (adj. paratrooper), enthuse
some of them are now used without stylistic colouring. (enthusiasm), reminisce (reminiscence).

According to Bauer: "to be an acronym, the new word must not be Though it is traditionally stressed that back-formation can be
pronounced as a series of letters, but as a word. "(237) viewed from the diachronic point of view, it is a synchronically
productive process in English word-formation: contracept
5.4.2. Blending (contraception), transcript (transcription), cohese (cohesion), etc
(Bauer).
A similar process combined with fusing two different words is
called blending.
5.4.4. Formation by sound interchange
"Formation of words by fusing the elements of two
different words". (Mathesius). From the diachronic point of view, to wordformation are
added also pairs of words which were formed from the common
It is a compounding by means of clipped words. E.g.: base (stem). In present day language they differ by alternation in
smog (smoke + fog), telecast (television + broadcast), positron the phonemic composition of the root/stem. It can be viewed only
(positive + electron), tranceiver (transmitter + receiver), motel, diachronically because in ME not a single word is coined in this
telecourse, cinerama, moped, heliport, brunch way. There are the following types of sound interchanging in
English:
50 51
a. - vowel interchange: 5.4.7. Folk etymology
full - fill , food -feed , blood - bleed , song - sing , stroke - strike ;
When a word/lexeme was formed by a modification of a
b. - consonant interchange: linguistic form (word) according either to a falsely assumed
use [s ] - to u se [z ] , d e fe n c e (U S : defense ) - d e fe n d , b e lie f - b e lie v e , etymology or to a historically irrelevant analogy, we speak about
advice - to advise [z ] , house [s ] - to house [z ] , proof - to prove , formation by folk etymology.
excuse [s] - to excuse [z];
It is a transformation of words so as to bring them into an apparent
c. - change of both (vowels and consonants): relationship with other better-known or better-understood words.
l i f e - live, lose - loss , choice - choose , bath - bathe , breathe - breath , (Longman Dictionary, 1984).
gold - gilt;
E.g.:
Sound interchange may be combined with affixation, e.g.: cutlet (not: from cut, but from F : cotelette ), crayfish (crevice, F ), peas
long -"length, strong - strength, nation - national, nature - (F: pease )A sparroivgrass (L: asparagus ) , gillyflower , gilliflower (F:
natural, give - gift, wide - width , broad - breadth . girofle), cockroach (Sp: cucaracha ).

5.4.5. Shift of stress (stress interchange) 5.4.8. Word manufacture

Some homographic pairs of words, mostly dissyllabic nouns Usage of proper names and trade names as common nouns is
and verbs of French and Latin origin have a distinctive stress sometimes referred to as word manufacture:
pattern, frequently accompanied by the alteration of vowels, i.e. diesel (Rudolf Diesel), guisling (Norwegian politician), thermos (t.
they are distinguished by the position of stress, e.g.: bottle, flask : trade name); Frisbee (Frisbie Pie Company), Hoover
present ['preznt] - to present [pri'zent], export ['ekspo:t] - to export (brit. trade mark, vacuum cleaner), cardigan (7th Earl of Cardigan),
[ik'spo:t], 'import - to im'port, 'contrast - to con'trast, 'conduct - to Teflon , shrapnel
con'duct, 'frequent - tofre'quent, 'absent - to ab'sent

Formation by sound interchange and shift of stress are

considered by some authors (e.g. Quirk, Bauer) as marginal cases of
conversion.

5.4.6. Sound imitation

Formation of words by a more or less exact reproduction of
sound. The majority of onomatopoeic words serve to name sounds,
noises, movements, etc.:

rustle, hiss, bang , giggle, murmur, buzz, clink, tinkle, cackle, cuckoo,
bubble, splash. (See also the lexeme-motivation).

52 53
 4. compound derivatives, consisting of at least two free morphemes
6. Grouping of English Vocabulary
(compound bases) and one bound morpheme: goalkeeper,
typewriter, loudspeaker, money-lender, two-handed, airsickness,
Though different authors have claimed that the vocabulary of a
blue-eyed.
language is just a random collection of words, we shall try to
show that vocabulary is not a mere list of items, but a system,
organized in a special way, consisting of a series of interrelating 6.1.2. Another type oftraditional lexicological grouping is
subsystems (or networks), not all equally relevant to individual or known as word families - groups of words with a common base
practical needs. (root), i.e. words derived from the same base or root:
There are different types of groupings of vocabulary used for
act, actable, acting, action, activate, activation, active, activism,
different purposes. The simplest system of arrangement without the
activity, actor, actress, actual, actuality, actualize, actually,
provision of any additional information is the alphabetical
actuate, actuation, actuator, react, reactant, reaction, reactionary,
organization of words in dictionaries. Words can also be organized
reactivate, reactivity, reactor; nation, national, nationalistic,
according to the similarities of their endings (rhyming, inverse
nationalize, etc.
dictionaries) or their length. Grouping based on a statistical
analysis of their frequencies is used in lexicology, lexicography, A similar grouping is according to a common suffix or
language teaching, etc. prefix:
Words can be related to other words morphologically, friendship , ow nership , m em bership , scholarship , leadership ;
semantically, and stylistically; they may be grouped according to their unable, unhappy, unbelievable, uncertain, uncritical, unusual,
emotional colouring, regional variations, origin (time axis) or etc;
active and passive usage.
6.1.3. A contrast between lexical (content, notional, lexically
full) and grammatical (form, lexically empty, functional) words can be
6.1. MORPHOLOGICAL AND SIMILAR TYPES OF GROUPING also made.
6.1.1. One of the basic division of words in lexicology is Lexical words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, most
according to their morphological (morphematic) or word- adverbs) can name different objects, qualities, actions, ideas;
formation structure structure), i.e. the number and types of and can stand alone, have their own lexical meanings and form a
morphemes/bases which compose them: complete utterance. They are large open-ended classes and their
number is not stable.
1. root, morpheme or simple words, consisting of one free Grammatical words (determiners, auxiliary verbs,
morpheme (one simple base): dog, look, heart, live, fine, good, conjunctions, prepositions, and some adverbs) express grammatical
one, he (words with simple structure); relationship between words. Though they may have also certain
2. derived words or derivatives, containing one free and one or more lexical meanings, grammatical meaning dominates over lexical
bound morphemes (one derived base): nicely, relationship, meanings. Grammatical words are used only in combination with
comfortable ; lexical words or in reference to them (e.g. articles, auxiliary verbs,
3. compound words, consisting of at least two free morphemes (two prepositions, conjunctions): "She came to the village". The borderline
free bases): classroom, blackbird, workshop, fireplace, armchair; between lexical (content) and grammatical (functional) words is not
54 55
always very clear and does not correspond to that between parts of 6.2.1. Synonyms, in a narrow sense, are defined as words
speech, for example some verbs are lexical words and grammatical identical in meaning. This definition brings up the question of
words, e.g. have: I have a brother and two sisters (lexical word), I have whether synonymy exists at all. Relatively rare are examples when
lived there... the two or more words - perfect (absolute, complete) synonyms - are
(grammatical word). Grammatical words have a relatively small interchangeable in any given context without any change of
and stable number (close-ended classes). meaning. Occasionally they can be found in special terminology
6.1.4. The division of words into word-classes (parts of (e.g.: fricatives, spirants; phonemics, phonology; substantives, nouns, semantics,
speech) takes place on a higher level as it observes both the semasiology).
paradigmatic and the syntagmatic relationship of the words and In addition to context, there are usually stylistic, emotional or
meaning. Lexico-grammatical groups are subdivisions of part of other differences to consider. Thus, in a broader sense we can speak
speech, and should not be confused with them. The difference about similarity or identity of denotational meaning. Synonyms are
between lexico-grammatical groups and parts of speech can be seen words with the same or nearly the same denotational meaning and
clearly in the words "government" and "pride": government, is a may be interchangeable at least in some contexts (e.g.: She
noun referring to a group of people (which can be replaced by they, bore/carried her head high, Cobuild). They often differ in their
or it: the government are discussing the proposal; the government connotational meaning and collocations (ability to combine). It
welcomes the proposal). Pride, is a noun referring to quality (and can means that they are groups of words that share a general sense, but
be replaced by if). on closer inspection reveal stylistic, emotional or some conceptual
differences and may be interchangeable only in a limited number of
contexts. For example: 1 think/believe he'll be here this afternoon, but only:
6.2. SEMANTIC GROUPING OF WORDS
/ don't believe in Father Christmas. Some linguists say that
Semantically, as we have said before, words may be symonymy is always partial, never complete.
classified according to the number of meanings (monosemantic or Thus we can conclude that synonyms are words only similar
polysemantic). Words may also be related according to the in meaning, not identical, and interchangeable only in certain
similarities and differences between their meanings (synonyms or contexts.
antonyms); according to the concepts underlying their meanings If the difference in the meaning of synonymic words
(lexical, semantic fields); and according to the inclusion and concerns stylistic and emotional colouring (words expressing
hierarchy of their meanings in those of other words (hyponymy). attitudinal and emotional factors, i.e. used in different situations,
and having various degrees of expressivity) they are termed as
Synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms stylistic synonyms, groups of words having identical denotation
Words, from the point of view similarities or differences of but a different connotation:
their meanings, may be grouped into synonyms and antonyms, i.e. spinster - single woman; policeman - cop; morning - morrow,
different words can have the same meaning (synonyms), or some mother - mum ; seek - look for ; die - kick the bucket; fag -
pairs of words can have opposite meanings (antonyms). They may cigarette ; comely (Br) - good -looking , father - daddy ; brainy -
be defined differently by different authors. intelligent, nag - horse.

56 57
 If they differ in the shades of meaning (and the emotion), we Greek word:
speak of ideographic synonyms:
stout, fat, plump; strange, odd, queer. begin - commence - initiate; end -finish - conclude; ask - question
The words may be different in degree: - interrogate; belly - stomach - abdomen; leave - depart - quit.
adore - love; astonishment - surprise; filthy - dirty; Exceptions occur when a loanword is simpler. For example:
furious - angry; soaked - wet; terror -fear. "dale" is a native word, less frequently used than "valley" - its
counterpart a loanword. The same is true of deed' and
The words may express a different attitude. You can "act" , and "fair" and "beautiful" .
say that someone is slim if he is thin and you like the way he
looks. If you think he is too thin you might say he is skinny or, if Other sources of English synonyms are:
you really want to be rude, scrawny. You say something is - interborrowing of words among different varieties of English:
newfangled if you disapprove of it because it is too modern. If you do can - tin (Am . - Brit.), okay - all right, girl - lass (Scot);
not feel disapproval, you use words like new or modern. - creation of different words for the same thing by means of
(Longman Dictionary). compounding, affixation, shortening etc. (the result of
Sometimes words with similar meanings are used in different word-building): arrangement - layout, popular - pop; -
grammatical patterns: semantic change: servant - domestic, die - pass away;
rob a bank/sb - steal sthfrom ; answer a letter - reply to a letter; In the course of the history of a language, synonyms may be
he advised me to stay in bed - he recommended that I (should) gradually differentiated by changing their meanings and thus
stay in bed. losing their interchangeability, e.g.:time and tide.
A common denotational meaning associates words into
synonymic pairs and series (sets or groups): 6.2.2. Paronyms
noun, substantive; thin, slim, slender, lean, skinny, underweight,
Synonyms or homonyms should not be confused with
emaciated; ask, question, interrogate, query, enquire; fat,
paronyms - words related (not identical) in sound form and
overweight, plump, chubby, stout, tubby, obese; work, labor, toil.
meaning, but in fact different in meaning and usage and only
The number of words that constitutes the group differs. Each mistakenly interchangeable:
group has a dominant word which is usually the most general term
(thin, ask, fat, work). A word may be a member of several different ingenious [in'dzi:m>s]: person/idea/excuse/device (vynaliezavy,
ddmyselny, duchaplny);
synonymic groups: bear, stand, suffer ; bear , cany.
ingenuous [irt'djenjtws]: person/smile (uprimny, nevinny);
Sources of synonymy to a ffe c t |s ffe e t ] : l.our life /s b (ovplyvnif; urobif dojem);

English, due to its numerous borrowings from foreign 2. style/item of clothing (mat' zalubu v, sklon;
sources, is quite rich in synonyms. Words of native origin are afektovane pouzivaf, predstieraf);
to e ffe c t [i'fekt]: e . the rescue of, e . change (uskutocnif, vykonaf
usually simpler and less formal than their borrowed counterparts zmenu);
(ask, question).
alternate: on a. days(kazdy druhy, striedavy)
Most English synonyms forma double scale pattern
alternative: a. explanation (alternativny, nahradny, iny)
native word - loan-word (come - arrive; help - aid), or a triple continuance (trvanie)
scale pattern, native word - French word - Latin or continuation (pokracovanie)
58
59
 consequent (nasledujiici, vyplyvajuci) - Complementary antonyms nongradable antonyms:single
consequential: c.for successl. zavazny 2. = consequent - married, dead - alive, true - false, open - shut. They are not
used with the expressions of degree (we can't say: very single, or very
6.2.3. Antonyms (opposites) married). The pair male and female in: "He is a male. She is a female"
exemplifies another relationship. Unlike the other pairs, neither
Antonyms may also be defined in a narrow sense as words of member is complex relative to the other. It is not true that female is
opposite meaning or in a broader sense as words that are contrary : merely the negative of male. Inanimate objects are not male, but
in their denotational meanings: strong - weak, long - short. they are not therefore female. The actual relationship of these terms
Antonyms are very frequent among qualitative adjectives (good - lies in the fact that they are the members of a class which has only
bad, pretty - ugly) but also among other parts of speech, such as 2 members. (Lamb)
nouns: night - day, life - death, defeat - victory; verbs: give - take, love Relational antonyms (converses). In converseness the
- hate; adverbs: sloiuly - quickly, inside - outside; relationship between the pairs is reciprocal (e.g. family and social
prepositions: in - out, to -from. relations, space and time relations): Helen is P's sister. P is Helen's
The same word may have different antonyms when used brother. The picture is above the fireplace. The fireplace is below the
with different words: old man - young man, old book - new book; tall picture. Other examples: husband - wife , doctor - patient, sell - buy,
building/tree - low building/tree, tall man - short man; after - before , borrow - lend .
a dull book - an interesting book , In the pairs: high - low, big - little, and large - small we also
a dull student - a bright student; observe that in each pair one member is marked and the other
dull colours - bright colours; unmarked; little - not big; big is the more general term. We ask: how
a dull knife - a sharp knife . high/big is it? unless we already know that it is low or little. The
Antonyms help to differentiate between synonyms and words little, low are marked and big, high are unmarked. Examples:
meanings of polysemous words. They also serve in a language as How long is the room ? How old is she?
expressive means such as in idioms: in black and white, life or death, In the words: go - come, bring - take, go is the unmarked or
from first to last, here and there. more general member of the pair, and come is marked for direction
Although in the following cases: big - little, single - married, and towards the speaker. In the same way bring is marked, take
come - go; all seem to share the relationship of opposite unmarked. We can say the marked member of each pair has an
meanings, each is opposite in a different way. It means that there additional sememic component.
are several kinds of antonyms. Some of the most important are: Antonyms can be classified also according to their
word-formational structure into:
- Gradable antonyms - antonyms proper. In the case of such root or absolute antonyms (words having different roots):
pairs as: old - young, old - new, high - low, hot - cold (water), clean - dirty, old - new , reach - miss;
interesting - boring, good - bad, big - little, large - small, tall - short; the derivational antonyms, words having the same root but usually
second member of each pair is negative of the first; little means not negative affixes :
big, small means not large, short means not tall, etc. They may be possible - impossible ; like - dislike ; happy - unhappy ; useful -
used with the expressions of degree: very, quite, e.g. very old, quite useless;
young. mixed antonyms: correct - incorrect - wrong; agree - disagree - differ .
60 61
 the common denominator of meaning. All members of the field are
6.2.4. Hyponyms semantically interdependent as each member helps to delimit and
Mutual relations of meaning among words can be also seen in determine the meaning of its neighbour and is semantically
hyponymy. delimited and determined by it. The word meaning is determined by
Hyponymy means the inclusion of a more specific word in a the place it occupies in its semantic field (compare Slovak:
more general word, i.e. the meanings of some words are included in bratranec, sesternica; Engl.: cousin; Russian has two kinds of blue: sinij,
those of others, e.g. the meaning of rose is included in the goluboj <roughly: dark, light blue>; Engl.: blue, etc.). We
meaning of flower. We can say that "an X is a kind of Y", for cannot possibly know the exact meaning of the word if we do not
example: an oak is a kind of tree. know the structure of the semantic field to which the word belongs,
Hyponym is a word that denotes a subcategory of a more and the number of the members and the concepts covered by them.
general term, for example: chair and table are hyponyms of We must know where the boundaries are that separate the word
furniture; cow, horse, pig, dog are hyponyms of the same from a word of related meaning. The meaning of the word captain
superordinate term - animal (i.e. animal is the superordinate word for cannot be properly understood until we know the semantic field.
this category). The meaning of this word is determined by the place it occupies
Superordinate is a word that denotes a general class under among the terms of the rank system. His subordinate: first officer
which a set of subcategories (hyponyms) is subsumed (included): (merchant service), commander (navy), lieutenant (army). The same
furniture (for table, chair); child (for boy, girl). Languages may differ in word can occur in different fields (captain, run).
their subordinate terms and hyponyms, as every language has its own Each language community has its own system of
semantic structure of vocabulary. classification, i.e its own structure of semantic fields, in a word, the
fields differ from language to language.
6.2.5. Semantic fields Following are examples of semantic fields in different
languages:
Words may also be organized according to the concepts English basic colours are: red, yellow, green, blue, purple, etc; Shona
underlying their meaning. This grouping is closely connected with language (Rhodesia) has only three: 1. including orange, red, purple,
the theory of conceptual or semantic fields. By the term semantic (small part of) blue; 2. yellow (part of) green; 3. (the rest of)
fields (domains, lexical sets or lexical fields) we understand sets of green, (most of) blue. In comparison with English and Slovak there
semantically similar words, closely connected sectors of vocabulary were no words for brown and grey in Latin. In Navaho they have one
(related groups of words), each characterized by a common word for blue and green but two for black (Crystal).
concept. The words blue, red, yellow, black, etc., may be described as Semantic fields (domains) may be very extensive (broad
making up the semantic field of colours; the words: mother, father, categories) and may cover large conceptual areas, for example: man
brother, sister, cousin, etc., the semantic field of kinship terms; the - universe, life - living things; or relatively small lexical groups
words: joy, happiness, gaiety, enjoyment, etc., belong to the field of (smaller conceptual areas): bread, cheese, milk, meat, etc . (concept of food);
pleasurable emotions, etc. walk, run, jog, trot, stroll, etc. (verbs of movement); kinship
The members of semantic fields are not synonymous but all terms, fruits, military ranks, musical instruments, etc.
of them are joined together by the common semantic component -
the concept of colours, kinship, fruit, etc. - sometimes described as

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 are synonymous to neutral words, though they may differ in
6.3. STYLISTIC GROUPING OF WORDS valency (collocations) from corresponding neutral words (dad -
The same idea may be differently expressed in different father, kitting - homicide}.
situations or by different persons. Look at the following sentences Broadly speaking, stylistically marked (coloured) words may be
describing the same situation, said first by a criminal, and then divided into (1) formal words and (2) informal words (formal -
written by a chief inspector: informal vocabulary).
"They chucked a stone at the cops and then did a bunk with the loot" . 6.3.1. Formal vocabulary
" After casting a stone at the police , they absconded with the money". This is the part of English vocabulary used only in official
(Leech: Semantics 17) situations, talks, documents, literary works, lectures, scientific
As we can see some words, e.g.: chuck, cop, do a bunk, dad, works, etc. Vocabulary is not socially or geographically limited.
pal, pussy, beverage, etc., are characteristic of a particular style of Included are:
speech or level of formality, not usually used in ordinary, neutral - technical terms (used in a particular branch of science, technology
situations. They possess some stylistic colouring, typical for the or study):
situations and contexts in which they are used. These words - basilica , subjunctive , glottis, chromosome , molecule
referred to as stylistically marked (coloured) words - contrast with - the so called learned words and official vocabulary (proper
the words used in any style of speech, i.e. they are equally fit to be formal words, used especially in official papers, business
used in a lecture, a poem, or when speaking to a child, etc. They are letters, public speeches, documents, ekc.):commence, domicile,
referred to as stylistically neutral (unmarked) words or words of residence , obese , efficacious (effective , efficient ) , countenance
neutral stylistic value (father, friend , cat, street, come, throw , police, (support, approve),acquiesce (accept without protest),
escape , drink ) . moreover , furthermore , hereafter ,
- literary and rhetoric words (used in poetry or older literary
Examples: works): hapless (unlucky ), oft, ere (before), main (sea), steed,
marked words neutral words slay (kill), albeit (although ) , thee, thy.
diminutive (formal ) , wee (informal) small
cast (literary), chuck (informal) throw Formal words are mostly polysyllabic, as a large number of
domicile (formal ) residence (formal), home them are of the Romance and Greek origin (for example:
abode (literary ) fundamental, articulation, explicate, miscellaneous, diminutive). Formal
steed (archaic, poetic), gee-gee horse vocabulary uses also archaic words, or words no longer in common
(informal, Brit.),nag (informal, archaic) use, but still used in poetry, official documents etc. (deem
commence (formal) begin <consider>, fair <beautiful>, anon <soon, in short time>, aught
lad (informal, Brit . ) fellow <anything>, abode <home>). Boundaries between various layers
converse (formal), chat (informal) talk , speak within groups are not sharp.

