Civil Engineering Materials and Constructions (BCE03002)

Module-IV

Basic Building Construction

Module IV Syllabus

Foundation: purpose, types of foundation- shallow, deep, pile, raft, grillage foundation.
Masonry: Brick Masonry: types of bonds, relative merits and demerits of English, Single
Flemish and Double Flemish bond. Stone Masonry: General principles, classification of
stone masonry and their relative merits and demerits, Cavity wall: components and
construction, Arches: Terminology and classifications, Doors and Windows: Types,
materials used
 1. FOUNDATION: -
It is a part of structural system that supports and anchors the superstructure of a building
and transmits its loads directly to the earth. Foundation of a building as the name implies is
the starting of a building construction on site really. Types of building, nature of soil and
environmental conditions are the major determinant of type of foundation. Choosing a kind of
foundation depends on, ground conditions, groundwater conditions, site – the environment
(the buildings nearby) and structure of our building.

Purpose:-
There are numerous reasons a foundation is provided, some of which are:

 The most crucial purpose of providing Foundation is Structural Stability. Strength of

the foundation determines the stability of the structure to be constructed.

 A properly designed and the constructed foundation provide an even surface for the
development of superstructure at a proper level at over a firm bed.
 A well-designed foundation prevents the lateral movement of the supporting material
(which is the soil in this case) and thus ensuring the safety of the superstructure from
the detrimental effects of the lateral movements of soil.
 The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the loads from the
structure to a large base area, and then the soil underneath. This uniform transfer of
loads helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building, which is one of the
detrimental defects in building construction.
Types of Foundation:-
1. Shallow foundation: If the depth of foundation is less than the width of foundation
then it is known as Shallow or stepped Foundation. It can be used where the bearing
capacity of soil on which the structure is to be constructed is maximum. Minimum
depth of this Foundation is 800mm and maximum depth not to be taken more than 4
meters.
2. Deep foundation: If the depth of footing greater or equal to the Width of footing, it is
known as the deep Foundation. Deep Foundation is used where the bearing capacity
of the soil is very low. The load coming from the superstructure is further transmitted
vertically to the soil.

Difference between Foundation and Footing:

 Foundation is a structure which transfers the loads from the superstructure to the ground,
while footing is the foundation which is in contact with the earth.
 A foundation can be shallow and deep, while a footing is a type of a shallow
foundation. so, all footings are foundations but all foundations cannot be footings.
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
 They are usually located no more than 6 ft below the lowest finished floor.
 A shallow foundation system generally used when
 The soil closes the ground surface has sufficient bearing capacity
 Underlying weaker strata do not result in excessive settlement.
 The shallow foundations are commonly used most economical foundation systems
 Types of spread footing: (either for Column or for Wall)

a) Single pad footing.

b) Stepped footing for a column.
c) Sloped footing for a column.
d) Wall footing without step.
e) Stepped footing for walls.
f) Grillage foundation.
(a) Isolated spread footings under individual columns which can be square, rectangular or
circular.

Column

Footing

(b) Wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of wall

Wall

Footing

(c) Combined footings support two or more columns. These can be rectangular or
trapezoidal in plan.
 A combined footing is necessary in following three reasons:
 Columns are placed very close to each other so that their individual footings
overlap each other
 When bearing capacity of soil is less so it is required to have a more spread area for
footing and so footing of adjacent column may overlap
 When external column is close to property line, it is not possible to provide isolated
footing for that column because it may be extended beyond the property line and so
combined footing solves the problem
 The essential condition to satisfy in combined footing is that, centroid of footing area
should coincide with resultant of column loads so that soil pressure distribution is
uniform under soil.
 Types of combined footing:

 Combined footing (Rectangular):

 Combined footing (Trapezoidal):
If outer column near property line carries a heavier load
 Strap footing
 Raft / mat foundation

Columns

Footing

Combined footing
(d) Strap or Cantilever Footing

 Strap footings are similar to combined footings.

 Reasons for considering or choosing strap footing are identical to the combined one.
 In strap footing, the foundation under the columns is built individually and connected by
a strap beam.
 Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line,
the exterior footing is connected by a strap beam with interior footing.

(e) Raft / mat