Stylistically marked (coloured ) words therefore are words

suitable only on certain definite occasions in specific spheres, and

64 65
 in prison). I didn't steal it. You tell the fuzz that (Cb: police).
6.3.2 Informal vocabulary Don't try to cop out (of it) by telling me you're too busy (L).
Informal vocabulary is the part of English vocabulary used in Crappy book/party/programme/idea. He watched those
personal, two-way, everyday conversation and in correspondence to crappy old films (Cb); hash house, humongous (US).
friends. It is limited socially or/and geographically, and is
We distinguish:
represented by shorter words, in most cases of one or two syllables,
and includes lexical abbreviations: gym, exam, sis, dorm. Informal Special slang - words specific to somegroup, e.g. students;
vocabulary is used by 90% of the population. General slang - words not specific for any social group;
Rhyming slang - is a form of slang in which words are replaced with
It includes.' rhyming phrases or words:
- colloquialisms used by educated people in everyday situations
ad, nuts, dad, granny, mum, pro, tummy, kid, pal, guy; feet - plates of meat, stairs - apples and pears, head -
- slang words: l o a f of bread , hat - tit for tat (also shortened to titfer).
dough (money), the fuzz (police), kisser (mouth), the nick
(prison); Class of words used by small groups, esp. criminals, and
- non-standard words and expressions, regarded as incorrect by generally connected with secrecy: rop (hill), skiv (knife), is called
most educated people: / gotta go; they ain't got it; lue couldn't argot.
fix it nohozv ; nozvheres (US ); He acts like he's the bos $ Note:
- words with local colouring, which belong to the local speech of a
particular area. The boundaries between non-standard and Labelling of individual words, as their status is changing,
dialect words are difficult to establish. must be taken with caution. Different authors, and dictionaries may
classify and label them differently.
Slang is the class of newly coined very informal words used
in private conversation language, at first by a specific social or age
group and only later becoming more widely used in the spoken 6.4. EMOTIONALLY MARKED AND EMOTIONALLY
language. Slang words are metaphorical, expressive, witty, NEUTRAL VOCABULARY
frequently ironical and often impolite. They are frequently being
replaced by new words as the old ones become boring or too Words serve different purposes (one of them is) expressing
widely known. At the same time, the most vital slang words, if they the speaker's attitude to what he is talking about, his relations to
denote necessary new notions, after people get accustomed to them, the listener; and his emotional reaction. The speaker's attitude
are then accepted into general usage, and may become even introduces into the lexical meaning of the words additional
stylistically neutral words (donkey, fun, snob, trip, teenager, jazz, overtones expressing different kinds of emotions. The words with
rum). But if they represent nothing but novelty, they die out. some emotion are termed as emotionally marked (coloured) words
(emotive, expressive words). The distinctive feature of these words
Examples of slang words:
is that they do not directly affect the basic meaning of the utterance;
The house is in excellent nick (L). I had to scarper when I they make it more emotional: "It's time to go to bye-byes! Hold your
heard you (Cobuild: go away). He's done porridge (Cb: time jaw."
66 67
 The emotional colouring may be: people only a few years ago. Nowadays sex and religion are often
- positive (in appreciative, familiar, laudatory, euphemistic, joked about in most social groups, but racist talk is very offensive,
diminutive, humorous words: and sexist talk irritates many people. So we have to be aware of the
mum, gee-gee, pass away, ducky, petite, slendeY, appropriacy of different words, and unless we are absolutely sure
- negative (in derogatory, ironic, offensive, obscene and vulgar how to use such words and expressions, we should avoid them.
words: Ex: black, Negro, nigger, coloured bimbo, tart.
nag, rhymster, minion, shut up, nigger, son of a bitch, crupper,
brat, skinny);
- permanent (as in the examples above); 6.5. DIFFERENTIATION WITH RESPECT TO THE TIME
- occasional (in some contexts or when used in figurative' AXIS
meanings):
a lovely drink or dinner, rotten person or business, Vocabulary does not remain the same but changes constantly:
in contrast with: a lovely girl, rotten fruit. new words appear, are lost, are adapted to new conditions. New
inventions, phenomena, notions come into being, require new
Some words may have some morphological feature (e.g. words to name them. On the other hand, some things become
suffix) signalling its emotional force, e.g.duckling, daddy, auntie.
outdated and the words that denote them drop out of the language.
Typical emotional words are interjections, espressing Sometimes a new name is introduced for a thing or notion that
emotions, such as surprise, annoyance, anger, joy, etc.: continues to exist and the older one becomes dated and gradually
Alas! Hell! Gosh, Damn, Heavens, ouch, hey, boo, whoops, wow ceases to be used.
The emotionally marked (coloured) words are contrasted to The following terms are used in discussion of these
the emotionally neutral words: horse, mother, poet, girl, aunt. They questions: neologism, archaism, historism, obsolete words,
express notions but do not say anything about the state of the obsolescent words.
speaker or his mood (go, eat, drink). The difference between these two
groups is not always clear-cut. 6.5.1. Neologism are words derived or devised according to the
productive structural patterns or borrowed from another language
The emphatic words or intensifiers (awfully, terribly,
and felt by the speaker as something new, e.g.: workaholic; colorize (a
wonderfully) and evaluatory words (neutral words occasionally
film ); frisbee (plastic disc); VCR, to videotape; lambada; ozone hole.
used in figurative meanings: fabricate, ass, pig, snake) as subgroups of
emotionally-coloured words are also opposed to the neutral ones. New words are most frequently seen in technical
Only context shows if it is a mere intensifier or whether it terminology: xerox, blast -off , splash-doion, space shuttle, laundromat;
expresses emotions. they are also found in other spheres: narcoterrorism, back-up
(nahradnik ), user-friendly (user-friendly computer, or book:
Words like: stupid, greedy, ignorant are for example
lahkopouzivatelny, ovladatelny, pochopitel'ny).
derogatory by nature, while words: ass, pig, anarchistic, etc. only by
association (frequently depending on speaker's or socio-cultural At the beginning, new words are used only by a limited
attitudes or situation). number of speakers of the language, but gradually are used by the
majority and thus lose their novelty, becoming part of the active
Users of English today are quite open and straight-forward in
vocabulary (radar, summit, paperback, compute}.
their language and will use words which would have shocked
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6.5.2. Archaisms are words no longer in common use, today 6.6. ORIGIN OF WORDS
they may be used in poetry, official documents, older literary
works.
E.g.: nay (no), eke (also), list (listen), leech (doctor), sire, damsel 6.6.1. Native words and loanwords
According to their origin English words are divided into:
(girl, young woman), kine (cattle), closet (toilet), aye
(yes), jape (jest, playful trick ), knave (dishonest man , I. Native words - words belonging to the original vocabulary. They
boy ), hostelry (inn, pub ), betwixt, ere (Before), fowl (bird), are of:
methinks (it seems to me), Is known to me of yore (in a/ Indo-European stock:
days gone by); mother, father , daughter , brother , sun , moon , eye , wolf, etc .;
Come hither, hither, my little page ! b/ common Germanic stock:
Why dost than weep and vail? summer, winter, house, storm, hope , life , learn , hear , buy;
Or dost thou dread the billow' rage ,
II. Loanwords - taken over (borrowed) from another language and
Or tremble at the gate ? (Byron )
modified in phonemic shape, spelling, grammar or
meaning according to the rules (standard) of the English
Differences between archaisms and historism are in their language:
stylistic use. Historisms can be used to name things and restaurant, bungalow , casino , palace , bishop , mile , wine ,
phenomena which are not used nowadays (in fiction, technical ballet, barbecue , punch .
literature); archaisms are used only for specific stylistic purposes,
e.g. in fiction, to describe a situation, people or to achieve a comic, Sometimes it is difficult to tell a loanword from a native
ironic, or satiric effect. Historisms usually have no synonyms, they word: wine, street, cup (Latin).
can be the names of ancient weapons, instruments, institutions, etc.: The source of the loanwords is often dependent on historical
archer, battle -axe , yeoman , chariot, gibbet(gallows). factors (Roman invasion, the introduction of Christianity, Danish
and Norman conquests, colonization, etc.) and the necessity to
Obsolete words are words completely out of date; "out of use for
at least the past century" (RHD, 1991); they are words that have dropped name new things (e.g.: inventions or foreign institutions) for which
out of the language altogether. there are no native words. One of the requirements is a contact with
speakers of different languages. Borrowing depends also on
Obsolescent words - words becoming obsolete (L); passing wheather the languages are cognate or not.
out of use as words (fvireless , aerodrome ) Sometimes only new meanings of words are borrowed -
We distinguish: semantic loans: reaction, foot (Lat.), pioneer', or the foreign
Lexical archaisms = words or expressions that are archaic^iay, hither; expression/word is translated part by part; - translation loans,
Grammatical archaisms= grammatical forms that are archaicrfosf , caiques: words or expressions formed by the translation of each of the
thou, hath ; elements from another language, for example:
Semantic archaisms = one or more meanings of a word are archaic: gospel (OE: godspell from Greek: good news), loanword (from
curious (careful ) nice (foolish ), coy (quiet). German Lehnwort), inferiority complex (from German:
wertigkeitskomplex), superman (iibermensch), white night (from
French: nuit blanche),sfwdena vojna (Engl. cold war).
70 71
 When speaking about borrowings diachronically we have to Some words are used in different languages: video, republic,
distinguish between the sources of borrowing or the language from telephone, sport, etc. - they are labelled as international words.
which the word was taken and the origin of the borrowing, i.e. the
language to which the words may be traced, e.g.: 6.6.3. Greek, Latin and French elements
paper - Fr.: papier - Lat.: papyrus - Gr.: papyros ; Slov.: chuligdn
- R : chuligan - Engl: hooligan. Romans came to Britain first under Julius Caesar in 55 B.C.
and later in 42 A.D.. They found there Celtic people - known today
as Britons. During the next four hundred years, England became a
6.6.2. Assimilation of loanwords Roman colony; Wales and Scotland remained unconquered. In 410
It is a partial or total adaption of a loanword to the graphical, A.D. the Romans left Britain and the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes
phonetical and grammatical standard of the receiving language. came, driving Britons to the mountains of Wales, Scotland, and
Modern English has a number of foreign words in different stages of Ireland.
assimilation. The degree of assimilation depends on the length of time
the word has been used: These events had an influence on the language. Some Latin
words were taken into the language of the Angles and Saxons
1. Completely (fully) assimilated words: before these people came to England (for example: wine, cup, altar,
wine, bishop, tuall (Lat), husband, gate, window (Scand), table, street, pound , mile, etc.)
chair , finish , face (Fr ) , cork (Sp ); In ME period a number of technical or scientific terms were
taken and given a wider affixation : index, equivalent, legitimate,
2. Partially assimilated: tolerance. In the 15th and 16th centuries Grammar schools, Latin
a/ loanwords not assimilated semantically because they communication (Bacon, Newton, Milton) influenced the borrowing:
denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from focus, album, minimum, complex, etc.
which they come: In the 18th century: nucleus, alibi, ultimatum, extra,
sheik , sombrero , maharaja ; memorandum, etc. Many Latin words came through French. In the
b/ loanwords not quite assimilated grammatically: same way most Greek words came through Latin into French and
(e.g. Latin plural), bacillus - bacilli, nucleus - nuclei, formula English; technical, scientific, arithmetic, etc.: academy, atom, theatre,
- formulae, formulas, genus - genera; etc.
c/ loanwords not completely assimilated phonetically or Coining from Greek words/roots took place that the Greek
orthographically : language never knew: dynamo, telephone, photograph, psychology,
machine , bourgeois ; cafe ; tobacco , soprano ; aeroplane, television -neo-classical words.
French: The invasion by William the Conqueror occurred in 1066.
3. Unassimilated: The Normans adopted French as their language. For the next three
protege, chauffeur, haute couture. centuries all the kings of England spoke French. English was
In English the signs of loanwords are the phonemes [v, dz, spoken only by the "common" people. (In 1362 Edward III opened
^]: vacuum, virus, regime, garage, jeweler); Parliament in English.)
letters ph , kh , eau : philology , khaki, beau [b u ] . The vocabulary of Modern English shows that approximately
over 50% of the words in it are of French or Latin origin. Despite
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this, English remains fundamentally Anglo-Saxon. Most French 6.7. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
words that came into the language became anglicized both in accent
and pronunciation.
The English language is used as the national language of
Almost all the words expressing government affairs are of Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the
French origin: official or important language of communication in a number of
prince, sovereign, crown, royal, state, people, nation, countries throughout the world (e.g.: Malta, Gibraltar, Ghana,
parliament, duke, etc. (Engl.: king, lord, lady). Nigeria, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Jamaica,
From architecture pillar, palace, castle; Bahamas, Granada, and many others). A closer look at English in
warfare , war , peace , battle , officer , soldier these countries reveals that there are a number of regional
law . justice , judge , prison , court, crime ,etc . differences, particularly in the area of pronunciation (e.g. ask in
Engl.: cow, bull, ox, sheep , pig, calf , deer(names of animals); R.P.: [a:sk], in G.A.P: [aesk]). The differences also include
French.: beef , mutton, pork, bacon , veal, venison (meat). vocabulary and grammar (B: railway, A: railroad; B: I have got, A: I have
gotten).
The Danish and Scandinavian elements date from the end
of 8th century:
leg, skin, knife, they, flat, happy, weak, wrong. 6.7.1. Standard English, variants, local dialects
Most of the words can be used in any variety of English, but
Borrowings from other languages: some are limited to particular parts of the English speaking word.
Italian: piano, solo, opera, alarm , umbrella, monkey, pizza, A variety of English - in reference to orthography, word usage, and
spaghetti, salami, vendetta, studio; grammatical forms - that cuts across regional boundaries and
Spanish : cigar, cigarette ; (New World ): tobacco , lasso , ranch , rodeo , embracing what is common in each - a common core of all varieties,
mustang, pueblo; is referred to as Standard English 8, which has a widely accepted
Portuguese, marmalade, tank, port (wine); codified grammar and vocabulary, and may be characterized as
Dutch: yacht, dock, freight, cruise, waffle, sleigh, dump; "current literary, substantially uniform language recognized as
Arabic, admiral, alcohol, c o ffe e , hashish; acceptable by the educated people wherever English is spoken and
Persian: checkmate, caravan (via Italian );
understand" (Arnold). It is usually taught at schools and
Chinese, tea, ketcup, chow mein, kung fu;
universities, used by the radio, television and the press. Standard
German: kindergarten , sauercraft, lager, frankfurter, noodle poodle ,
English includes formal as well as informal variants of English,
blitz;
though the uniformity is most noticeable in neutral and more
Swedish moped;
formal styles of written English.
Hindi: bungalow, punch, jungle, shampoo, pyjamas, khaki;
Two main geographical varieties of English, sometimes
Japanese: tycoon, geisha, hara-kiri, ju-jitsu.
called national standards (Quirk), are: British English and
American English. These varieties are characterized by deviation
from Standard English especially in lexico-semantic features, e.i.
8 the term does not include pronunciation
74 75
vocabulary and usage, less in grammar and spelling, ex: lift -
Indian & Pakistani E.:
elevator, fall - autumn, humour - humor. They have different
pronunciations, as well. lakh, lac (100,000), tonga, cum, dandy, ricksha, sari, peon, sahib,
British English, with Scottish and Irish variants, usually dal/dhal (pulse and puree of it), ghee/ghi (butter), Sri/Shri
influences the character of the language in Australia, New Zealand, (Mr);
India, Pakistan, Africa and West Indies, while Canada, in spite of the
Irish E:
fact that in some respect the language follows British English, is more
and more influenced by American English. colleen (girl, young woman), begorra (by God), brogue (broad
If words and pronunciation or grammar are strictly limited to the accent), banshee (a female spirit).
usage in some other region than Great Britain and the USA, we speak
Scottish E:.
of Australian, West Indian (Caribbean), Indian & Pakistani, New
Zealand, and South African English. bairn (child), ben (mountain, peak), dike, dyke (wall around
Pidgin English is an auxiliary language - a simplified form of the field ), loch (lake), kirk (church), laird (landowner), lass,
English (vocabulary) mixed with local language(s). If it is used as the lassy (girl, young woman), laddie (boy, young man), bonny
first/main language in the community where it is spoken we call it lass/baby, outwith (outside, except), advocate (practicing
Creole. There are two main groups of English-based pidgins and lawyer), hinny (dear), bailie (magistrate);
Creoles: The Atlantic varieties (West Indies, West Africa) and the
South African E.:
Pacific varieties (South-East Asia, South Sea islands).
Examples of lexical peculiarities in individual geographical - influenced by Afrikaans: veld (open country with shrubs),
varieties: koppie (hillock), dorp (village), biltong (strip of lean meal
salted and dried in the sun) baas (master, boss);
Australian and New Zealand English:
Nigerian Pidgin E.:
crook (bad, unpleasant, ill) I'm feeling a bit crook today;
The food was crook; arvo (afternoon): I'll finish it this arvo; Di papa bin tok se: "Ma pikin, yu sabi sei dei wit mi eni dei eni
dinkum (authentic, genuine; adv.: truly, honestly); bushed dei, an ol ting a getam na yu on. ("My boy", said the father,
(lost, perplexed); to waddy (to attack or beat with a club or "you were always with me, and everything I have is yours".
stick); bowyang (a trouser strap); paddock (field ) ; tube (a tin of Barber 1993, 260)
beer); pommy (an English person); a swagman (hobo, tramp);
a billabong (pond), a coolibah (eucalyptus), billy (a can for In the vocabulary of Standard English, geographical varieties
making tea); or national standards are contrasted with dialect words or
dialectism. Various local dialects, peculiar to usually rural districts
or regions of the country, are preserved now chiefly in rural
Canadian E:
communities in the speech of elderly people; beck (brook, Br. north),
pogey (dole); bush pilot, bush plane; dumper (a small iceberg), bogle (scarecrow), parky (cold, chilly, Br. north). Dialects undergo
habitant (a French Canadian), tuque (a cap); rapid changes under the pressure of Standard English taught at
schools and cultivated by the media, and their boundaries are less

76 77
stable than they used to be. The number of words still regularly The term Briticism is a word, phrase, speech sound and
used in dialects is much smaller now than a generation or two ago. But grammatical form typical of Great Britain (bobby, pram , mack, lorry, play
in spite of the loss of dialect words, there is plenty of evidence of truant).
dialectal grammar:"/ didn't have no dinner". The term Americanism is referred to a word, phrase, speech
In Britain the principal dialect regions traced back to Old sound, and grammatical form of English as spoken in the USA.. In
English dialects, are: Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern and connection with words we can speak of full Americanisms -
Southern. (Some speak of Northern, Midland, South-Western and words specific of AE in all their meanings (e.g. drugstore, mail box,
London dialects). In every region there are several dialects. One of the French fries, drive-in), and partial Americanisms - words typical of AE
best known Southern dialects is Cockney (in London). Regional variants variant in one of their meanings (store, saloon, mad, truck).
are gradually replacing dialects, though still retaining a proportion of From the historical point of view, Americanisms have their
local dialect features. (In G. Britain: parts of the North and Midlands as origin in Britain, USA or were borrowed from other languages.
opposed to the South - Trudgill). The English language was brought to America at the
The most marked differences between dialects and regional beginning of 17th century (the first colony was located at
variants in the field of pronunciation lies in the fact that dialects Jamestown in 1607) and for more than 3 centuries has developed
possess phonemic/phonological distinction (i.e. may have different independently being influenced by new surroundings and
phonemes) , while regional variants are characterized by phonetic conditions:
distinctions (may use different variants). In the matter of
vocabulary and grammar, dialects have the greater number and Fauna and flora : oposum , racoon , grizzly , moose , hickory ,
greater diversity of local peculiarities than do regional variants. bull -fro g ;
New conditions of life : back country , back -settlement, backwoods ;
6.7.2. Lexical differences between American English Different institutions : Congress , Senate ;
Political, social sports , etc . terms : absentee voting , dark horse ,
and British English all-outer , primary election , baseball terms ,
installment loan (Br. hire purchase).
As mentioned above, there are two main geographical
New inventions: sedan , windshield , trunk, condensed milk,
varieties of English, namely British English and American English.
Graham bread , rubbers , spaceshuttle ,
American English is not a separate language (H.L. Menken) but a
geographical variant of English used in the USA. Its grammar, Toponyms: Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Utah , Delaware, Ohio ,
vocabulary (including word-formation system), as well as, its Monongahela, Susquehanna.
phonic system are essentially the same as that of British English. It Money (informal terms):
is not a dialect because it has literary normalized form (sometimes 1,000 $ - a grand 25C - a quarter
called Standard American). American national standard is a slight 100 $ - a century IOC - a dime
modification of norms accepted in the British Isles. It differs from 10 $- a fiv e r (inf ) , a fin (slg ) 5 C - a nickel
BE in pronunciation, vocabulary, less in spelling and grammar. In 1 $ - a buck 1C - a penny
this connection we speak of Americanisms, and less frequently,
Briticism. In general we can say that, at the beginning, there were
diverging tendencies in the relation between BE and AE, but
78 79
nowadays converging tendencies prevail. Many words used
currently in the USA were originally used in Britain but have grammar:
become obsolescent, dated or are used only in British English colorize, humor, check, program , nite, thru, ax; quitted, wetted,
dialects or formal styles: sweated (regular forms of some verbs in the past tense); will,
to loan (to lend ),/fl// (autumn), to guess (think), homely would (used with all personal pronouns to express future),
(ugly), rooster (cock). Certain words changed their meanings etc.
or acquired new meanings: corn (maize), turnpike.
Among words borrowed into American English are words: Regional variations in the USA
- from Indian languages: totem , igloo , kayak, moccasin , canoe, Local variations in the USA are relatively small. American
wigwam, squaw, toboggan; translation loans: paleface, dialects are closer in nature to regional variants of the literary
peacepipe , on the warpath ; national standard language There are three main regional
- from Spanish : canyon , lasso , mustang , ranch , sombrero , rodeo , variants: Eastern, Southern, Midland (General American). Regional and
bronco , cafeteria , tortilla , taco ; local differences are sharpest in the old coastal settlements, least
- from German : pretzel, hamburger , wiener , frankfurter , bock sharp in the prairies and the Rocky Mountains
(beer); In a more detailed division we speak of the following
- from Italian : pizza , antipasto , mafia , Cosa nostra , capo ; regional variants (with centres in brackets): Northern (Boston),
- from Slavic lang .: kielbasa , robot, piroshky , kolacky ; Midland (New York, Philadelphia), Midwest (Chicago), Eastern
- from Yiddish : bagel, gefilte fish , kosher , schlock ; Southern (Atlanta, Ga), Western Southern (Houston), Southwest (Los Angeles,
- fro m Dutch : boss , waffle ; Tuscon, Ar.), Northwest (Seatle).
- from Scandinavian lang.: smorgasboard. Local distinctions are more noticeable in pronunciation, less
conspicuous in vocabulary and almost insignificant in grammar.
In many cases it is difficult to speak at present of
Americanism or Briticism as Americanisms have penetrated into An example of variation in vocabulary:
Standard English and are used in all varieties: hero sandwich
toss, supermarket, jazz, buldozer, belittle , lengthy , boom , boost, bike , Wild hoagie, hoagy (Pennsylvania, N . Jersey)
West, ok ., etc . submarine (Boston, Northeast, North Midland)
On the other hand, some Briticisms have come to be used in poor boy (New Orleans)
American speech, as well: smog, bank holiday, luggage, dinner jacket, grinder (New England, upstate New York)
etc.
We can say that in some respects AE is more "conservative" The so called Black English is a social dialect used usually by
but, on the other hand, in others, it is more "progressive" than BE. the black population (considered by some as nonstandard) as an
Its conservativism can be seen in vocabulary and pronunciation expression of their identity.
( f a l l ; h a l f [haef]), its progress can be seen in lexical neologisms and
in the tendencies to simplify the system in orthography and

80 81
 one-way ticket single ticket
6.7.3. List of some American and British expressions pack of cigarettes packet of c.
pants trousers
AE BE panties underpants, knickers
apartment flat pavement roadway
trash can dustbin railroad railway
baggage luggage a (salary) raise rise
blind hide (Slov: posed) rooster cock
britches breeches round-trip ticket return ticket
can tin sales girl, salesclerk shop assistant
candy sweets sick ill
check (waiter's) bill sidewalk pavement
chips crisps store shop
closet (built-in) cupboard streetcar tram
corn maize subway underground, tube
crib cot suspenders braces
druggist chemist ticket office/agency booking office
drugstore chemist's trailer caravan
elevator lift truck lorry
engineer engine driver thumbtack drawing pin
fall autumn underpass subway
fender mudguard undershirt vest
flashlight torch vacation holiday
freight train goods train vest waistcoat
French fries chips wagon caravan
garbage can dustbin
garters suspenders University degrees :
gas, gasoline petrol instructor assistant lecturer
given name Christian name, first name assistant professor lecturer
guess think, suppose associate professor senior lecturer, reader
guy fellow, chap professor professor
housing development housing estate
line queue
mad angry
mail post
maybe perhaps
movies picture
82 83
 7. Idiom s Idiomatic expresions are the result of long usage - the process
in which "word combination first established themselves through constant re
When we look at vocabulary we find out that the word is not -use , then undergo figurative extention and finally petrify or congeal" (Cowie -
the only unit to consider on the lexical level. Lexicology includes in Mackin, 1983: xii).
its study - sometimes as its specific part - also preformed sequences However, a number of idioms are fixed in some of their parts
of words (fixed expressions, habitual collocations) - callectidioms. but not in the others. It means that in some idioms, there are
possibilities of certain internal variations. The extent of these
variations and the degree of stability of individual idioms and their
7.1. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES constituents vary. The variations, however, are not arbitrary but
limited.
Although the dictionaries and linguists differ in the way in
which they treat these units - there is no generally accepted The changes may concern words or their forms/endings:
miss the buss - miss the boat (zmeskaf vlak ) , as black as night -
definition of idioms - they can be broadly characterized as follows:
as black as midnight (cierny ako noc ), red herring - red herrings
(1) they have a multiword character; (falosnd stopa , odputavaci manever ) .
(2) they are stable/fixed combinations of words which operate as
single semantic units; The extent of these alterations is unpredictable and cannot be
(3) their meaning is non-literal, but figurative and unique. applied to other idioms. Some of the variations are obligatory, i.e.
one has to choose one of the alternatives (e.g.: not lift/raise a
7.1.1. Idioms, from the point of view of their form of expression finger/liand - ani prstom nepohnut), others are optional ( fou l one's
(lexical structure), are combinations of lexical items/words, i.e. they nest, foul one's <own> nest - spinit <si> do vlastneho hniezda ). Some
consist of more than one word (e.g.: black sheep, kick the bucket, idioms must be used for example in the plural: airs and graces
barking dogs seldom bite). Idioms may be very short as: at all, of (proud behaviour, esp. to impress sb), others must be used in the
course, at last, if a day, or they may have a complex structure, e.g. singular: red tape, and still others may be used in both: white lie
not so black as one is painted, cut one's coat according to one's (harmless or trivial lie), white lies. The choice of variations may be
cloth, you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours. The words from restricted to one or two alternatives, or in few cases, the choice is
which an idiom was formed have lost some of their features. more open (cut a <fine , eto figure : cut a <sad> figure, cut a <poor>
figure , cut a <ridiculous > figure - urobif <dobry , atd > dojem , posobit
7.1.2. In contrast with free combinations (open collocations), idioms
<smutmjm , smiesn \jm ,...> dojmom ).
are stable/fixed expressions (habitual collocations, set
Any change outside the given options would destroy the
expressions/phrases), functioning as single semantic units: red tape
idiom . We can say : build castles in Spain and build castles in the air (stavat
(bureaucracy). A free combination with the same form (meaning:
si vzduSne zdmky), but not "build palaces in Spain", "build castles in
red ribbon) may be substituted with: blue, green, short, long,... tape (i.e.
France".
blue, etc ribbon). In the idiom red tape any substitutions would change
7.1.3. An idiom is a phrase which has a special meaning of its own.
the overall meaning.
Whatever variations the idiom undergoes, it expresses the same
meaning with the same imagery, and it is the semantic unity of the
idiom which is its principal characteristic.
84 85
 This is clear when we look at idioms from the point of view bucket -(only ) a drop in the ocean , be up /down sb's street - be
of the relation between the meanings of individual components and up /down sb's alley , out of a dear sky - out of a clear blue sky ,
the meaning of the whole. The meaning of an idiom is not the pure etc .
sum of the meanings of its constituent parts 1, but it is fully or Some variants include both lexical and grammatical changes:
partially transferred (i.e. figurative ). For example a dark horse a /the skeleton in the cupboard - a /the family skeleton , there is no
(cierny kan) is a person (who hides special personal qualities) and smoke without fire - where there's smoke , there's /zreetc .
not a horse of a dark colour. The degree of transparency of
individual idioms is different. In the orthographic (spelling ) variants the changesare
concerned with: spelling, writing of small or capital letters, using a
hyphen, full stop, etc.:
7.2. CLASSIFICATION OF IDIOMS. TYPES OF IDIOMS nosey Parker - Nosey Parker , on a shoestring - on a shoe string ,
pay lip -service - pay lip service , to a T - to a tee , run amok - run
7.2.1. From the point of view of their stability/fixidness, some amuck , on the quiet - on the qt - on the Q .T .
idioms are completely fixed - unchangeable idioms, i.e. they do
not undergo any changes (once in a blue moon , red tape , of course ) , Geographic variants are variants used or preferred only in one part
others allow the speaker to use a certain limited number of of the English speaking world, e.g.:
variations - changeable idioms or idioms ivith variants (e.g.: a (on / have ) second thoughts (Brit . ) -(onfliave ) second thought
queer /an odd fish , lie in the teeth /throat, not harm /hurt a fly ) . (Amer .) , beat about the bush (Brit . ) - beat around the bush
(Amer.), a /the skeleton in the cupboard (Brit . ) - a /the skeleton in
We distinguish grammatical, lexical, orthographic and the closet (Amer .) , siveep under the carpet (Brit . ) - sweep under
geographic variants in English.
the rug (Amer.), etc.
Grammatical variations (grammatical variants ) include irregular ,
Thus we can conclude: an idiom is a complex of variants
limited morphological and/or syntactical changes (categories,
which are used in concrete utterances.
forms, tenses, word order, articles, etc.):
have been in the wars - had been in the wars (not used in the
7.2.2 From the point of view of their construction, idioms are
future tense or conditional), on and off - off and on, turn up
one's nose - turn one's nose up , be all fingers and thumbs - sb's classified into:
fingers are all thumbs. - idioms with verbal syntagmatic structure (verbal, clause idioms,
subjectless clauses, usually consisting of a verb and an
Usual, regular changes which are made in accordance with
grammatical rules (e.g. in the form of the verb or the pronoun) are object):
make up one's mind , build castles in Spain , open sb's eyes , sleep
not considered as grammatical variants, e.g.: make up one's mind: he
made up his mind , they can make up their minds . like a log , give sb the boot.
- idioms with a different syntagmatic structurewithout a verb
Lexical variations (lexical variants ) include obligatory and (verbless idioms.' nominal, adjectival, adverbial):
optional variations in the lexical structure of idioms: black sheep , forbidden fruit, high and dry , as fit as a fiddle , once
cross sb's palm - cross sb's hand , (only ) a drop in the in a blue moon , tooth and nail, a square peg in a round hole .

86 87
 - idioms with a sentence structure promise sb the moon (slubovaf niekomu modre z neba), horse
the coast is dear, make hay while the sun shines, a stitch in tit sense (<zdravy> sedliacky rozum ), foot the bill (vyrovnat uŁet),
saves nine, talk of the devil andhe'll soon appear, as the crow lie in the teeth (klamaf do oci).
flies, one can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. Semantically, the majority of English idioms are
Some linguists speak also about the so-called "minimal monosemanticbut a few of them are polysemantic, e.g.:
idioms" - idiomatic phrases with at least one full (lexical) word: raise one's voice (1. speak louder or with anger - zvySit hlas 2.
at all, after all, of course , as well as , at last, by heart, like hell speak in opposition to - pozdvihnut/dvihat svoj hlas proti), be in
the air (1. in circulation, about to happen - byt vo vzduchu 2.
Individual variants may belong to different types: uncertain, undecided -byf vo hviezdach).
at last (minimal id.) - at long last (verbless id.), have one's
heart in one's mouth (verbal)- sb's heart is in his mouth 7.2.4. The relations between idioms may be:
(sentence).
- homonymous (idioms with the same written form but
7.2.3. From the semantic point of view, according to the degree different meaning):
opaqueness of idioms they may classified into: make hay (1. to cause disorder - obrdtit hore nohami, spdsobif
zmatok 2. take advantage of, = make hay while the sun shines -
- demotivated idioms (pure idioms, opaque idioms, kut zelezo kym je horuct).
phraseological fusions) where, synchronically, there is no)
connection between the meanings of individual words and the] - synonymous (idioms with the same/very close meaning:
meaning of the whole idiom: an eye for an eye - tit for tat (oko za oko , zub za zub ), in a word -
in a nutshell - all in all (jednym slovom , v kocke, skrdtka).
red tape (liradny simel), kick the bucket (otrf.it kopytd ), white
elephant (prifaz, nevitany dar), hair of the dog that bit you (klin - antonymous (idioms with the opposite meaning)
sa klinom vybija). small beer (obycajnd nula , maid ryba ) - big fish (velkd ryba ) , a
hard nut to crack (tazky oriesok ) - child's play (hracka ).
- partially motivated idioms (semi-opaque, figurative
idioms, phraseological unities), where there is certain connection Idioms may be grouped into idiomatic semantic fields
between the meaning of the whole and the meanings of individual (groups of idioms connected by a common concept, e.g. death):
words. The idioms are homonymous to free word groups, e.g.: as dead as mutton /a doornail, be at the death's door, be in
add fuel to the flam es (liat' /prilievaf olej na ohefi ) , put one's cards Abraham's bosom, be under sod, die with one's boots on, die in
on the table (vylozit karty na stol), have a free hand (mat volnu bed , take one's /sb's life , breathe o's last, be on the death bed , bring
ruku), behind closed doors (za zatvorenymi dverami) the gray hair to the grave, give up the goast, kick the bucket, lay
semi-idioms (restricted collocations, phraseological down o's life , etc .
combinations), where one word is used in a figurative meaning
(idiomatically bound meaning), the other has a literal (direct)
meaning:

89
7.2.5. Idioms can also be grouped according to their type of binomials and trinomials - expressions consisting of two or three
irregularities (taking into account the forms of words, pattern of related or similar words (usually irreversible coordinative pairs):
phrase, and their meanings): spick and span , here and there , now and then , on and on bag and
- idioms where the forms of words (structure) are irregular baggage , now , now , through and through , hook , line and sinker
but the meaning is relatively clean
phrasal verbs - combinations with the meanings which are not
hold true , as sure as eggs is eggs , go one better , how come ?
easy to understand from those of individual parts, consisting of a
- idioms with a regular form but with an uncleaidogically verb and a particle (adverb/preposition):
strange) meaning: give up (stop, abandon), put up with (tolerate), make (sth) up
burn the candle at both ends, talk through one's hat, take with a (invent), break down (collapse), come across (discover), look up
pinch of salt, (search for), give in (yield);
- idioms in which both form and meaning are anomalous: social formulae (pragmatic idioms, routines, gambits)
be at large , be neck and neck , be at daggers drawn by and large . how do you do ? how goes it? long time no see , how's the world
been treating you ?

7.3. SPECIAL GROUPS OF IDIOMS

7.4. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH
Taking into account different criteria, special groups of
AND SLOVAK IDIOMS
idioms or entirely separate units are sometimes distinguished by
different linguists: The confrontation of two idiomatic seis in theoretical,
- proverbs - pithy sayings expressing general truth, popular dictionary or other forms is always relatively complicated. It is
wisdom or advice: complicated because of the problems connected with basic qualities of
all that glitters is not gold , once bitten twice shy (kto sa raz idioms, from the point of content, semantic unity and stability of the
popali , aj na studene fuka ), there's many a slip 'twixt (the ) cup whole, and from the point of form of expression, multiword
and (the ) lip (nekric hop kym si nepreskocil), there is no smoke character and its relative stability.
without fire (bez vetra sa ani listok na strome nepohne), neither Idioms, like words, may have the same form in both
fish , flesh nor good red herring (ani ryba ani rak ) languages but differ in content (equivalence in their forms of
expression) - expression equivalence, or they may have different
some popular quotations - expressions originally said or forms and the same content (equivalence in meaning) - content
written by a known person, have become proverbs: equivalence, and consequently they may be compared from these
cross the Rubicon, the die is cast (Caesar), to err is human points of view. The disadvantage of the first approach, when
(A.Pope); comparing English and Slovak, is the fact that fully identical idioms
- similes - expressions used to describe one thing by comparing it (from the formal point of view) are exceptional, though we can find
to another (comparative idioms) some common components - international words - in them, eg. grey
eminence - sivd eminencia , cross the Rubicon - prekrocif Rubikon , etc . In
as black as night, as happy as the day is long , as white as
both cases we observe the different and common items and features
chalk /sheet, as cool as a cucumber , as old as the hills , like a bull in
and examine them from the point of view of their mutual
a china shop , sleep like a log
equivalence.
90 91
 In a broader sense, equivalent in the contrastive study of In the comparison of English and Slovak idioms we can
idioms may be characterized as an idiom, a free/open collocation roughly speak of two groups of idiomatic equivalents - (A) absolute and
(word combination) or a word which can substitute the idiom of L, (B) relative equivalents.
in Lj without any change of meaning, e.g.: break the ice - lamai lady,
be in o's element - byf vo svojom zivle, take (holy) orders - stat sa A. Absolute equivalents can be subdivided into: (1) absolute
duchovnym, make up o's mind - rozhodmif sa. equivalents proper and (2) similar equivalents.
In the choice of equivalents one should bear in mind their The group of absolute equivalents proper, in a broader sense,
typical common usage and familiarity among native speakers and consists of literally corresponding idioms, it means that there is a
avoid the unusual and forced equivalents in his choice. One must be literal (word-for-word) parallel between the observed English and
aware that imagery, motivation and expressiveness, as well as Slovak idioms in the group. The idioms have the identical lexical
stylistic properties of the equivalent should be as close as possible to and grammatical structures, symbolism and imagery in both
the original idiom. languages. These literal parallels are usually used in several
In the contrastive approach to idioms one has at one's languages (semantic borrowings) and express general wisdom,
disposal: idiomatic equivalents or non-idiomatic equivalents common cultural and social tradition, etc. A large number of these
(according to some linguists contextual equivalents, i.e. a word, idioms come from one source (Bible, ancient history and
collocation, free combination of words or description), and the mythology, literary sources, etc., often through or from Greek and
preference is given to idiomatic equivalents. Latin).
Examples: forbidden fruit - zakdzane ovocie, an eye for an eye -
oko za oko, sixth sense - siesty zmysel, Achylles' heel - Achylova
7.4.1. Content equivalence pdta , bear o's cross - niesi svoj kriz , blue blood - modrd krv, build
As the great majority of English and Slovak idioms are on sand - stavat na piesku, play first/second fiddle - hrat
different in their expression form we will pay attention to content prve/druhe husle, cut the Gordian knot - pretat gordicky uzol,
equivalence only. Idioms will be analysed according to (1) what Pyrrhic victory - Pyrrhovo vitazstvo, black market - cierny trh,
they refer to - reference of counterparts in the other language and cry over spilt milk - plakat' nad rozliatym mliekom , diamond
(2) what is their relationship to other similar units. It means that we wedding - diamantova svadba , cold war - studend vojna , all roads
start from the same/very close meaning and observe what kind of lead to Rome - vSetky cesty vedu do Rima, etc.
lexical items, combination of items are available in Slovak to Idioms forming the group of similar (almost literally
express the meaning of an English idiom, and the relationship of corresponding) equivalents are based on the identical (very close)
English idioms and their Slovak counterparts have to other idioms.
imagery and symbolism, but contain some grammatically or
We can compare isolated phenomena (individual idioms), lexically different, though somehow related items, expressions and
closer sets (idioms with one common word: e.g. black, blue, brown,
forms determined usually by the character of the language, its rules
green, etc), idiomatic semantic fields (e.g. with underlying concept of
and principles, as inflectional and analytical character of the
death), or we can try to compare the whole body of idioms (e. g. as
language, word order, usage of articles, etc., e.g.:
compiled in a dictionary).
have sth in black and white - mat nieco cierne na bielom , cast
pearls before swine - Mdzat perly sviniam (Engl.: preposition,

92 93
 singular; Slov.: plural ending), time is money - cas su peniaze brade, take French leave - zmiznut po anglicky , feather one's nest
(different number sg. - pi.), hang by a hair - visief na vldskn - mastif si vreckd, plnit si vreckd (cf . also Engl.: line o's
(different prepositions, a diminutive word in Slovak), get the pockets), the coast is clear - vzduch je fisty , a fter all - koniec
green light - dostat zelenu (Slov.: get the green), roll up one's koncov, out of the frying pan into the fire - z blata do kaluzeetc.
sleeves - vysiikaf si rukdvy (Slovak: oneself), similarly : tear
one's hair - trhat si vlasy (Slov.: oneself, plural), all that glitters The above-mentioned relatively simplified mechanical
is not gold - nie je vSetko zlato co sa blysti (different word classification of equivalents (into absolute and relative) is not
order), fight windmills - bojovat proti veternym mlynom (Slov.: always clear-cut. We may almost say that equivalents form a
preposition). continuum with proper absolute equivalents on one side and
proper relative equivalents on the other.
B. Relative equivalents can be divided into (1) partially different
and (2) totally different equivalents. 7.4.2. Relationships among idioms

Partially different eqivalents form the group of idioms with Content equivalence in the two languages is to a certain
different symbolism, imagery, stressing different properties, or a extent influenced by the fact that idioms may be used in different
different object, but containing at least one common (literally variants, may be polysemous, homonymous and they may have a
corresponding) component, e.g. basic verb in the verbal idioms, ! different number of synonyms and members of the semantic fields,
adjective in the adjectival idioms, etc, for example.: though these phenomena are not so frequent in idioms as they are
miss the boat/bus - zmeskaf vlak have a sweet tooth - mat in words.
maskrtny jazyk , drink like a fish - pit ako diiha , the last straw -
A. Thus, if we take into account that the idiom is a complex of
poslednd kvapka , once in a blue moon - raz zauhorsky /turecky
variants (lexical, grammatical, etc) which are used in concrete
rok , Palm Sunday - Kvetnd nedela , Good Friday - Velky piatok lie
utterances, we find out that in the comparison of English and
through o's teeth /in sb's throat - klamaf do ocfgive him an inch
Slovak idioms, only some counterparts are equivalent. And even
(and he'll take a yard /mile - podaj (certovi ) prst a vezme ti celu
when they are equivalent, the number of variants may be different.
ruku , still waters run deep - tichd voda brehy myje /podmyva , as
The following situations may occur:
hungry as a hunter - hladny ako vlkpull the wool over sb's eyes
- sypat' niekomu piesok do offline o's pockets - mastit /plnit si - Neither language has a variant:
vreckd ) , etc . sixth sense siesty zmysel,
hit below the belt udriet pod pas,
Different equivalents (relative equivalents proper). This be in o's elememnt byt vo svojom zivle.
group contains idioms of totally diferent lexical structure, symbols
and imagery, for example - The English idiom has a variant, the Slovak has not.:
red tape - liradny simel , bark up the wrong tree - obrdtif sa na a drop in the bucket/ocean kvapka v mori,
zhi adresu , black Maria - zeleny Anton , kick the bucket - otrcit lie in the teeth /throat klamaf do oci ,
kopytd , in o's birthday suit - ako ho /ju pdnboh stvoril, (still ) wet (as ) black as night/midnight cierny ako noc .
behind the ears - este ma mlieko na brade , este mu tecie mlieko po

94 95
 - The English idiom has no variant, the Slovak idiom has C. From the point of view of number of their members, idiomatic
a variant: semantic fields (domains), i. e. sets/groups of idioms characterized
from hand to hand z ruky /rucky do ruky /rucky , by a common concept, are different, too. For example the semantic
once in a blue m oon raz za uhorsky /turecky rok , field of "die , death , dead" :
roll up o's sleeves vyhrnut /vysukat si rukdvy ,
carry coals to N ew castle nosit /vozit drevo do lesa / In English : as dead as m utton /a doornail , be at the deah's door ,
do hory . be at the point of death , be gathered to o's fathers , be in
Abraham's bosom , be on the deathbed , be under sod ,
- Both the English and the Slovak idioms have variants but beyond the veil , breathe o's last , bring the grey hair to
the change is in the same component, different component, or the the grave , dead and gone , depart (from )o's life , die in harness , die
different type of component (different type of change: in o's bed , die in the last ditch , die the death , die w ith o's boots
m ake a fool /fo o ls o f robit si bldzna /bU znov z on, etc.
burn o's boats /bridges spdlit /strhnut /znicit
vsetky m osty , In Slovak : b yf /lezat hore bradou , byt jednou nohou v hrobe , byt
turn up o's nose , turn o's krcit /ohfnat nos /nosom nose na onom /druhom svete , byt na prahu sm rti , byt na slave bozej ,
up (gram, variant: (gram . var . nos/nosom byi /lezai pod zem ou , byt' tarn kde loj kopu , byt uz na pravde bozej ,
and byt uz studeny , byt v lone Abrahdm ovom , byt vystrety na doske ,
word order), lexical variant ) ; doplatit /zaplatit zivotom , lezat na m drach , lezat na sm rtel'nej
hit the (right ) nail on the trafit /udriet klinec po posteli , lucit sa so zivotom , m at sm rt na jazyku , nadisla jeho
head (optional component: hlave /lilavickA (lex . var . poslednd hodina , etc .
right ) word -formation
D. Semantic structures of equivalent idioms in both languages are
varian t . : hlava /hlavicka . not the same either. An English idiom may have a semantic
B. In the same way the differences between English and Slovak can structure which needs several idioms in Slovak to express the same
be seen when we look at idioms from the point of view of their idea.
synonymy, e. g. when we observe the problems of total and partial The idiom raise o's voice has two meanings (and two Slovak
synonymy, synonymy of idioms in one or more meanings, stylistic equivalents): 1. (speak louder or with anger) zvysif hlas and 2.
value, expresivness, frequency, number of idioms or their presence
(speak in opposition to) pozdvihnut/dvmat svoj hlas (proti
in a particular pair or set/series of synonyms in the compared
languages,: niecomii). The idiom be in the air has in one meaning (in
circulation, about to happen) an equivalent idiom in Slovak:
an eye for an eye and a tooth oko za oko , zub za zub; byt, visiet vo vzduchu, but in the second meaning (uncertain,
for a tooth , tit for tat (no synonym ) undecided) it is different: byt vo hviezdach ("be in the stars").
cany coals to Newcastle liat voA u do D unaja ,
nosit /vozit drevo do lesa , E. The problem of "interlingual homonymy" is in the identical
nosit sovy do Aten , etc . parallels of idioms, seemingly literally corresponding, but in fact
(be ) on tenterhooks , (be ) on byt ako na strundch , ako na having different or partially different meanings. It is the case of
edge , (be ) in a stew , (be ) in tfnf, ako n a ihldch, ako na "false friends, strange meanings" - deceptive equivalents:
96 97
 Engl. idiom - Slov. equiv. Slovak "false friend" The majority of idioms in English and in Slovak are different
tread /step on sb's toes stupif niekomu na prsty frequently expressing their own tradition, customs, socio-political
(offend, annoy) (KSSJ: put an end to sb's phenomena, culture, using their own symbolism (in English large
= sttipit niekomu no . otlak , lead aktivities) numbers of idioms come from games and sports, war, the sea, in
sb by the nose vodif niekoho za nos Slovak from customs, religion and superstition, animals). The rest
(control sb completely) (KSSJ: deceive sb) have non-idiomatic equivalents, i.e. a word, free collocation or
= knitit, to cif s niekym , description.
mat niekoho okruteneho
okolo prsta ,
white night(s ) biele nod
(sleepless nights) (nights with polar light)
= bezsenne , prebdene nod
Some idioms in spite of the fact that they have only similar
lexical structure - few common or related elements - tempt one to
use formally similar but semantically different idioms, for example:

l o o k b e fo r e y o u le a p "nekric /nepovedz hop kym

nepreskocis"
= dva razy meraj a raz
strihaj .
leave no stone unturned "nenechaf kamen na kamen ?
= urobif vSetko mozne

7.4.3. This brief analysis of idioms from the point of view of content
equivalence, shows that only a small part of idioms are equivalent in
both languages (absolute equivalents). Frequently they are the
idioms literally corresponding in several languages, coming from the
same source. Polysemous idioms usually correspond only in one
meaning. Some idioms are used in more variants but mutual
correspondence occurs also only in one variant. Similarly,
synonymic pairs, sets/series and idiomatic fields in the two
languages are asymetric. The frequency, stylistic value and
expressiveness of the particular variants, synonyms, and
homonyms may be different.

99
 8. Dictionaries American dictionaries traditionally offer more encyclopedic
information while British dictionaries more lexical/language
Lexicography may be defined in brief as the theory and' information.
practice of compiling dictionaries. The choice of one or another dictionary is best based on one's
A dictionary is a reference book that lists and explains the particular purpose conditioned by the needs of the user.
words of a language, or the terms of a particular subject, or gives Examples of the entries in different dictionaries:
translations into one or more languages.
RANDOM HOUSE WEBSTER'S COLLEGE DICTIONARY (1991,
8.1. ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE 160,000 words):
calf (kaf, kaf), n., pi. calves (kavz, kavz). 1. the young of the
The usual structure of a dictionary is as follows: preface, domestic cow or other bovine animal. 2. the young of certain
guide to the use of the dictionary, key to pronunciation, other mammals, as the elephant, seal, and whale. 3. calfskin
abbreviations and symbols <front matter>, list of words (the leather. 4. informal, an awkward, silly boy or man. 5. a mass
dictionary proper) and supplements. of ice detached from a glacier, iceberg, or floe. -Idiom . 6. kill
Among the main issues in dictionary making are those the fatted calf, to prepare an elaborate feast in welcome or
connected with the choice of headwords (number of entries), the celebration, [bef. (900; ME; OE cealf , calf ; c. OS Mf, OHG Mb,
arrangement and contents of the entry <2 core conditions: coverage ON kalfr ] -calf'less, ad j . -calf'like, adj .
and definitions>, definitions/ equivalents, balance between lexical calf 2 (kaf, kaf), n., pi. calves (kavz, kavz). the fleshy part of
and encyclopedic information, etc. the back of the human leg below the knee. [1275-1325;
Dictionaries are organized into entries. The entry of a ME < ON Mf; akin to CALF1]
linguistic dictionary, as a rule, contains the headword, printed in calf love', n. PUPPY LOVE [1815-25]
bold types, with information about pronunciation, grammar, calf's-foot' jel'ly, n. jelly made from the stock of boiled calve's
stylistic and geographical markers, and meaning/ equivalents with feet. (1765-75)
examples of usage in context, phrasal verbs, collocations, idioms, calfskin (kafskin', kaf'-), n. \. the skin or hide of a calf. 2.
derivatives, synonyms, and sometimes etymology, and other leather made from this skin. [1580-90]
information. The presence of particular information depends on the (...)
size and the aim of the dictionary.<run-off entries> calve (kav, ka'v), v., calved, calving, -v.i. 1. to give birth to a
The arrangement of individual parts of the entry in different calf. 2. (of a glacier, an iceberg, etc) to break up or splinter so
dictionaries may be different. The most important part - the as to produce a detached piece, -v.t. 3. to give birth to (a calf).
meanings may be ordered historically, i.e. the earliest meaning first 4. (of a glacier, an iceberg, etc) to produce (a detached piece)
(e.g. Oxford dictionaries, Merriam-Webster dictionaries), or with by calving, [bef. 1000; ME; OE (Anglian) 'calfian, der. of calf
the most frequent or current meaning first (e.g. learner's CALF1]
dictionaries). Some dictionaries use the International Phonetic
(...)
Transcription, others not. In some dictionaries etymologies are at
calves (kavz, kavz), n. pi of CALF.
the end of the entry or placed after labels of use, or not at all.
Derivatives, phrasal verbs, idioms may be listed as separate entries.
100 101
LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (1984, calve /k :v; US kaev/ v [I] give birth to a calf: Our cows will be
90,000 w.) calving soon.
'calf /kahf/ n, pi calves /kahvz/ also calfs, (2) calfs la the calves pi of CALF , CALF .
1 2

young of the oxor other bovine animal (eg the bison or

WATER BUFFALO) b the young of any of various large THE NEW AMERICAN WEBSTER HANDY COLLEGE
animals (eg the elephant or whale) 2 calfskin <the book was DICTIONARY (1981, 115,000 definitions:
bound in fine - > 3 a small mass of ice broken off from an calf (kaf) n. [pi. calves (kavz)] 1, the young of certain animals,
iceberg or ICE FLOE or from a glacier that runs into the sea as cow, elephant, seal whale. 2, calfskin leather. 3, the thick
[ME, fr OE cealf ; akin to OHG Mb calf, ON kalfi calf of the fleshy part of the human leg, below the knee.
(...)
leg, L galla gallnut] - calflike adj - in calf of a domestic cow
pregnant calve (kav) v.i. bear a calf.
2 calves (kavz) n. pi. of calf .
calf n, pi calves the fleshy back part of the leg below the knee
[ M E , h O N k a lfi ]
LONGMAN POCKET ENGLISH DICTIONARY (1981, 5,500
calf love n PUPPY LOVE words):
calf's-foot jelly n a jelly made from the jelatine obtained by
boiling calves' feet calf 1. a young animal, a young cow or bull
calfskin /'kahf,skin/ n (a high quality leather made from) We bought some CALVES in the cattle market.
the skin of a calf 2. the back of the leg between the knee and the ankle.
(...)
calve /kahv/ vb I to give birth to (esp a calf) 2 of an ice mass
SIMKO. T.: ANGLICKO-SLOVENSKY SLOVNIK (1990):
to release (a smaller floating mass of ice <the glacier -d a
large iceberg > [ME calven, fr OE cealfian , fr cea lf ca lf ] - calve n
'calf [ka:f] mn.c.: calves [ka:vz] 1. tela 2. tel'acia koza, telacina 3.
calves /kahvz/ pi of CALF diet'a, mlada 4. mlada (jelena, slona, velryby ap. 5. pejor.
tela, hlupak 6. privlast. c.-bound viazany v telacej kozi • a
OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER'S DICTIONARY (1989, 57,100 cow in (al. with) c. telna (o krave);
words): c.-knees nohy do x; c.'s teeth mliecne zuby; to slip o's c. mat
calf /k :f; US kaf/ n (pi calves /k :vz; US kavz/ 1 [C] (a) potrat
2
young cattle. -> illus at cow. Cf BULL1!, COW'l. (b) young of calf lytko
the seal, the whale and certain other animals, Cf BULL 2 2, calf's foot ['ka:vzfut];e//i/ huspenina, studeno z telacich noh
COW2 2. 2. [U] (also 'calfskin) leather made from the skin of calfskin ['ka:fskin] telacia koza (vypracovana)
a calf. 3. (idm) (be) in/with 'calf (of a cow) pregnant, kill (...)
the fatted calf - > KILL, to calve [ka:v] otelit sa
•'calf-love = PUPPY-LOVE (PUPPY). calves [ka:vz] mn. c. od calf
calf2 /k :f; US kaef/ n (pi calves /k :vz; US kaevz/) flashy
back part of the leg below the knee. -> illus at HUMAN. PASSWORD (1993, 50,000 headwords)
(...)
calf [ka:f] - plural calves [ka:vz] - noun 1 the young of a cow,
elephant, whale, etc. "tela
102 103
 2 (also 'calfskin) leather made from the skin of the young of
8.2.1. Monolingual dictionaries
a cow.Btelacia koza
calve [ka:v] verb to give birth to a calf: The cow calved last Linguistic dictionaries may focus on one or more languages -
night .Botelit' sa explanatory or monolingual dictionaries, in contrast to
calf2[ka:f] plural calves [karvz] - noun the thick fleshy back translation or bilingual, multilingual dictionaries.
part of the leg below the knee: She has slim ankles but fat Linguistic dictionaries may also be divided into (A)
calves .Blytko general-purpose and (B) specialized dictionaries.

A. General-purpose dictionaries - provide a wide range of

8.2. TYPES OF DICTIONARIES general linguistic information about words.
The first monolingual English dictionary, A Table Alphabetical,
Words are usually arranged alphabetically, however, some appeared in 1604. Among the great dictionaries in the history of
dictionaries e.g.: thesauruses, pictorial dictionaries, group words non- English lexicography belong:
alphabetically, i.e. according to a subject or a broad concept A Dictionary of the English Language, by S. Johnson, (1755), An
(semantic field, logical classification, e.g.: Roget's Thesaurus of American Dictionary of the English Language, by N . Webster
English Words and Phrases, first published in 1852, Me Arthur: (1828), The Oxford English Dictionary, ed . by J. Murray
Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English 1980, The Oxford -Duden (completed in 1933).
Pictorial English Dictionary, 1 9 8 1 ) . Nevertheless, they usually contain an
alphabetical register of the used words. Other known unabridged general English dictionaries,
Dictionaries vary in the format, range and the depth of published
information . We speak of large (e.g.: The Random House Dictionary of the in Great Britain : Chambers Dictionary, H .C . Wild: The
English Language, 260,000 headwords), medium -sized (Oxford Advanced Universal Dictionary of the English Language , Collins English
Learner's Dictionary, Encyclopedic Ed. 93,000 references ) Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of the English Language and
and small dictionaries (Oxford Wordpower Dictionary, 30,000 ref.). others.
The claims about the size of dictionaries, however, should be taken In America : Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary Webster's
with caution, as different dictionaries can mean different things New World Dictionary , Tfie Random House Dictionary of the
(different word classes, homonyms, compounds, etc., e.g. fish, as a English Language, The American Heritage Dictionary etc .
noun, and fish as a verb may be presented separately and counted as
two entries or in one entry and counted as one). All these dictionaries continue to appear in new abridged or
Some dictionaries contain only comprehensive (encyclopedic) unabridged editions, e.g.:
information about things, people, concepts, historical events, places, The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1989, 20 volumes,
etc. They are referred to as encyclopedic dictionaries - available also on CD -ROM ). The Neiv Shorter Oxford
encydop (a )edias (e.g.: The Encyclopaedia Britannica , The Encyclopaedia Dictionary (3rd ed . 1962, 1993), The Concise Oxford Dictionary
Americana ). (7th ed. 1982, 1990), Merriam -Webster's 3rd New International
The dictionaries which usually give linguistic/lexical Dictionary of the English Language (1961, 1976), Longman
information (about meaning, pronunciation, grammatical status, Concise English Dictionary (1985), World Book Dictionary (1992),
etc.) are called linguistic dictionaries. The Random House Webster's College Dictionary (1991),
104 105
 Merriam-Webster's 9th Collegiate Dictionary (1991 10th 1993), - slang: Partridge, E.: A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional
Ttie American Heritage Dictionary, College ed. (1985, 1992), English (1974). Wentworth, H .- Flexner, S.B.: A Dictionary
Webster's Neiv World Dictionary, coll. 3rd ed. (1986), Longman of American Slang (1975), Aito - Simpson: The Oxford
Dictionary of the English Language2nd ed., 1991), etc. Dictionary of Modern Slang (1992),
Green, J.: The Dictionary of Contemporary Slang (1983),
B. Specialized dictionaries Chapman, R. (ed.): New Dictionary of the American Slang
(1986).
a. Specialized dictionaries are interested only in one particular part - geographical varieties, dialects: Longman Dictionary of
or aspect of vocabulary and provide more detailed special American English (1991), A Dictionary of Australian
information about it than general purpose dictionaries, e.g.: Colloquialisms, The Auistralian National Dictionary (1983),
South African Pocket Dictionary etc.
- synonyms: Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms(1973,1984),
Urdang, L.: The Oxford Tliesaurus. An A-Z Dictionary of b. Specialized dictionaries may be focused on the sphere and object
Synonyms (1991), The Penguin Modern Guide to Synonyms of human activity in which the words are used
and Related Words (1987). For example they may be aimed at
- idioms and phrasal verbs: Longman Dictionary of English a special group of users:
Idioms (1979). Coivie-Mackin-McCaig: Oxford Dictionary of
English Idioms (1992). Cowie - Mackin: Oxford Dictionary - foreign learners (learner's dictionary): Oxford Advanced
of Phrasal Verbs (1993). Boatner, M .T. - Learner's Dictionary (1989, 1995), Longman Dictionary of
Gates, J.A.: A Dictionary of American Idioms (1975, Makkai Contemporary English (1987, 1995). Collins Cobuild
1987). English Language Dictionary (1987, 1995). Cambridge
- collocations: Benson - Benson - //son: The BBl Combinatory International Dictionary of English (1995), Penguin English
Dictionary of English Language (1986). Friedrich - Student's Dictionary;
Canavan: The Dictionary of English Words in Context
or spheres and activities:
(1979)
- neologisms: The Oxford Dictionary of New Words (1991). The - culture and cultural literacy:Longman Dictionary of Language
2nd Barnhart Dictionary of New English(\980) and Culture (1993), Hirsh, E.D . - Kelt, J.F. -
- pronunciation: Jones, D .: English Pronouncing Dictionary Trefil, J: The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy(1988).
(14th ed. 1991), Wells, J. C.: Longman Pronunciation - business, agriculture, marketing, computing, etc: Adam, J. H.:
Dictionary (1990), Kenyan, J. S. - Knott, T. A.: A Longman Dictionary of Business English (1989), Peter
Pronouncing Dictionary of American English(l953). Collins Specialist Dictionaries: Dictionary of Agriculture,
- etymology: Onions, C.T.: The Oxford Dictionary of English Dictionary of Computing, Penguin Dictionary of
Etymology (1966), Skeat, W .: An Etymological Dictionary of Psychology, etc.
English (1989). A new type of "productive dictionary" was published in 1993 under the
- frequency: West, M : A General Service List of English Words title: Longman Language Activator which "meets requirements to find
(1980), Thorndike-Lorge: The Teacher's Book of 30000 words to express one's ideas".
Words (1944).
106 107
 The monolingual dictionaries presenting list of terms and There is a better situation in the field of specialized
their definitions are called glossaries. dictionaries, e.g.:
Kol. Technicky prekladovy slovnik anglicko-slovensky (1985),
8.2.2. English and Slovak bilingual dictionaries Novak, J. - Binder, R .: Vreckovy anglicko-slovensky a
slovensko-anglicky technicky slovnik (1961, 1964, 1971). Bartovd,
Bilingual dictionaries are supposed to meet different E. a kol: Anglicko-slovensky podohospoddrsky slovnik (1982),
requirements and are not equivalent to monolingual dictionaries, as Kvetko, P.: Anglicko-slovensky frazeologicky slovnik (1984,1991),
they cannot serve adequately the needs of the speakers of both Kvetko, P.: Slovensko-anglicky frazeologicky slovnik (1996).
languages. They have a different arrangement of material. They Saturovd-Sepovd, M .: Anglicke skratky (1979). Bockovd, V . a kol.:
supply the user with additional information on corresponding Anglicko-slovensky ekonomicky slovnik (1993) and many others.
equivalents in the particular language, for example pointing out to the
difference between the semantic structure of English words and the Conclusion:
semantic structure of their Slovak equivalents, but always from the "The dictionaries, according to dr, Johnson are like watches; the
point of view of one language only. worst are better than none and the best cannot be expected always
The first bilingual general-purpose dictionaries of English to go quite true. No single dictionary can ever be completely or
and Slovak were compiled in the USA (the first: Slovensky, J.: totally independent of either its predecessors or competitors, or
Americky tlumac, 1887). The best known dictionaries published in the accurate in every instance... More than one dictionary should be
USA are: consulted, since even most reputable, authoritative, comprehencive
Konus, J.: English-Slovak Dictionary(1941), Hrobak, F .: and apparently similar works may d iffer in their choice and
English-Slovak Dictionary (1944), KonuS, J.: Slovak- English definition of words". (Flavell)
Phraseological Dictionary (1969, in spite of its
title it is not an idiomatic dictionary)

At present the Slovak user has at his disposal only the

following medium-sized and small bilingual general- purpose
dictionaries:

Simko, /.: Anglicko-slovensky slovnik (1991), Vilikovskd, J. -

Vilikovsky, P: Slovensko-anglicky slovnik (1991), Smejkalovd, J. et
al: Anglicko-slovensky a slovensko- anglicky vreckovy slovnik
(1991). Cdnikovd, A. et al: Anglicko-slovensky a slovensko anglicky
slovnik (1995). In 1993 the semi-bilingual dictionary Password,
(English explanatory dictionary with Slovak equivalents),
was published.

108 109
 Uvod

Texty sii urcene pre posluchacov jednopredmetoveho a dvojpred-

metoveho stiidia anglictiny na PedF UK, ako prakticka prirucka na
seminaroch z anglickej lexikologie. Priamo nadvazuju a prakticky
doplnaju teoreticky orientovanu prirucku English Lexicology (Kvetko
1996, 1999).

Ciel'oni prirucky je, pomocou cviceni rozneho druhu, zopakovaf a

prakticky precvičit' jednotlive aspekty a poznatky z anglickej slovnej
zasoby z hl'adiska slovenskeho pouzivatel'a. Cvicenia su zalozene na
vypiskoch z textov siicasnych britskych a americkych novin, casopisov,
umeleckej prozy, slovnikov a jazykovych priruciek a zameriavajii sa
hlavne na: vyznamovu a formalnu stranku slova/lexemy (zakladne
vlastnosti, semanticku §trukturu, typy vyznamov, zmenu vyznamu slova,
morfematicku a slovotvornii struktiiru slova, ap.); tvorenie slov (afixaciu,
skladanie, konverziu, skracovanie slov, ap.); lexikalno-semanticke vzfahy
medzi slovami (triedenie slovnej zasoby zo semantickeho, stylistickeho,
geografickeho hFadiska, i z hFadiska expresivity, povodu, ap.); zakladne
otazky frazeologie (vlastnosti a typy frazem).
Sufiast'ou textov sii aj ukazky z britskych, americkych a slovenskych
slovnikov a texty na rozbor a preklad.

Za vecne pripomienky, jazykovu korekturu a posiidenie rukopisu

d'akujem A. Fraenkelovej, BA, Dipl TEFL, MA (App. ling.), MA Educ.
(Thames Valley University, London), J. Eliotovej, M.A. (University of the
West of England, Bristol), doc. PhDr. D. Brevenikovej, CSc. (EU
Bratislava) a PhDr. J. Miskovicovej, CSc. (FF UK Bratislava).

Pavol Kvetko
 / Words and their meaning

1. Words and their meaning

Words and the extra-lingual
1. Underline motivated words. Comment on their motivation.
1. The speaker was received with a mixture of applause and hisses.
2. She was so beautiful that she eclipsed every other woman at the ball.
3. The baby has been screaming for an hour.
4. The reorganization of the factory led to an increase in production.
5. The bees buzzed angrily in the hive.
6. The steam escaped with a hissing sound.
7. What a wretched little hole he lives in.
8. Heavy carts were rumbling along the streets.
9. Those alarm clocks have white faces, black figures, and hands.
10. The wheat rippled in the breeze.
11. He jumped into the swimming pool with a splash.
12. He flung himself back under the covers, with a great squeaking of
springs.

2. Explain -why are the following words and phrases considered as

motivated:
skyscraper, driver, skin-deep, bee (a person), snake (a person),
homemade, catch at a straw, a drop in the bucket, unanswerable, to
water, murmur, foot (of a hill).

3. Find out the differences between English and Slovak words:

hand - ruka, leg - noha, finger - prst, bread - chlieb, window - okno,
morning - rano, sandwich - sendvic

4. Find examples of a different approach to generalization /abstraction

(one word or two words, etc) of the extra-lingual reality in English
and Slovak, e.g. cousin - sesternica, bratranec.

5. What sounds do the following animals make?

cow, owl, frog, snake, goat, puppy, lion, elephant.
 Words and their meaning I Words and their meaning

Lexical meaning 5. When the letter from his wife arrived, he ... the contents carefully.
Because she hadn't answered question, he was angry and tossed the
letter into the fire.
Denotation, connotation, context a. destroyed b. wrote
c. tore up d. read
1. Guess the meaning of the under lined words.
1. The ruler had been so cruel and dishonest that after the revolution
3. See ex 1, 2, chapter 1, page 6. Pay attention to lexical and grammatical
he was banished. A few members of the Parliament opposed this meanings. Find out the words in which the grammatical meaning
decision, but the majority voted that the ruler should leave the prevails.
country.
a. killed by stoning b. sent away, exiled
4. Discuss the denotational and connotational meanings of the underlined
c. imprisoned, jailed d. punished by whipping words (explain the differences ):
2. Mr Morgan's wife was beautiful and faithful but her continual
1. That suits too tight - it makes you look fat. She became stout as she
extravagance made him wonder if he could really afford such a
grew older. Her mother was a cheerful, plump woman with an
luxury. Each month he was going deeper into debt, attempting to pay
infectious laugh. The doctor's wife had a plump face and a nice
for her expensive purchases.
smile. The visitor was a tubby, jolly-looking man with a friendly face.
a. superior manner b. wastefulness or carelessness
The doctor said I was slightly overweight and I needed to take more
in spending money exercise.
c. showing great concern d. insults to family or friends
2. He spent the evening drinking with his cronies. The children are good
friends. They have been buddies for years. He went off to the pub
2. Fill in the appropriate word:
with his mates. The youth and his companions ran away when the
1. The night was so ... that not a sound could be heard, police came.
a. quiet b. dark
3. They live in a little cottage in Scotland. The boy seemed rather small
c. beautiful d. unexpected
for his age. Our problems seem petty when compared to those people
2. Although Alice had expected her parents to be worried by her long,
who never get enough to eat. She looks so slim and petite in that
unexpected absence, both her mother and father seemed quite...
dress. The girl looked diminutive besides her six-foot boyfriend.
a. unavailable b. unworried
4. What a stink. There's a stink of dead fish here. The aroma of hot coffee
c. undecided d. unexpected
made him stop in front of a small cafe. There's an odour of fish in
3. His ... handwriting resulted from haste and carelessness rather than
his boat. The smells from the kitchen filled the room. She could smell
from the inability to form letters correctly.
the perfume of roses from the park.
a . careful b . beautiful
c. unreadable d. silent
5. Which word in each pair carries more favourable connotations?
4. After so many nights of..., Mrs Constable decided that she really
statesman - politician, progressive - radical, reactionary - traditional,
must see a doctor. She could not continue to lie awake, night after
investigation - witch-hunt, fanatical - devoted, curious - snooping,
night, worrying about her health.
egghead - intellectual, revolution - rebellion, slim - skinny,
a. parties b. loneliness childlike - childish.
c. sleeplessness d. frightening dreams
 / Words and their meaning Words and their meaning

Polysemy 2. A: Here are a few views of our hotel for you to take with you, sir.
B: Thanks, but I have my own views of your hotel.
1. (a) Give at least two meanings for each of the following words and use 3. A: Allow me to present my wife to you
them in sentences: B: Many thanks, but I have one.
ground, wire, single, wait, address, company, beat, passage.
(b) Consult a dictionary and give the semantic structure of at least three 6. Distinguish between homonymy and polysemy.
of them. 1. They breed a race that can survive drought. The law forbids
discrimination on the ground of race or religion. He took part in a
2. (a) How many meanings can you think of for the following words: half-mile race. We had a race to repair the house before winter. The
head, dress, ball, good, black, round, match, sentence. driver waited for the green light, his engine racing.
(b) Use the words in sentences. 2. There's no date on this cheque. I have a date with my girl. My date is
meeting me at seven. Dont't forget to date your cheque. He ate too
3. Pay attention to the underlined words. Explain why each sentence has many dates.
two meanings. 3. I'll take your luggage to your room, Miss. The ball's gone right past
1. Liz is a very curious person. him - that was a bad miss. He can't miss the 9:30 train. If you go
2. It's a very cheap newspaper. early you miss the traffic.
3. She likes to entertain people. 4. He rose from his knees. She rose to greet her guests. There was only
4. The teacher insisted that his pupils did their homework regularly. one rose in the vase. They rose against the foreign invaders.
5. My friend is a powerful man. 5.The plane leaves Heathrow for Orly at 12:35. He was sweeping up
6. He was riding on the right side of the road. the dead leaves. Pull out both leaves of the table. He leaves the door
open.
7. She did not recognized the new Prime Minister.

4. How many meanings can you identify of "sink" and "agitate" in Semantic changes
the following sentences. Translate them into Slovak:
1. Even the biggest ship can sink. I was so tired last night that I sank 1. Discuss the cause of the changes in meaning.
into a deep sleep. Once I fainted and sank to the ground at a 1. A spaceship sails. The manager sailed into the room. She sailed
policeman's feet. As the sun sank slowly behind the mountains, we through her finals.
return to our hotel. I never dreamt that he would sink so low as to beg 2. A hydroplane lands on the lake. Her hat flew off and landed up in the
in the streets. river. She landed the top job in the record company.
2. When big hungry fish are eating, the surface of the water is agitated. 3. They have dressed a Christmas tree with lights. He was sent
When I lost my engagement ring, I was very agitated for a week. home after his burns had been ressed.
They agitated against nuclear weapons. We got really agitated when 4. It poured all night. The crowd poured out of the public
our daughter didn't return from school at the usual time. hall. He poured out wine.

5. Do you understand these jokes? Pay attention to the underlined 2. (a) Explain the logic of the change of meaning.
words and explain their meanings: (b) Give the Slovak equivalents of the following:
1. A: Do you serve fish here? 1. the foot of: a man, a hill, the page, the stairs;
B: We serve anyone, sit down. 2. the eye of: a man, a needle, a potato, of storm;

10 11
 1 Words and their meaning 2 Words and their structure

3. the leg of: a dog, a chair, a frog;

4. the mouth of: a pot, a river, a cave;
5. the neck of: a boy, a bottle, a shirt. 2. Words and their structure
3 Find out metonyms and discuss the logic of the change of meaning
1. Be quiet or you'll wake the whole house. Morphemic and word-formation structure
2. He refused the crown.
3. Whitehall is showing interest. 1. Analyze the following words from the point of view of their
4. I have never read Shakespeare in the original. (a) morphemic structure (e.g. • act + iv + ity)
5. The kettle is boiling. (b) word-formation structure (e.g.: activ + ity)
6. Shall we use our best china? undivided, shorten, undernurishment, worker, power, foretell, forget,
7. I cut my hand on some broken glass. I drank several glasses of memorize, governmental, remove, notebook, highly, classification,
water. The film star was wearing dark glasses. unarmed, disqualified, well-dressed, unpleasant fruitfulness,
8. The chemical symbol for copper is "Cu". He had only a few coppers backwards.
in his pocket.
9. I borrowed an iron from the hotel kitchen. 2. Underline prefixes and suffixes in the following words (eg • nicely):
10. He won a gold last time. baggage, friendship, displeasure, kingdom, colonist, alive,
nonoccurrence, historical, enjoy, neighbourhood, encircle, pressure,
4. Pick out words with transferred meaning (metaphors). Translate them discoverer, growth.
into Slovak.
1. a fruitful tree; a fruitful experience; a fruitful partnership; 3. Distinguish between the words with inflectional and derivational
2. a fruitless tree; a fruitless attempt; suffixes (e.g .: books - inflectional, worker - derivational).
3. a green tree; green issues; a green apple; green with envy; 1. The birds sat comfortably in groups; the roughness of the sea did not
4. grass seeds; seeds of evil; disturb them at all.
5. a fading/faded flower; fading/faded beauty; 2. He was a descendant of the historian of the same name, who wrote
6. a blooming rose; blooming health. one of the earliest accounts of the country.
3. They stood looking at him with such strange expressions on their
faces that his knees began to shake.
Componetial analysis 4. Before the meeting, the old man soon attracted the crowd's attention.

1. Make a componential analysis of the following words (show the 4. Put the word and suffix together and spell/write the resulting word
differences and similarities by the semantic features as: male, correctly (e.g: describe + tion —> description):
female,... or: large, small, etc.) imagine + ation play + er extend + ive extend + ion
1. son, daughter, nephew, niece, brother, sister, mother, father explode + ion marry + age value + able wrap + er
2. cook, boil, grill, fry, roast, simmer, steam, bake omit + ion please + ure excel + ent dare + ing
3. beautiful, pretty, charming, good-looking, handsome introduce + tion supply + er sense + itive happy + ly
4. walk, limp, tiptoe, stroll, march, wander, stagger

12 13
 3 Word-formation 3 Word-formation

organize It required a great deal of money and careful...

react Her... was to turn over and go to sleep,
3. Word-formation reduce During the sale they were offered... of over 30%
suggest The commitee rejected his ... that the membership fee
should be increased,
permit He eats anything with the doctor's ...
Affixation
5. Pick out the words with diminutive suffixes:
Suffixation
1. They live in a small modern house with a kitchenette. 2.
Do you want some chocolate, ducky?
1. Form agent-nouns ending in -er, -or, -ar, -ist, -ian
3. Droplets of rain shone on her hair.
Translate them into Slovak and give the Slovak suffixes.
4. Where's your auntie, daddy?
history satire invent work act lie
5. Rivulets of rain were running down the window.
physics murder govern music admire botany
6. They published a booklet about the history of the town. 7.
beg advise politics psychology buy conduct
What a nice doggy!
magic visit novel tour library mathematics
6. Form diminutive and similar words by means of -y/ -ie, -ee, -ock,
2. Form nouns ending in -ence, -once, -ency, -ancy:
-ling, -kin, -let, from the following words (some of them may be
assistant I can't move this table without your ...
dated):
correspond The biography is based on his ... with his sister,
duck leaf prince Ann hill goose
fluent She speaks Spanish with great...
king eagle pig goat man John
important The ... of his discovery cannot be exaggerated.
patient After he had been kept waiting for nearly twenty minutes
7. Say what would you call a per son from:
the customer finally lost his ... and left
London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Rome, Glasgow, Manchester, New
tend It is poor quality cloth, with ... to shrink.
York, Washington, Chicago, Pittsburgh.
3. Form nouns ending in -ness, -ure, -ery, -y, -ity:
8. Give geographical names - nouns (person) and adjectives of the
brave After the war he was awarded with a medal for ...
following:
depart The ... of their bus was delayed by three hours,
America Argentina Australia Austria Belgium
jealous He was a victim of her husband's ...
Brazil Canada China Denmark Egypt
kind What this boy needs is a little love and ...
England Finland France Germany Great Britain
simple Van Gogh was attracted to the beauty and ...
Greece Holland Hungary Iceland India
stupid Peter thinks his car accident was bad luck, but it was
Iraq Israel Italy Japan Ireland
caused by his own...
Mexico Norway Poland Portugal Romania
Russia Spain Sweden Turkey Wales
4. Form nouns ending in -ion, -sion, -lion, -ation, etc.:
Switzerland Sudan Vietnam Slovenia Chile
collide There had been a major... on Mount Park Road.
describe The book gives a general... of the island,
intend Was it your ... to stay abroad?
invade They succeded in stopping the ... of the enemy.

14 15
 3 Word-formation
3 Word-formation

electric My cousin studies ... engineering.

9. Use adjectives ending in -ous, -eous, -ious, based on the following
The fire was probably caused by a faulty ... plug,
words:
economy It was only the first stage of... development.
adventure He was ... enough to sail round the world single-handed.
Ann was always a very ... housekeeper.
anxiety We were ... for their safety.
classic His career is a... example of what family connections can
caution They were very ... about letting their children go out on their
achieve.
own.
courtesy He was always kind and... tome, but we never really Peter is one of those people who can't bear... music.
His ... education helped him to get the job in that museum,
became friends.
critic The article was highly ... of the council.
danger He is a ... criminal, wanted for murder,
His illness has reached the ... stage.
fury Peter was ... at Ann for leaving without him.
glory They announced another... victory over the enemy forces, 12. Form adverbs from:
nerve Andrew is ... because he has to give a speech. quick, formal, pretty, dry, logical, near, true, glad, month.
10. Use adjectives ending in -y, -ish , -like, -en or without any suffix: 13. Form verbs using the suffixes -en, -ify, -ize/ise:
child I can't put up with your... behaviour any longer. flat The land ... out near the coast.
My brother is a student of... psychology. worse The patient's condition ... during the night.
I was surprised by the almost ... simplicity of John's
character, broad, loose, symbol, sweet, soft, modern, special, critic, sad, terror,
glass His ... stare made me very uncomfortable. fright, sharp, moist, short, identity, length, tight, just, mystery, weak
I had been talking to the man for several minutes before I
realized he had a ... eye. 14. Form verbs from the underlined-words:
We skidded on the ... surface and crashed into the wall, 1.1 offered my apologies to my host for arriving late.
gold He placed a... ring on her finger. 2. The children who saw the fight were filled with terror.
The Elizabethan period was the ... age of English drama. 3.1 wish you could make this problem simpler for me.
She had ... skin and hair, 4. Where did these creatures have their origin?
lead We took one look at the ... sky overhead and decided to 5. She said she couldn't help me, but that I had her sympathy. 6.
postpone our picnic. They tried to make the gas pure.
Is there any danger of getting ...-poisoning from water drawn
through ...-pipes, 15. Translate the -words into English and pay attention to different
silk She had a... scarf from India. suffixes in English and Slovak:
Her long... black hair hung below her shoulders, citatel', spisovatel', nosic, casnik, herec, tulak, robotnik; detstvo,
wood The room was full of... furniture. priatel'stvo, clenstvo, susedstvo, materstvo, obcianstvo; citanie,
You don't often see a ...-fire in England these days. pisanie, kreslenie, zhromazdenie; predlzif, zjednodusif, zhorsif;
veselo, otvorene, nahlas, pomaly, vysoko.
11. Use adjectives ending in -ic, -ical:
history The ... truth of what actually happened on that day has been Prefixation
obscured by legends.
We are gathered here to commemorate a ... event. 1. Form -words using prefixes dis-, un-, in-, ab-:
She prefers light comedy to ... drama. normal Ever since the accident, his behaviour has been .. "'

17
16
 3 Word -formation 3 Word-formation

approve My friends ... of medical experiments on animals, able The grant... me to continue my studies,
armed He walked into the camp ... rich His novels our literature,
Two hundred rebels were captured and ... vision She ... great success for you.
capable He seems to be ... of completing his assignment,
connected Make sure that the hair-dryer is fully . . . from the main
supply.
Compounding
Advisors are supposed to be ... with any political parties,
credible The ... amounts spent on arms could be better spent on
1. Form as many compounds as you can:
medical research.
head-, mother-, steam-, -tree, -woman, -room, -boy.
effective The anti-crime measures appear to have been ...
interested Many teenagers are ... in politics.
2. Form compound adjectives based on the phrases (e.g.: a girl with blue
Its good to have your ... opinion of that affair,
qualified Peter was rejected as ... for the job of repairing computers. eyes — >a blue -eyed girl):
He was ... from voting because of his age. A girl with red hair, a bottle with a long neck, a man with a bald head,
used There is an ... railroad line next to our house. a table with three legs, a pullover with long sleeves, a man who does
Batteries which are... for long periods may have to be most things with his left hand, a rake with a long handle, a fellow with
recharged. an open heart.
hands as cold as stone, a question as clear as crystal, hair as grey as
2. Form words using prefixes in-, il-, im-, ir-; mis-, non-: silver, lipstick as pink as a cherry.
behave The teacher sent for me because Peter... in class,
interference The cabinet was urged to pursue a policy of . . . 3. Say (a) how many of the following words can combine with "head-
legal Scott was arrested when he was found in possession of... words " to form an accepted compound
weapons. (b) what the compound means
legible An ... message was scrawled on the wall, Hand Work Paper Time House
modest Alexander's ... demand for a private office was ignored, cuff man back fuse sparrow
fortune He had the ... to marry the wrong woman. script day wall sacks wife
One... followed another. shake full mill piece keeper
active The volcano was ... for a thousand years, back shop work f u ll hold
patient I don't mean to be ..., but I have been waiting for two hours, room flat house smell date
relevant The name of the person who asked the question is entirely- ball shy room table mark
responsible Andrew is too ... to take care of children by himself,
understood He understood your words but ... your meaning. 4. Translate the words into English and compare their structure with
English equivalents:
3. Form verbs using the prefix en-. Translate the sentences: spalna, svagor, stary otec, vreckovy zlodej, trieda, obuvnik, vnuk,
courage She ... him in his study of archeology, knihkupectvo, svokor, riaditeP skoly, strasiak, predseda.
large ... the photograph and details appear.
sure He must ...that there is no leak. 5. Analyze the structure of the following words:
danger His carelessness with the gas ... all our lives. seagull, stay-at-home, heartbroken, Anglo-Saxon, ladybird, workday,
title Her first novel was ... Out of the Depth. mother-in-law, up-to-date, daybreak, hot-blooded, good-for-nothing,
undertaker, forget-me-not, merry-go-round.

18 19
 3 Word -formation 3 Word -formation

6. Comment on the function of the first element and explain the meaning: 2. A runner-up is
sweetheart, wristwatch, earring, sickleave, newspaper, downfall, a. a person who lives very expensively and has many debts
out-of- the-way, lifelong, cutthroat, sickroom, white-haired, black-eyed, b. a person / team finishing second in a race
pickpocket, scarecrow. c. a kind of climbing plant
7. Fill in the appropriate compound word. Translate the sentence. 3. A warm-up is a period in which a person
1. houseboat, boathouse: a. becomes more impatient
His brother lives on a ... on the Thames. The crew of eight carried b. prepares a hot meal
their boat into the ... c. prepares himself actively for a game or performance
2. bookcase, casebook: 4. Mrs Greene gave her daughter a dressing-down because
The doctor wrote down the details of some of his most interesting a. she had been rude to her grandfather
cases in his ... He kept his ... in his ... b. she wanted her to look best for the party
3. basketwork, workbasket: c. her clothes were dirty
In some countries the blind are taught to do little else than... . She kept
all her sewing and knitting materials in a ...
4. housework, workhouse:
My mother has a woman to help her with the ... Conversion
8. Choose the appropriate compound noun, formed from the phrasal verbs:
1. Complete the sentences using the words: book, chair, cork, hand, head,
1. buildup, getup, send-back, standby man, stone. Translate them into Slovak.
The patrol reported a big ... offerees on the border. 1. He has ...the bottles of his home-made wine.
2. blackout, hangover, mix-up, shout-down
2. The criminal was ... to death.
He awoke the morning after the wild party with a ...
3. The colonel... the guns with soldiers from our regiment. 4.
3. sell-out, throwback, throwout, turnout
... early if you want a seat on a plane.
There was a big ... at the station to welcome back the famous poet.
5. The president's car... the procession.
4. go-between, play-off, roundup, write-up
6. He ... the meeting last night.
She acted as a ... for Peter and Ann and eventually arranged their 7. She ... her ticket to the ticket-collector.
meeting.
5. breakdown, shakedown, smash-up, switchback
2. State the word class of the underlined words. Make sentences of your
The TV announcer apologized for the ... during the programme.
own, using the words
6. blowout, breakdown, go-by, showdown
(a) as verbs:
When it came to a ... she was not prepared to fight for what she
1. His hands were dry.
believed in. 2. After 4 o'clock the room was completely empty.
7. getaway, run-off, turnout, walkout
3. When you have some free time, call me on the phone. 4.
The thieves made a quick ... from the place in a fast car.
His finger-nails were not very clean.
5. The sentence looks correct
9. Complete the following sentences correctly:
6. The city is calm again after yesterday's riots.
1. A stand-in is a person who
7. The house was quiet.
a. is always one of the last to leave a party
b. serves as a substitute
c. keeps his clothes neat and tidy

20 21
 3 Word-formation
3 Word-formation

7. They've gone round to the pub for a drink.

(b) as nouns:
8. She has an MPhil in English.
1. The weather was very cold.
2. The tree trunk looks completely hollow. 9. I'd like to put an ad in your For Sale section.
3. Those papers look very official. 10. the girl they wanted to meet, penny Lambert, struck him as a bit of a
4. His new bicycle is black and orange. yuppie, conservatively dressed in blue suit. (Cook)
5. There was a secret meeting at 9 o'clock last night.

3. (a) Give the meaning of the following nouns and verbs 2. Write out in full the following shortened words;
Define the type of shortening :
(b) Use the verbs in sentences of your own
(c) Compare English and Slovak equivalents photo, taxi, tram, bus, cycle, demob, exam, Bella, Nick, Fred; A-bomb,
back - to back dog - to dog dress - to dress high-tech; AIDS, UNESCO, VCR, CD, IQ, MA, PM, BBC, SOS, PhD,
UFO, HQ, mph, yd, in, ft, c/o.
eye - to eye face - to face finger - to finger
fish - to fish judge - to judge line - to line
pocket - to pocket shoulder - to shoulder post - to post 3. (a) Circle the abbreviations that can be pronounced as words:
BC, AIDS, RAF, VIP, IRA, VAT, DIY, OPEC, EC.
4. Make sentences using these words (b) Fill in the gaps using the abbreviations.
1. He used to be a pilot in the ...
(a) as nouns
(b) as verbs 2. Sean O'Reilly, a former member of the ... died in prison
yesterday.
wire, hiss, smoke, comb, land, work, answer, drink, hope, stay sleep,
name, hammer, spring, cook, hurry, control. 3. The Queen was given a ... welcome by the Canadian Prime
Minister this morning.
5. Give the examples of Partial Conversion and use them in sentences 4. The government will introduce higher ...rates of cigarettes and
(eg. to whistle - to give a whisle): alcohol from next year.
5... . has put up the price of crude oil by 5% this month.
rest, drink, try, wash, shave, talk, look, swim, smoke, laugh, cry, ride,
6. A Swiss doctor has discovered an effective, lowcost cure for ...
bath, risk, walk.
7. Make your own greenhouse or conservatory!... magazine tells
you how.
8. Socrates died in 399 ...
Other types of word-formation 9. ... ministers will meet later today in Brussels to discuss the
growing nternational problem of unemployment. (Headway)
Shortening
4. Give written abbreviations of these words:
1. Pick out all the abbreviations and give the original word. Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday;
\. I'll meet you outside the science lab. Street, Road, Avenue, Square; Saint; care of; Company, Limited;
2. Shall we walk or take a cab?. Incorporated; North, South, East, West.
3. The children enjoy going to the zoo.
4. Maths is her strongest subject.
5. It's a desirable house with all cons.
6. He is doing an engineering course at the local tech.

22 23
 3 Word-formation 3 Word -formation

Back-formation (b) Give the verbs:

food, blood, full, gold.
1. Comment on the formation of the folio-wing words and use them (c) Transcribe the words.
in sentences of your own (e.g.: beggar —> to beg). (d) Use the words in sentences.
to televise, to typewrite, to housekeep, to baby-sit, to house-clean,
to burgle, to laze, to edit, to doublepark, greed, to enthuse
Shift of stress

Blending 1. Read the sentences and pay attention to the stress in the underlined
words. Translate them into Slovak.
1. The transport of heavy goods is expensive. We can't transport the
1. Explain the formation of the following words (e.g. motor + hotel —>
whole furniture.
motel):
2. The critic contrasted their styles of writing. She likes contrasts of
smog, to telecast, brunch, faction, bo(a)tel, advertorial, bit, transistor,
colours.
heliport, positron, adman, fanzine, bedsit, sexploitation, Swatch,
3. You can transfer the property to your brother. He's expecting a transfer
Chunnel, Oxbridge, Interpol.
to another office.
1. And I sat watching TV with Mama. I think the vapid sitcom made as
4. You have made progress in English. The work will progress gradually.
much sense to her as it did to me. (Abbot)
5. We are all present to give him a present. We shall present him with a
2. Bob Don could have easily been a televangelist or sixties country-
watch.
western singer as much as a rural car dealer. (Abbot)
6. A gramophone record. These instruments record weather conditions.
7. They produce all kinds of glassware. Farm produce can be bought at
the market.
Formation by sound interchange

1. Fill in the appropriate related word (e.g. full -fill). Sound imitation
1. What do you believe in? What are your ...
2. This is the one I choose. This is one of my ... 1. Underline the words denoting sounds produced by animals.
3. The soup must be made hot. You must... the soup. The man took them all for a long ride, and drove them back to the farm.
4. We lost a lot. Our... were heavy. The hen clucked. The duck quacked. The rooster crowed. The dog
5. Those ladies are very proud. He doesn't like their... barked. The cat mewed. And the pig said a great big grunt. The animals
6. Can you prove it? Yes, here is my ... were so happy. "Thank you", said all animals. "Cut, cut", clucked the
7. These goods are for sale. What is he ...ing? hen. "Cock-a-doodle-do", the rooster crowed. "Quack, quack", quacked
8. He spoke to the audience He made a... the duck. "Bow-wow", barked the dog. "Mew, mew", mewed the cat.
9. This medicine relieves all pain It is famous for the ...it gives. And the pig said a great big grunt. "Oink, oink"! (Bedtime Stories).

2. (a) Give the nouns corresponding to the following verbs and adjectives: 2. Fill in one of the following words:
to advise, to breathe, to house, to use, to excuse, to sit, to applaud, (a) growl, buzz, bleat, hiss, chirp, roar.
to live, to strike, to ride. 1. Tigers were ... in their cages.
2. Our dog always ... at strangers.
3. Birds were ... merrily in the trees.

24 25
 3 Word-formation 4 Relations among words

4. The lamb ... for its mother.

5. Bees, flies and wasps were ... round a pot of jam.
6. The geese ... at the dog. 4. Relations among words
(b) coo, howl, hum, neigh, hoot, squeal, squeak.
Can you hear horses ... ? I could hear the pigs ...ing.
mice... dogs... Morphological grouping
doves... insects...
1. Arrange the words below into word families
playboy, actional, party, nationwide, antinationalistic, bipartite, actual,
playfull, act, player, part, nation, react, playback, nonpartial,
denationalize, playground, partiality, actually, nonplaying, reactionary,
playhouse, antiparty, nationality, nonactive, nationhood, actress,
participant.

2. Form as many words as you can from the following root words:
hand:
book:
heart:
man:
home:

3. See the story: "Mr Monroe Outwits a Bat". Find out the root words, derived
words and compound words.

4. In the above-mentioned story (ex. 3), identify and underline the lexical and
grammatical words, abstract and concrete nouns.

Homonymy and Paronymy

1. Pay attention to the underlined words and explain their meaning
M: Anna, has lawyer Brown had any new suits yet?
A: Oh, yes, mother; he has a new black suit of the latest cut.

J: Mr B. what is a bore!
B: A boar is a wild hog, Johny; why?
J: Well, sister says you are a regular bore, but I don't think you look
much like a hog.

26 27
 4 Relations among words 4 Relations among words

E: Oh, Maud! I must hurry from school today; mamma is dyeing. 6. Transcribe the following homographs. Use them in sentences.
M: Why Emma, aren't you disrespectful, coming to school, and your lead, row, tear, wind, bow, minute, polish, desert
mother is dying?
E: Why no! She's only dyeing my old pink dress. 7. Fill in the correct word:
1. alternate / alternative
2. Use the following words in sentences to show the difference That's what we should do - unless you have an ... suggestion. I visit
in meaning: my parents on ... weekends.
allowed / aloud, waist / waste, break / brake, berth / birth, bare / bear, 2. ingenious / ingenuous
sauce / source, know / no, rain / reign / rein, tail / tale, You'd have to be completely ... to believe a story like that. The ...
weather / whether, morn / mourn. Thomas Edison patented hundreds of inventions.
3. goal/gaol
3. Write the correct word : He headed the ball into an open ... . The castle has been used as a ...
1. The /sell/ of her old home [meid] the woman sad. He spent a year in ...
2. The great ships /sell/ the Atlantic in five days. 4. suit / suite
3. The snow in the /plein/ was deep. He showed up in a new silk ... . Her ... includes advisors, secretaties
4. It's quicker by /plein/. and bodygards. They gave us a beautiful... of rooms at the hotel. 5.
5. The child /si:mz/ to have /wi:k/ feet. draft / draught / drought
6. The /ti:/ is /swi:t/ and Avkk/. This is only the ... of my speech. There's an awful ... in here. Some
7. This /wi:k/ Eve has been to the /si:/ to /mi:t/ Peter. areas of Africa were affected by ...
8. The sunrise on the /si:/ was the most beautiful /si:n/ we have ever
/si:n/. 8. Tell the difference between English and Slovak expressions :
9. It took Bob the /haul/ /wi:k/ to stop a /hdul/ tooth. fabric - fabrika, manifestation - manifestacia, transparent - transparent,
10. Two horsemen /rdud/ along the narrow /rSud/. dress - dres, chef- sef, barracks - baraky, promotion - promocia
11. Before the /wo:/ he /wo:/ /plein/ clothes.

4. Choose the correct word Semantic relations of words

1. They had met (formally, formerly), three years ago to be exact, but
at that time were not introduced to each other (formally, formerly).
2. The new medicine will (lesson, lessen) his pain. Synonymy
3. That should be a (lesson, lessen) to him.
4. They pushed the boat (father, farther) into the water. 1. Choose the word which is closest in meaning:
5. A (vain, vein) in his (right, rite, write) arm was bleeding. 1. The interest rates actually charged by banks may vary from those
6. The shoemaker (boar, bore) a (whole, hole) in the (sole, soul) of the quoted. (generally, really, true)
shoe. 2. Now that you are adult, you come into a large inheritance.
(grown-up, old, elder)
5. Write a homophone for each of the words: 3. He gave the police the wrong number.
eye, male, here, steel, sale, meet, sell, fair, pale, higher, two, wait, (evil, false, imperfect)
one, peace, sight, flower, tale, see, son, march. 4.1 sent her a bouquet of spring flowers for her birthday.
(bunch, heap, mass)
5. aim legless, like, objective, shoot, task.

28 29
 4 Relations among words 4 Relations among words

6. allow above, admit, bring, hallo, give. 4. Give a synonymous word for the underlined one:
7. appear arrange, emerge, seemed, happen, happier. a funy story, a rich man, an unhappy situation, a soft voice, an untidy
8. applaud beg, clapped, fruit, praise, pray. room, a well-dressed person, a badly-behaved child, his usual routine.
9. arrest capture, left, prison, seized, tie.
10. astonish amaze, anger, please, surprised, wonder. 5. Use the appropriate word. In some of these contexts the following pairs
11. behaviour act, actor, conduct, function, way. of words are interchangeable. In others only one of them can be used ,
12. business arrangement, duty, thing, working, commercial. think / believe, shallow I superficial, target / goal, refused/ rejected,
13. charmed beauty, delighted, kindness, please, pretty. fetch / bring, rush / hurry
14. character actor, collector, gentleness, mind, role. 1. We ... it's the right thing to do. It's amazing the number of people who
15. commerce begin, trade, sell, merchant, shop. ... in ghosts.
16. demand asked, devil, require, send, shout. 2.1... he'll be here this evening. I don't... in Father Christmas.
17. desire earn, long for, order, send, hoping. 3. His aproach to his studies is rather ... He waded into ... water at the
18. dull black, boring, mad, miserable, silent. edge of the pond.
19. entire complete, go in, part, suffer, wheel. 4. Our ... is a profit of 50,000 for the coming year. Pele scored a fabulous
20. event although, happening, if, just, right. ... in the second half.
21. extend distant, far, wide, pull, stretch. 5. Despite our protests, we were ... permission to film the event. The
22. fair good, honest, honorable, tolerance, sale. horse ... the apple she had brought for her.
23. familiar actual, great, relation, relative, well-known. 6. Could you ... me my glasses. They're on the table. Come to our party
24. grateful angry, elegant, painful, refined, thankful. but don't forget to ... a bottle!
25. gay chap, fellow, homosexual, laugh, sad. 7. I'm going to be late - I'll have to ... The hostages decided to ... the
26. habit cloth, custom, fixed, home, traditional. terrorist to make him drop his gun.
27. handsome convenient, good-looking, pretty, strong.
28. jealous eager, envious, hate, right, rude. 6. Arrange the following words into synonymic pairs or groups an classify
29. imitate follow, friendly, mimic, seen, unreal. them into:
30. omit exclude, guilty, include, incomplete, send. (a) ideographic synonyms; (b) stylistic synonyms; (c) mixed:
arrogant, battle, begin, behold, brawl, bright, clever, commence,
2. See Ch . 1 (Meaning ), ex . 4 , conquest, fight, food, grub, horse, intelligent, walk, pace, proud,
(a) What kinds of synonyms can you find? see, shrewd, snobbish, steed, stride, stroll.
(b) Translate them into Slovak.
(c) Find the most general word in the groups.
Antonymy
3, Comment on the stylistic usage of the following synonyms and use them
in sentences. Explain the difference between them . 1. Choose the word expressing most closely the opposite meaning:
soldier - warrior, girl - lass, stomach - belly, gentleman - gent, boat - 1. active asleep, comfortable, infinitive, lazy, retire.
tub, goodbye - farewell, policeman - bobby - cop, psychiatrist - shrink, 2. adopt deny, emigrate, hesitate, impossible, refuse.
fabulous - fab, shut up - hush, seek - look for, begin - commence, 3. ancient industry, late, modern, novelty, rush.
ascend - climb. 4. attract deny, displease, hate, pressure, put down.
5. bare attractive, clothed, drop, emty, plenty.
6. behind ahead, at the side, face, on top, standing.

30 31
 4 Relations among -words 4 Relations among nords

7. birth cannot hear, death, disease, end, weaken.

8. clear cloudy, complicate, difficult, invisible, strict. 4. What is the opposite of the expressions •
9. confuse arrange, bright, correct, plan, explained. a dry wine a tall person a clear soup
10. continue break, close, hesitate, stop, wait. tough meat a heavy meal a rough sea
11. cowardice bold, bravery, lion, savage, shyly. a single ticket a strong smell a clever student
12. defeat fortune, progress, successful, victory, top. a high voice a right answer a sweet apple
13. delicate force, hard, health, strong, young. a single person a strong man strong beer
14. different alike, another, identify, join, self. a hard job a hot drink a cold day
15. disappoint agree, hope, praise, satisfy, set. salt water a cool day a loud sound
16. discipline broken, disorder, follower, rough, trouble.
17. failure conclusion, empty, extra, past, success. 5. What kind of antonyms is represented by each of the following pairs:
18. fair cold, dark, grey, ink, unkind. male - female, good - bad, above - below, hot - cold, clean - dirty, true •
19. generosity cheapness, economy, self-important, selfishness, wicked. false, doctor - patient, single - married.
20. humble cheerful, display, high, ordinary, proud.
21. loose excellent, find, joined, tight, unbroken.
22. modest annoyed, boastful, courageous, dislike, thick. Lexical (semantic) fields
23. nice all right, painful, satisfactory, sorry, unpleasant
24. poverty clever, good-looking, money, purse, wealth. 1. Say which word does not belong to the set. Decide why.
25. risky borrow, fortunate, safe, tame, unsafe. 1. pleased, anxious, hate, angry, delighted;
26. tough bend, butter, small, tender, unarmed. 2. aunt, grandmother, grandfather, sister, daughter, niece;
27. wicked aunt, good, morals, nice, praise. 3. uncle, friend, cousin, son, nephew, grandfather;
28. intentional accidental, broken, national, not concentrating, 4. imagination, mind, thought, blush, idea;
undecide. 5. beef, liver, pork, lamb, veal;
6. Oxford, Cambridge, Leeds, Kent, Edinburgh;
2. (a) Arrange the following into pairs of antonyms 7. inevitable, incapable, inflammable, inseparable, inhuman.
(b) Divide the antonyms into three groups: derivational, root and mixed
antonyms. 2. Rearrange the words into five groups bringing together those which are
begin dry expensive high buy related in meaning. Give a suggestion of a general heading for each group
hot cheep cold end in ticket, priest, station, proposal, pillow, police, garden, alarm clock, fine,
out late finish first sell cell, seed, engagement, nightmare, root, crime, honeymoon, ring, judge,
legal careful like useless low dining-car, picnic, rain, flower, water-bottle, mattress.
unlike useful dislike pre-war careless
postwar early last illegal wet 3. List the words (adjectives) describing kinds of weather you do and do
not like (e.g. sunny, cloudy, etc).
3. Supply the appropriate opposites (adjectives antonymous to those given
in brackets). 4. Make a list of as many colours as you can
1. (light): a ... blue dress; a ... table; 2. (old): a ... man; a ... book; 3.
(hard): an ... task; a ... bed; 4. (fresh) ... bread; ... flowers; 5. (wild): 5. Do you know the difference between the following words?
... birds;... flowers; 6. (rough): a ... surface; a ... person; 7. (lose):... Use them in sentences of your own.
a book; to ... a battle. laugh, smile, titter, giggle, chuckle, snigger

32 33
 5 The uses of words
5 Tlie uses of words

3. Group the following words into: technical terms, neutral, formal and
5. The uses of words informal words :
bus, burlesque, cellar, credence, crest, grandiloquence, chop,
chromatic, grain, dative, indubitable, shrink, pal, haemoglobin, kid,
Stylistically and emotionally marked words loquacious, ad, domicile, dough, hand, numismatics, pro.

1. Find out the stylistically marked words. 4. Underline the colloquial and slang words and expressions. Give the
Explain their meaning and give the neutral equivalents. neutral equivalents
1. He's been pinching money from the cashbox.
2. The burglar was taken to the local nick. 1. A: Do you fancy going to the pictures tonight?
3. Wow! What a fantastic dress. J: Great. Hang on, though. There's something good on telly. 2.
4. The new play at the National Theatre's a wow. P: Lend us a few quid. I'm broke.
5. She lives in a grotty little room with nowhere to cook. T: Here's a fiver.
6. The music imparts a feeling of excitement to the film. P: Smashing . Ta. (Thomas)
7.1 can't stand him , or any others of that ilk.
8. He does have some pretty loony ideas. 5. Give shorter or simpler (native) words for each of the following:
9. Your English is impeccable. 1. He had practiced physic in various situations with no great
10. When the burglar heard their car he hopped it out of the window. emolument.
11. He mentioned to me the singular history of an ingenious 2. It did not require much sagacity to foresee that such a sentiment
acquaintance. would not be permitted to pass without due animadversion,
vicinity, conviction, countenance, imprecation, oscillate, elongate,
2. Underline the technical terms. manifestation, demonstrated, aperture, occurrence.
The fuel and air mixture enters the cylinder. The piston rises and it
compresses the mixture. The compressed mixture is ignited by the 6. Comment on the emotional colouring of the underlined words.
spark. As the combustion gases expand, they push the piston down, and
the crankshaft turns. On an aircraft the crankshaft is connected to the 1. He preferred to stick with the herd so as not to be noticed
propeller. In a car it transmits power to the wheel. 2.1 will hie myself to the market.
(English for Technical Communication). 3. He never does unpleasant jobs himself - he always gets one of his

The larynx is a casing, formed of cartilage and muscle situated in the 4. His ideas are a bit wooly.
upper part of trachea. Its forward portion is prominent in the neck 5. The eggheads at the university know nothing about business. 6.
below the chin and is commonly called the "Adams apple". Housed He's always twittering about unimportant things.
within the structure from back to front are the vocal cords, two folds 7. Oh, stop bleating about being tired.
of ligament and an elastic tissue which may be brought together or 8. He's grumbling about his wages.
parted by the rotation of the arytenoid cartilages through muscular 9. He collected girlie magazines.
action. 10. That's absolute nonsense.
(Gimson: An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English)

34
35
 5 The uses of words 5 The uses of words

Archaisms and neologisms 5. There were ten seconds to blast-off.

6. The system is designed to be particularly user-friendly.
1. (a) From the following extracts, pick out the archaic words explain their 7. One of Chuck's greatest problems was that he didn't have a private
meaning and comment on their usage. life . He was a workaholic.
(b) Give modern English equivalents
Come hither, hither, my little page! 4. (a) Comment on the following "neologisms " in connection with word-
Why dost thou weep and wail? formation and borrowings.
Or dost thou dread the billow's rage, (b) Translate them into Slovak.
Or tremble at the gale? adman, cinerama, splashdown, Frisbee, ozone hole, to microwave, to
But dash the tear-drop from thine eye; telecast, G-string, to colorize, brunch, VCR, AIDS, PIN, chairperson,
Our ship is swift and strong: spacewoman, narcoterrorism, Scud, whodunit, masculist, space shuttle,
Our fleetest falcon scarce can fly lambada, to videotape, shell suit, karaoke, collateral damage, plastic,
More merrily along. camcorder, minder, catch-22.
With thee, my bark, I'll swiftly go
Athwart the foaming brine;
Nor care what land thou bear'st me to
So not again to mine. (Byron)
Regional varieties

1. Haply I remember and haply may forget (Rossetti). 1. Find out Americanisms and give the British-English equivalents:
2. Take a good dose of physic. I called Cindy to see if she was back from her vacation and would like
3. The king sent heralds to announce the law. to come out with me to dinner and the movies. She said she would love
4. The wind bloweth where it listeth. it, so I said I would come for her at a quarter before eight. I hung up,
5. He will be ere long went home and change my coat, vest and pants, put some dollar bills
6.1 would as lief go as stay. in my billfold and, at half after seven, drove to Cindy's apartment.
While waiting for her I admired her new closet and drapes.
2. (a) From the words given below pick out the archaic words, comment 1. There was that nasty stretch of ice on the sidewalk, and you did sit
on their usage and meaning. down awfully hard, you poor dear. (D Parker)
(b) Substitute modern forms and words for them 2. Mr Monroe suddenly remembered a great spread of mosquito netting
do, dost, does, you, thee, ye, thou, horse, though, quoth, girl, ere, lying in a closet across the room. (J. Thurber)
maiden, told, hath, didst, your, yon, has, hither, morn, lo. 3. I'll give you a help to the subway. (Weidman)
4. Mr Brunschweig rented a tuxedo. (Weidman)
3. Pick out all the "neologisms "from the following sentences. Comment on 5. He wore a gray felt hat turned up at the front, a collar with a striped
them bow tie, a vest with white piping, a short black coat. (McKelway)
1.1 enjoyed the play but the commercials irritated me. 6. He told me about another professor whose apartment is going to be
2.1 can't get a job unless I belong to the union, and I can't join the union for rent.
until I've got a job - it's a case of catch - 22. 7. "I'd like to buy a ticket". "Yes, sir. One way, or round trip?"
3. Could you video the documentary for me? 8. Since she'd gotten sick, she couldn't stand loudness, although it never
4. They are starting a sit-in at the local hospital because the government bothered her before. (Abbot)
is threatening to close it.

36 37
 5 The uses of words 5 The uses of words

2. Give the meaning of the following words in British and American end ther' used to be a field wheer us bairns used to laik. There's a beck
English: at t' bottom, it goes past them, willers, under t' brig an' into t' river. It's
public school, pavement, tube, subway, corn, vest, depot. not a reight long way -just past t' cross - roads, over 'ere.

Gloucestershire dialect.
3. Give British and American equivalents to following words:
As far back as I can mind, there've always been trouble with the roof of
benzin, metro, nakladne auto, vyt'ah, batozina, licet, cukriky, rad,
that barn when it do rain; the water pours in at the top, at the crease,
hranolky, dama (game).
now, and the shootins is rotten. I were only a boy about zix or zeven
when me vader zeed'n and said'n would fall down zoon; but he still be
4. Give American equivalents:
there. Round th' end, there used to be a groun' where us children
to buy sth on hire purchase, block of flats, note (as in: a pound note),
used to play. There be a stream at the bottom; it do go past they
pillar box, drapery, trunk call, (get) a rise, tram, railway, braces, pram.
withies, under the bridge and into the river. It bain't a very long way -
just past the cross-roads over yer.
5. Give the British-English spelling of the following words:
(Marckwardt - Quirk)
humor, thru, catalog, center, centering, labor, woolen, nite, jewelry,
gray, pajamas, gypsy, quarreled, honor, laborer, favor, harbor,
airplane, check, program, disk.

6. Give the Standard English equivalents of the following Australian

English words: paddock, tube, a coolibah, a billabong, a swagman.
Hooray. I'll finish it this arvo. I am feeling a bit crook today.

7. Compare a short piece of Nigerian Pidgin English with the Standard

English text:
Di papa bin tok sei: "Ma pikin, you sabi sei wit mi dei eni dei, an ol
ting wei a getam na yu on. Bot i gud mek hapi, bikos dis yu broda bin
don dai an i don wikop fo dai agen; i bin don los an wi bin luk i agen.
"My boy", said the father, "you were always with me, and everything
I have is yours. How could we help celebrating this happy day? Your
brother here was dead and has come back to life, was lost and is found.
(C . Barber).

8. Compare the texts. Find out dialectisms and give the Standard English
equivalents.
Yorkshire dialect.
Eeh! As far back as I can tell ther's allus bin trouble wi' t' roof o' yond
laithe when it rains; t' waiter pours in at t' top, at t' riggin', tha knaws, an'
t' spoutin's rotten. I wa' nobbut a lad about six or seven, when my
father saw it an' said it'ld fall down sooin; but it's still theere. Round t'

38 39
 6 Origin of English words 7 Combination of Words

6. Origin of English words 7. Combination of Words

1. (a) Pick out words that betray their foreign origin
(b) Comment on the degree of the assimilation of the words Collocations
1. Won't you keep it as a memento of our friendship? (Maugham). 2.

\
All I'm interested in is cooking up a thesis. (Snow) 1. Use the following collocations in sentences of your own.
3. We arranged to meet at the Dome next day to have an aperitif Pay attention to the direct and transferred meanings of adjectives.
and eat at some place on the boulevard. (Maugham) 1. a touching story, a touching sight;
4. Have you come about the vacuum cleaner? (Waugh) 2. a sour smile, a sour face, sour strawberies, sour pickles; 3.
5. The orchestra of a piano, accordion, violin, trumpet, and saxophone burning cheeks, burning desire, burning issues of the day; 4.
manned by hard-working sweaty musicians. (MacDonald) bitter truth, bitter disappointment, a bitter pill;
6. She had her appendix removed . (Collins Cobuild Dictionary) 5. warm weather, warm welcome, warm reception;
7. Could we have a little tete-a-tete one day? 6. cold weather, cold welcome, cold reception.
8. A thorough uderstanding of mathematics is sufficient to explain
a wide variety of natural phenomena. (Longman Activator) 2. Put + sign to show which two words are regularly used together:
(a) woman man child dog flower weather house voice
2. Fill in the appropriate foreign expression:
attractive + + - - - + +
chic, rendezvous, coup, encore, per capita, graffiti
beautiful
1. The violinist got an enthusiastic ...
lovely
2. She always looks very ...
pretty
3. She dines ... with the president.
charming
4... . income rose sharply last year.
good-looking
5. Peter pulled off a great ... in getting the president to agree to an
handsome
interview.
6. The wall was covered with ... again.
(b) tea ruler wrestler torch
4. Check a larger dictionary for the etymologies of the following words strong
and use them in sentences: mighty
algebra, tycoon, siesta, kindergarten, khaki, sofa, stanza, diameter, powerful
caravan, motto, taboo, alcohol, macaroni, sahib, punch, mandarin, brawny
boss, cariboo, moccasin.
3. What kind of objects typically collocate with each of the following
5. Determine from which language each word comes. words:
They suffered a terrible disaster last January when their yacht struck a sing:
coral reef off the Canary Islands and sank without warning. drive:
collect:
close:
heavy:

40 41
 7. Combination of Words 7. Combination of Words

4. (a) Combine the words below to form collocations. Idioms

(b) Translate them into Slovak.
(c) Compare the componential structure in English and Slovak, 1. Underline idioms. Explain their meaning.
fruit, coat, man, body, truth, water, ticket, forest, hair, room, A: I put my foot in it.
complexion, sword, soup, aim, paint, trees, fog, light, shirt. B: What happened?
1. fresh :
A: I had words with my aunt. I felt terrible about it later. But I'd been
2. naked: on edge all morning.
3. thick: B: Come to the point. Why did you argue?
4. single: A: My son Billy misbehaved. I punished him. Aunt Rose defended
him. That was the last straw! I told her to mind her own business. B:
5. Match the pairs to form appropriate collocations. Is everything all right now?
(a) a drop of salt (b) a herd of ants A: Yes, everything is fine. I'm glad I took a stand with Aunt Rose,
a piece of smoke a flock of fish though. We Understand each other better now.
a lump of ham an army of wolves (McCallum 53)
a hunk of sugar a pack of cattle
a pinch of oil a shoal of bees 2. Give the literal and figurative meaning of the following idioms:
a puff of bread a swarm of sheep 1. Roll up one's sleeves.
a slice of paper 2. Go/swim against the stream.
3. Tighten your belt.
6. Fill in the correct word, "do"or "make". 4. Lock the stable door after the horse was stolen.
1.1 think you've ... a mistake here. 5. The bird has flown.
2. She hasn't... her homework. 6. Shut up/close shop.
3. What are you ...ing? I'm ... a cake. 7. That's a horse of another/different colour.
4. What are you ...ing such a fuss about? 8. White elephant; big wheel.
5. Storms can ... a lot of damage.
6. I... a part-time job every evening. 3. Explain the underlined idioms in simple non-idiomatic English.
7. Children are ... a lot of noise. 1. I always feel a little at sea when it comes to political crime. (Greene)
8. The decision ... her very popular (past tense). 2. Take his remark with a grain of salt. (McCalum)
9. Where's Ann? She's ... the beds. 3. In the meantime, I'd like to hear your story. I want it from A to Z.
10. A glass of wine will... you good. (Traver)
11. I think I could ...a bookcase out of these pieces of wood. 4. Don't worry, the mistake is of no account. (Amer Heritage Diet.)
5. Leddersford is a place where they don't like people who put on airs.
7. Give the examples of grammatical and lexical collocations. (Braine )
6. I'll go to the D.A. with information and he'll welcome me with open
arms. (Gardner)
7. I wouldn't dream doing anything behind his back. (K. Amis)
8. Rabbit is happy to hear her voice, thinks the ice has broken, until he
hears what she says. (Updike)

42 43
 7 Combination of Words 7 Combination of Words

4. Rewrite the following sentences in non-idiomatic English. 8. What colour can you add to the underlined words to make appropriate
1. Her hair stood on end. idioms?
2. I hate people who beat about the bush. 1. After making losses for the last six years, we are at last in the ...
3. She enjoys being a grass widow. 2. Look at your hands, boy, they're as ... as coal.
4. I feel like a fish out of water. 3. I'm not so ... as you painted me.
5. He is in work up to his ears. 4. Bob gave me a ... eye, but I made his nose bleed.
6. I don't intend to buy a pig in a poke. 5. My second cousin was the ... sheep of the family.
7. It is twenty miles from here to Oxford as the crow flies.
9. How many idioms can you think which include the words:
5. Write one complete sentence for each idiom to show the meaning hand:
to lend a hand red tape not lift a finger head:
pull sb's leg castles in Spain once in a blue moon finger:
make up one's mind an old flame go Dutch
turn up his nose at in black and white in the red 10. Which word would complete all the sentences?
1. It is the point on which he and I do not... eye to eye.
6. Complete the following similes (idiomatic comparisons) and use them 2.1 just... red when I realised that my family was double-crossing me.
in sentences to show their meaning 3. He won't be an asset. He can't... beyond the end of his nose.
(a) ice, a cucumber, chalk, nails, a needle, a horse/an ox, night, 4. He slammed me on one back on the side of the head and I... stars.
a fiddle, iron/rock/stone/steel, two peas- 5. He needed to ... which way the wind was blowing before he told
as white as ... as cold as ... as black as ... them his plans.
as cool as ... as strong as ... as fit as ...
as hard as ... as sharp as ... as like as ... 11. Complete the following proverbs by fitting the two halves together.
(b) happy, quick, old, brave. Explain their meaning.
... as a lion ... as lightning 1. Look before you in the mouth.
... as the hills ... as the day is long 2. A stitch in time ends well.
3. All that glitters is worth two in the bush.
7. Choose the appropriate word and say what the sentence means: 4. Don't look a gift horse has a silver lining.
1. Sonny was the (orange, apple, white, treasure) of his father's eye. 5. Forbidden fruit leap.
2. Don't count your (hens, numbers, chickens, horses) before they are 6. All is well that is not gold.
hatched. 7. Blood is thicker saves nine.
3. His (manners, bark, cry, speech) is worse than his bite. 8. A bird in the hand is sweet.
4. Give him a(n) (finger, hand, inch, foot) and he'll take a yard. 9. Still waters than water.
5. It's the last (drop, straw, piece, sack) that breaks the camel's back. 10. Every cloud run deep.
6. Take care of the pennies and the (others, dollars, pounds, cents') will
take care of themselves. 12. Using a dictionary supply Slovak equivalents to the following proverbs
7. You can't eat your (cake, bread, piece, sheep) and have it. 1. A new broom sweeps clean.
2. Birds of a feather flock together.
3. It's the early bird that catches the worm.
4. Like father like son.

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5. He laughs best who laughs last.

6. Make hay while the sun shines.
7. One swallow doesn't make a summer. 8. Dictionaries
8. As you make your bed, so you must lie on it.
9. Well begun is half done. Look at the following dictionary entries. Compare their organization
10. When the cat is away the mice will play. and structure.
11. Out of sight, out of mind.
12. It's no use crying over spilt milk. 1. What information can you find in the dictionaries about:
(a) pronunciation;
13. (a) Give Slovak equivalents to the following idioms and compare them (b) grammar;
from the point of view of their components. (c) meaning (definitions, equivalents, synonyms);
(A) word collocation and usage (examples, stylistic, geographic
(b) Coment on the idioms from the point of view of their structure. limitations, etc.);
(c) Classify the following idioms from the semantic point of view. (e) phrasal verbs and idioms;
1. It's raining cats and dogs. (f) etymology.
2. I smell a rat.
3. It was just a red herring. 2. (a) How many headwords are therefor "ace" and "gay"?
4. He was caught red-handed. (b) On what basis are the different lexemes differentiated ?
5. He took French leave.
6. It is going to the dogs. 3. (a) How many meanings/senses does each headword have?
7. He took it in his stride. (b) What principle is used for ordering the meanings/senses?
8. He did it on the strength of it.
9. It's a hard nut to crack. 4. Where are the derived and compound words found?
10. It added fuel to the flames.
11. The coast is clear. The American Heritage Dictionary
12. After all he is here. (Boston 1985)
ace (as) «. l.a. A single pip or spot on a playing card, die, or domino, b. A
playing card, die, or domino having one spot or pip. 2. In racket games:
a. A serve which one's opponent fails to return, b. A point scored by
serving an ace. 3. The act of hitting a golf ball in the hole with one's
first shot. 4. informal A narrow margin. 5. A military aircraft pilot who
has destroyed five or more enemy aircraft. 6. A person who is an expert
in his field. —adj . Informal. Topnotch; first-rate. —tr.v. aced, ac ing,
ac-es. 1. To serve an ace against. 2. To hit an ace in golf. 3. To get the
better of (someone) 4. To receive a grade of A on: she aced the exam.
—Idiom , ace in the hole. 1. A hidden advantage. 2. A hole in one in golf.
within an ace of. On the verge of; very near to. [ME as < OFr. < Lat,
unit.]

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 9 Study of idioms 9 Study of idioms

4. The following idioms are ambiguous when taken out of context.

Give/explain their possible literal and figurative meanings:
9. Study of idioms 1. Break the ice. 2. Ring a bell. 3. Give somebody the axe. 4. Hand sth
on the plate. 5. Have sth in pocket. 6. Goldmine. 7. Hook, line and
sinker. 8. Root and branch. 9. A skeleton in the cupboard.
Identification and meaning

1. Underline idioms Explain their meaning. I've got my husband to the point where he eats out of my hand, it saves
A: I'd hate to be in Jack's shoes. He lost his job. such a lot of washing up.
B: What happened? •
A: As you know, Jack's an accountant. Last month he made an error in A: Waiter, bring me something to eat, I could eat a horse.
his books. The company lost a lot of money. B: You couldn't have come to a better place, sir.
B: That's a shame. Well, I'm sure of one thing: he wasn't trying to get (Flavell)
away with anything. Advertisements:
A: Of course not. Jack's very honest. He bent over backwards to correct We offer you a good deal.
his mistake. But it was too late. To make things worse, his wife came Have you thought about buying our new bed? Sleep on it.
down with the flue. We'll give you red-carpet treatment (or blue, or green, or brown, or
B: Poor Jack! How's he going to make ends meet? yellow .
A: I don't know. If you hear of a job, let him know. He's ready to try his The weather-men can't guarantee you an Indian summer, but we can.
hand at anything. Next time you want to be at your best for a special occasion, consider
(McCallum 95) buying
a product of the Aromata Company (It makes scents).
2. Find out idioms and explain their meaning. (Thomas)
Sam is a real cool cat. He never blows his stack and hardly ever flies
off the handle. What's more, he knows how to get away with things ... 5. Explain the underlined idioms in simple non-idiomatic English.
Well, of course, he is getting on, too. His hair is pepper and salt, but he 1. You could trust them. They'd never try to pull a fast one on you. (Puzo)
knows how to make up for lost time by taking easy. He gets up early, 2. He was my second cousin, somewhat the black sheep of the family.
works out, and turns in early. He takes care of hot dog stand like a (Christie )
breeze until he gets time off. Sam's got it made; this is it for him. 3.1 have an acquaintance, a ladylove perhaps, whom I stand to a meal
(A. Makkai: Dictionary of American Idioms) once in a blue moon. (Updike)
4. DeWitt who fought him tooth and nail when he tried to take on some
3. (a) Look up the idioms in a dictionary of the family's responsibilities ... (Korda)
Write out the definitions you find in a dictionary . 5.1 want to as much as you want to, but it can't be done. Susan'd smell
pay through the nose, call a spade a spade, if a day, be off o's a rat straight away. (Braine)
rocker, big wheel, play ducks and drakes 6. It seems to her that a crisis is at hand. (Percy)
(b) Invent two more definitions which look like real definitions. 7.... you never really understood me. I'm not so black as you painted
(c) Ask your neighbours to guess the true definition. me . (Hartley )
8. ... no matter what she elects to believe the die is cast,... (Heller)

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6. Rewrite the following sentences in non-idiomatic English. 4.1 may have put my ... in it. Her husband get on the phone. (Gardner)
1. Don't buy a pig in a poke. 2. He sent her to Coventry. 5. Other people have bad luck but William always seems to fall on
3. It is neither fish nor fowl. 4. She came all airs and graces his (Eckersley ).
5. Peter is her blue-eyed boy. 6. They were left high and dry 10. How many idioms can you think which include the words:
7. They agreed to go Dutch. heart:
nose:
7. For each spoken item on the left, find the most natural response on ear:
the right.
1) You mustn't tell a soul It's on the tip of my tongue 11. Choose the idiom that best completes the sentence:
2) Do you know what it's called? I could do with one. 1. The leaders ended their discussion. A crisis had come. It was time to
3) Cup of tea? Yes by the skin of my teeth. take a vote. Matters had...
4) Did you catch the train? A little bird told me. (a) gone head over heels. (b) gone to their heads,
5) Can I come to lunch? My lips are sealed. (c) come to a head. (d) put heads together.
6) I've got some news I'm keeping my fingers crossed 2. You have no idea what is expected of your new job, so you decide
7) How did you know I was going If you don't mind taking pot that it is better...
out with Jenny? luck. (a) get in their hair. (b) give sb the eye.
8) I hope the weather's good for our trip I'm all ears. (c) to turn a deaf ear. (d) play it by ear.
tomorrow. 3. Your younger brother accuses you of wanting to control his life.
(Thomas) He says that you want...
(a) to lead him by the nose. (b) to give him a nose dive
8. Write one complete sentence for each idiom to show the meaning (c) pay him through the nose. (d) to turn up your nose at him
in the black kick the bucket an old flame 4. We have been spending money ... We'll soon be broke!
bark up the wrong tree bag and baggage in the long run (a) hand and foot. (b) on hand.
have sth up o's sleeve not lift a finger lend/give a hand (c) hand over fist. (d) with a high hand.
give sb a blank cheque red tape pull sb's leg 5. When they saw the lion, the children screamed and ...
(a) footed the bill. (b) took to their heels,
9. Add one word to make appropriate idioms? (c) gave a leg up. (d) put their best foot forward
1. His promise is not worth a ... cent. (Urdang) (Curry: Body English)
2. So there they were, marking time in Avignon, while I lost myself
chasing ... herrings! (Stewart) 12. Complete the following sentences.
3. If I don't get some money from somewhere very soon, I shall be in 1. It's already eight o'clock! If you don't hurry, we're going to be late.
the... (Wood) Come on! ...
4. The little man was shrewed enough to see the ... light ahead (Traver) (a) Take to your heels! (b) Put your foot down!
(c) Shake a leg! (d) Stretch your legs!
1. John wanted to ask Vera to marry him, but he got cold ... (McCallum). 2. The waiter set glasses of wine ...
2. Drink it down. It will put you on your... again (Barthelme) (a) with open arms. (b) at elbow room.
3. She simply carried me off my... and I would have done anything to (c) at his elbow. (d) at the arm of the law.
get her . (Maugham ) 3. I'm afraid that Dan was offended by my words. I really didn't mean ...
(a) to stick in his throat. (b) toe the mark.
(c) put teeth into him. (d) step on his toes.

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4. After the trouble with her neighbour, Mrs Delaney became so angry 7. Make hay while half done.
at her that she wanted to... 8. One swallow doesn't catches the worm.
9. As you make your bed, so he'll soon appear.
(a) change her mind. (b) lose her mind. 10. Well begun is nothing win.
(c) bear her in mind. (d) give her a piece of her mind.
3. Choose the appropriate word and say what the sentence means:
13. Give at least two meanings for each of the following idioms. 1. Look before you (jump, leap, run).
1. get/pick up steam 2. hot dog 3. raise o's voice 4. Indian Summer 2. All that (shines, glitters, sparkles) is not gold.
5. like hell 6. kiss of life 7. be in the air 8. a closed book 9. go like 3. Don't look a gift (horse, mare, cow) in the (teeth, mouth, lips). 4.
a bomb 10. all right Forbidden fruit is (best, better, sweet).
5. All is (fine, well, good) that ends (fine, well, good).
14. What types of idioms can you distinguish in ex . 2. 6. Still (waters, water) (wash, wahes, run, runs) deep.
7. Every cloud has a silver (lining, beam, edge).
Similes
Phrasal verbs
1. Complete the following similes (idiomatic comparisons) and use
them in sentences to show their meaning. 1. Fill in the appropriate phrasal verb.
(a) a picture, rain, a feather, brass, a bird, a hunter, a mule, crystal, a 1..f a ll back, fall behind, fall over
turkey- cock, mustard: Jones ... with his payments for the car and had to borrow money. 2.
as right as ... as bold as... as obstinate as ... give in, give out, give over
as pretty as ... as free as ... as light as ... The rioters were at last forced to ... to the police.
as clear as... as red as... as hungry as ... 3. look over, lookup, look down
(b ) sure , sleep , different, busy , pleased , fit, drink : She was snobbish and ... on all her neighbours.
... as chalk and cheese ... as eggs is eggs ... as a bee 4. pass by, pass out, pass up
... like a fish ... like a log ... like a glove His wife .. on hearing that he had an accident.
5. make out, make up, make over
Proverbs I can't... what he is trying to say.

2. Complete the following sentences by using the appropriate phrasal

1. Listen to the following sayings and proverbs and then match them
verb: bring up, cut out, get in, give up, go off, let down, look out,
with explanations (Vaughan-Rees 137)
put up.
2. Complete the following proverbs by fitting the two halves together. 1. The doctor told the patient to ... all starchy foods.
Explain their meaning. 2. We can ... you ... if you're staying in town overnight.
1. Once bitten seldom bites. 3. The kind old couple agreed to ... the young orphan.
2. Talk of the devil and the sun shines. 4. He won't... you ..., he is very reliable.
3. Barking dog twice shy. 5. When I get married next year, I shall have to ... my job. 6.
4. A new broom you must lie on it. What time will the alarm ...?
5. Nothing venture make a summer. 7. There's a car coming! ...!
6. It's the early bird that sweeps clean. 8. At what time does this bus ...?

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Variants, synonyms. Transformation 7. "When can I expect the finished product?" "In three shakes of
a lamb's tail", he said. (Krantz)
1. Give (lexical) variants for each of the following idioms and tell which 8. Alistair returned from holiday hot-foot, then sat on his thumbs
of them are used in American English fora week. (LeCarre)
(1) not bat an eyelid (2) the boot is on the other foot (3) be up sb's 9. A harpest who rushes in where a fool would fear to tread.
street (4) clutch at straws (5) as black as night (6) lay o's cards on (Stoppard)
the table (7) be load off o's head (8) last straw 10. .. . the way you'd throw a trombone to a dog, I mean a second
violinist I mean to the lions. (Stoppard)
2. Give as many synonymous/related idioms as possible to fit the
following idioms. English and Slovak Idioms
lose o's temper:
big shot: 1. (a) Give Slovak equivalents to the following idioms and compare
stand o's ground: them from the point of view of their components.
have o's foot in the grave: (b) Comment on the idioms from the point of view of their structure. (c)
be on edge: Classify the following idioms from the semantic point of view
be down in the mouth: 1. She makes a mountain out of a molehill.
2 There's no room to swing the cat.
Don't trust him, he is leading you up the garden path. 3. It's part and parcel of the complex business.
Stop pulling his leg, he will learn with time. 4. She usually put the cart before the horse.
What you are doing is not cricket. 5. She was his bread and butter.
6. Don't wash your dirty linen in the public.
3. (a) Give complete /original forms of idioms for the forms/variants 7. She will have to face the music.
used in the sentences. 8. It is out of the question.
(b) What types of changes can you find in them ? 9. His remarks were beside the question.
1. Well, I know everything would go wrong - it's the usual story of 10. She is as keen as mustard.
too many cooks! (OALD) 11. After all it wasn't difficult.
2. Then Meredith realized that it was siesta time. Well, when in 12. He was here all right.
Rome, she thought wryly, and went down the hall to her room ...
(Matthews)
2. Give English equivalents and use them in sentences.
3. You know about them, my normal summer games, sometimes
I. nepohnut' ani prstom 2. zmeskat* vlak 3. klamat' do oci 4. (hundraf
winning on the swing and losing on the roundabout, ...nothing
si pod) popod nos 5. strkaf nos do niecoho 7. nevidiet' si d'alej od
serious. (Krantz)
nosa 8. maf nohy do o 9. maf nohy do x 10. zat'af do ziveho
4... . he coaxes vehicles toward him with fluid arm gestures, part I I . unikniif o chip 12. ist' hlavou proti muru 13. vel'ke zviera 14. isf
of an artful ballet he uses to keep the traffic rolling,... (National (ako)adracku 15. (citit'sa) ako rybana suchu 16. byt'na jednej lodi
Geographic)
17. Kto sa raz popalil, i na studene fuka. 18. Aky pozicaj, taky vraf.
5. "You are like Rome, Charlie", she remarked. "All roads lead to
you". (LeCane)
6. ... though I'm not a Puritan, mind. I suppoe it would be
interesting. Do as the Romans do. (Greene)

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9 Study of idioms

3. Using a dictionary supply Slovak equivalents to the following

5. Compare and comment on the following translations.
proverbs
1. They had only to keep their heads, and go at it steadily. (Galsworthy)
1. His bark is worse than his bite.
Len nestracaf hlavu a pevne isf za vecou. (Trachta)
2. Too many cook spoil the broth.
...although she was sick and miserable and terrified, she had kept her
3 There's many a slip twix cup and lip.
head. (Bromfield)
4. Birds of a feather flock together.
... bola vel'mi rozvazna. (Mihal)
5. Spare the rod and spoil the child.
She had watched one lover growing tired, kept her head, and
6. You can lead a horse to the water, but you can't make him drink.
dismissed him... (Galsworthy)
7. Blood is thicker than water.
... zachovala si chladnii hlavu. (Bednar)
8 When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Take this picture and keep your head. (Galsworthy)
9. A stitch in time saves nine.
Vezmite tie obrazy a neplaste sa. (Bednar)
10. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
2. Technically you're in the clear. (Susann)
Technicky za to nemozes. (Petakova-Kresakova)
4. Translate the following sentences. Compare English and Slovak And they were damned well in the clear when they lost her.
equivalents. (Hemingway)
1. She sent to London for pamphlets and blue books ... (Maugham). ...dostali Sertovsky do bezpecia". (Chmelova - Dlouhy).
2. We never saw eye to eye. (Braine) 3... . she danced once in a blue moon. (J. Galsworthy)
3. Since 1976 they have lost ground in journalism. (Newsweek). The ... tancovala len raz za dlhy cas. (Bednar)
leading man began to lose ground (Henderson). ... it was reported by members of the family who... would drive once
4. I've decided to turn over a new leaf... (Soubiran). in blue moon. (Galsworthy)
5. We older ones have learned to look before we leap. (Braine) ... raz za uhorsky rok prichadzali. (Trachta)
6. On the white midsummer nights, those thoughts gave me no rest. 4. I'd like to beat you black and white. (Braine)
(Snow)
Mam chuf zmlatif fa, ze budes cela modra. (Ruppeldt)
7. .. .their relationship,..., rested on a knife-edge ... (Fleming). He's on a Or I'll beat you black and blue. (Braine)
knife-edge about his exam results. (Hornby) ... lebo fa vytrepem po zadku. (Ruppeldt)
8. They're going to lose us the war because they don't want to step on 5. It was one of those remarks which aren't funny in black and white
anybody's toes! (Heym) but irresistibly comic in reality... (Braine)
9. I wouldn't let anyone lead me by the nose as his wife leads him. Bol to jeden z tych vyrokov, co nepripadaju smiesine na papieri...
(Eckersley)
(Ruppeldt)
10. The plan for the new book is on ice at the moment. (Cowie)
11. We must leave no stone unturned to find out who these people were. 6. (a) Translate the following sentences paying attention to the idiom
(Sayers)
of course.
12. After so many defeat, the team began to lose heart (Curry). If you'd
la. If you don't mind, of course. (Golding)
seen yourself and your two colleagues under circumstances I first
2a. They're all out, of course. (Galsworthy)
saw you under, I don't think you'd lose heart so quickly (Amis -
3a. .. .he had more education than others, which, of course, was true.
Conquest). Nicky had thought New York the most beautiful city (White)
she'd ever seen, but she lost her heart to Paris. (Virdell) 4a. Oh, I am able to remember some things, of course, but the
13. The shock was a staggerer of the first water,...(Sayers) childish ones. (White)
5a. Of course, officially the division's departure was secret
(Cussack)

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6a. You know Harold Blade, of course? (Galsworthy) Mozno nas priatel' Moody je na urovni a mozno vas vodi za nos.
7a. And, of course, Warley had never suffered ... (Braine) (Jurak )
8a. Of course I shall, one day ... (Cronin) 7. "Are you going to arrest him?" "I'm going to give Dr Stevens some
rope," McGreary said. "And while he's hanging himself, I'm going to
(b) Compare your translation with the following Slovak translational be digging into every little skeleton in his closet". (Sheldon)
equivalents. "Chystam sa mu daf povraz," povedal McGreary. "A zatial' co sa
Ib. Pravdaze, ak ti to nie je proti voli. (Kot) doktor bude vesat" na stranok, prehadzem mu celii pracovnu".
2b. Prirodzene, teraz nie su doma. (Bednar) (Jurak )
3b. ...je vzdelanejsi ako iny; co bola, samozrejme, pravda. (Tvaroiek)
4b. Pravda, niezo si pamatam, ale len take detskosti. (Tvarofek) 8. (a) Supply Slovak equivalents for the idioms:
5b. Pravda, odchod divizii... (Kyska) la. Did you really expect me to start beating the bushes for some
6b. Iste sa poznate s Haroldom Bladom. (Bednar) mythical killer while you take the heat o^yourself? (Sheldon)
7b. A potom Warley nikdy nebolo ... (Ruppeldt) 2a. The doctor drove her to his apartment, making a small talk that
8b. Isteze, i jarazpqjdem ... (Bukvova-Daxnerova) did not require any answers, giving Carol a chance to pull
herself together and think things out... (Sheldon)
7. Compare the following translations -with equivalents in 3a.... she didn't recognise, though she thought she knew his
dictionaries (your translations): clothes by heart. (Galsworthy)
1. "You look well in that hat, Uncle". Soames took it off. "White 4a. Of course, you must realize, that... (Cronin)
elephant" he said. (Galsworthy)
"Biela vrana", povedal. (Bednar) (b) Compare your equivalents with the following translations by
... could not be feeling that Michael would be rid of a white professionals.
elephant. (Galsworthy) Ib. Naozaj ocakavate, ze budem chodif okolo honicej kase a hl'adat'
... nemohol rozmysTaf inac, iba ze Michal sa st'astne zbavil nejakeho vymysleneho vraha, kym vy sa postarate, aby vasa
danajskeho daru. (Bednar) stopa vychladla. (Jurak)
2. I'm in Lady Agatha's black book at present (Wilde) 2b.... pricom viedol rozhovor, ktory nevyzadoval nijake odpovede a
Nateraz som u lady Agathy zle zapisany. (Ruppeldtova) daval Carol prilezitosf aby sa spamatala a dala dokopy a na
3. Compromising letters, or photographs in the altogether,... who care? vsetko neprijemne zabudla. (Jurak)
(Christie ) 3b. ...nepoznala, hoci si myslela, ze pozna vsetky jeho obleky.
Nejake kompromitujuce listy alebo fotografie v spoloznosti niekoho (Ruppeldtova)
(CaCko ) 4b. Musite si uvedomit"... (V. Bukvova-Daxnerova)
4. He washed his hands and face, still in a brown study apparently, and
combed his hair. (Dreiser) 9. (a) Translate the following sentences
Umyl si ruky i tvar na ktorej mu zaschla krv, a precesal si vlasy. la. You're building up a case out of nothing. (Sheldon)
(Krcmery ) 2a. It's worse than Siberia. ...Tain't a fit night for man nor beast.
5. It was Carol's lousy luck that Judge Murphy was sitting on the bench (Sheldon)
again. This time she knew the judge was going to throw the book 3 a. My father had brought her home without warning. (Doctorow)
at her (Sheldon ) 4a. It will be a second honeymoon. (Sheldon)
... hodi knihu do hlavy. (Jurak)
6. Maybe your friend Moody is on the level, and maybe he's setting
you up . (Sheldon )

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(b) Pay attention to the following translations and compare them

with your own
Ib. Robite z komara somara. (Jurak) (B) The proverbial English teacher (or Experience is the mother of wisdom)
2b. Dnes vecer nehodno ani psa vyhnať von a nie este, aby Clovek
behal po vonku. (Jurak) Our English teacher is called Robin. S/he can, therefore, be male or
3b. Otecko ho raz priniesol mne nic, tebe nic. (Korinek) female. After all, what's in a name? Robin is somewhat round. At school
4b. Budii to nase druhe medove tyzdne. (Jurak) he had always rushed to join the dinner queue. He had learned that man
cannot live by bread alone. When older, he had married a woman who
knew that the way to a man's heart is through his stomach. His rotundity
increased.
Robin decided it was never too late to learn, and so considered
becoming an English teacher. He remembered his father's comment: those
who can, do; those who cannot, teach. Oh, he thought, there's no fool like
an old fool. He ignored his father, and took up ELT. He had heard that
travel broadens the mind. He also found that it emptied the pocket. Never
1. Identify and translate idioms (proverbs): mind, he thought, the love of money is the root of all evil. After all, the
(A) The idiomatic English teacher (or Keeping body and soul together): best thing in life are free! His inner voice said, name one! Robin responded
To You, Who ... with alacrity - health is better than wealth. Remember, you can't take it
Often do not turn a hair when replying off the top of your head, which should be with you when you die. The inner voice continued to torment him - you
screwed on the right way.
haven't any "it" to take! All that glitters is not gold, Robin retorted. But
Often you are up to your eyes in work, and need eyes in the back of your head.
You also need to keep your nose clean, as well as keeping it to the grindstone. you haven't anything that glitters either, continued the voice. Robin didn't
Your ears are often burning, having kept one of them to the ground. rise to the bait this time.
You often play it by ear, and have to turn the other cheek. Robin settled into a semi-comfortable rut. He tried his best - if a
That was said with tongue in cheek! job's worth doing, it's worth doing it well. He was a stickler for
You often live from hand to mouth, and need to keep your chin up. punctuality: Robin was the early bird who catches the worm. His approach
Sometimes you have to stick your neck out, and may even become a pain in the
was not shared by his class, in spite of his telling them early to bed and
neck!
You should not get a chip on your shoulder, but must keep abreast of the times. early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Their attitude was:
Usually your heart is in the right place, and you have no stomach for infighting. better late than never. Robin's encouragement of "a stitch in times saves
Sometimes you have to chance your arm - more power to your elbow! nine" always fell on deaf ears. There are none so deaf as those who will
Frequently you have your hands full, and may become all fingers and thumbs, not hear, he thought.
but somehow you keep your finger on the pulse. Robin detested noise. Speech classes were anathema to him.
At bottom you are dedicated, and are often on your last legs.
"Silence is golden", he would shout, followed by "do as I say, not as I do". He
Revive! Students think you are bee's knees!
Fortunately, you have your feet firmly on the ground. then explained: a still tongue makes a wise head, while empty vessels make
Occasionally you must dig your heels in, and even put your foot down. the most sound. "Remember", he said, thinking of grammatical accuracy,
A pity you sometimes put your foot hi it! "least said, soonest mended". By way of encouragement, he added "ask a
At times you have to toe the line, even though you may tread on somebody's silly question and you'll get a silly answer".
toes. With group work, Robin was out of his depth. He didn't understand
All in all, you are a teacher, from top to toe.
the methodology, though he admitted that there was more than one way to
(B. Jordan, MET 1995)
skin a cat. Still, he gave it a try. If at first you don't succeed, try, try, try
again. He agreed that practice makes perfect. But practice in what? His

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students seemed to have adopted the motto "ignorance is bliss". He

lectured them to make hay while the sun shines, and strike while the iron is
hot. As soon as he left the room they put this in practice. It was a matter of 10. Texts for reading, analysis and translation
when the cat's away, the mice will play.
Robin returned to uproar. This increased when he explained that he
had forgotten to mark their homework. It never rains but pours, he thought.
"I know," he said, "take your essays and mark each other's". In the Mr Monroe Outwits a Bat
ensuing silence he started to congratulate himself. But his inner voice by James Thurber
cautioned - don't count your chickens before they are hatched, but think of
the advantage, countered Robin, many hands make light work. Ah, but too
many cooks spoil the broth, replied the voice. The Monroes opened their summer place a little late, for carking
The students finished their task, and called out the marks they had cares had kept them long in town. The grass was greening and tangled
given each other. They were all the same! Seeing is believing, Robin when they arrived, and the house had a woodsy smell. Mr. Monroe took a
muttered. But, after a while, he gave up. It was a matter once bitten, twice deep breath. "I'll get a great sleep tonight," he said. He put on some old
shy. He knew: if you want a thing done well, do it yourself. Robin's clothes, pottered around, inspecting doors and windows, whistling. After
students, on the other hand, were complimenting each other - great minds dinner he went out under the stars and smelled the clear fine air. Abruptly
think alike! there came to his ears a little scream from inside the house - the scream
Dismissing them, Robin admonished himself - look before you leap, his wife gave when she dropped a cup or when some other trivial tragedy
next time. Then, looking at his watch, he noticed how time flies. He rushed of the kitchen occurred. Mr. Monroe hurried inside.
along to the staff room, where birds of a feather flock together. He had "Spider!" cried Mrs. Monroe. "Oh, kill it, kill it!" She always held
difficulty in agreeing with his colleagues that pen is mightier than the that a spider, encountered but not slain, turned up in one's bed at night.
sword. The attitude of spare the rod and spoil the child was beginning to Mr. Monroe loved to kill spiders for his wife. He whacked this one off a
gain favour with him. But his inner voice had the final word. Robin, it tea-towel with a newspaper, and scooped it outside the door into petunia
advised, know thyself. bed. It gave him a feeling of power, and enhanced the sweetness of his
B.Jordan 1996 little wife's dependence on him. He was still glowing with his triumph, in
a small warm way, when he went to bed.
"Good night, dear," he called, deeply. His voice was always a little
deeper than usual, after a triumph.
The night was sweet and clear. Nice old creaking sounds ran down the
stairs and back up again. Some of them sounded like the steps of a person.
"Afraid, dear? he called out.
"Not with you here," she answers, sleepily. There was a long pleasant
silence. Mr. Monroe began to drowse. A very ominous sound brought him
out of it, a distinct flut, a firm, insistent, rhythmic flut.
"Bat!" muttered Mr. Monroe to himself.
At first he took advent of the bat calmly. It seemed to be flying high,
near the ceiling. He even raised himself upon his elbows and peered
through the dark. As he did so, the bat, apparently out of sheer malice,
almost clipped the top of his head. Mr. Monroe scrambled under the

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covers, but instantly recovered his composure and put his head out again - "It'll hang by its feet pretty soon and go to sleep," said his wife,
just as the bat, returning in its orbit, skimmed across the bed once more. soothingly. "It won't hurt you." This last had a curious effect on Mr.
Mr Monroe pulled the covers over his head. It was the bat's round. Monroe. Much to his own surprise he sat up in bed, a little angrily. The
"Restless, dear?" called his wife, through the open door. bat actually got him this time, brushed his hair, with a little "Squeep!"
"What?" he said. "Hey!" yelled Mr. Monroe.
"Why, what's the matter?" she asked, slightly alarmed at his muffled "What is it, dear?" called his wife. He leaped out of bed, now
tone. completely panic-stricken, and ran for his wife's room. He went in and
"I'm all right, it's okay," responded Mr. Monroe, from under the covers. closed the door behind him, and stood there.
"You sound funny," said his wife. There was a pause. "Get in with me, dear," said Mrs. Monroe.
"Good night, dear," called Mr. Monroe, poking his head out of his "I'm all right," he retorted, irritably. "I simply want to get something to
covers to say this, and pulling it in again. rout the thing with. I couldn't find anything in my room." He switched on
"Good night." the lights.
He strained his ears to hear through the covers, and found he could. "There's no sense in your getting all worn out fighting a bat," said his
The bat was still flitting about the bed in measured, relentless intervals. wife. "They're terribly quick." There seemed to him to be an amused
The notion came to the warm and stuffy Mr. Monroe that the incessant sparkle in her eyes.
repetition of a noise at regular intervals might drive a person crazy. He "Well, I'm terribly quick too," grumbled Mr. Monroe, trying to keep
dismissed the thought, or tried to. If the dropping of water on a man's head, from shivering, and he slowly folded a newspaper into a sort of club. With
slowly, drip, drip, drip - flut, flut, flut. this in hand, he stepped to the door. "I'll shut your door after me," he said,
"Damn it," said Mr. Monroe to himself. The bat was apparently just "so that the bat won't get into your room." He went out, firmly closing the
getting into its swing. It was flying faster. The first had just been practice. door behind him. He crept slowly along the hall till he came to his own
Mr. Monroe suddenly remembered a great spread mosquito netting lying in room. He waited a while and listened. The bat was still going strong.
a closet across the room. If he could get that and put it over the bed, he Mr. Monroe lifted the paper club and struck the jamb of the door, from
could sleep in peace. He poked his nose out from under the sheet, reached the outside, a terrific blow. "Wham!" went the blow. He hit again.
out a hand, and stealthily felt around for a match on a table by the bed - "Wham!"
the light switch was yards away. Gradually his head and shoulders "Did you get it, dear?" called his wife, her voice coming dimly
emerged. The bat seemed to be waiting for just this move. It zipped past through her door.
his cheek. He flung himself back under the covers, with a great squeaking "Okay," cried her husband, "I got it." He waited a long while. Then
of springs. he slipped, on tiptoe, to a couch in the corridor halfway between his
"John?" called his wife. room and his wife's and gently, ever so gently, let himself down on it.
"What's the matter now?" he asked, querulously. He slept lightly, because he was pretty chilly, until dawn, got up, and
"There's a bat in the room, if you want to know," he said. "And it tiptoed to his room. He peered in. The bat was gone. Mr. Monroe got into
keeps scraping the covers." bed and went to sleep.
"Scraping the covers?"
"It'll go away," said his wife. "They go away"
"I'll drive it away!" shouted John Monroe, for his wife's tone was that
of a mother addressing a child. "How the devil the damn bat ever-" his
voice grew dim because he was now pretty far under the bed clothes.
"I can't hear you, dear." said Mrs. Monroe. He popped his head out.
"I say how long is it before they go away?" he asked.

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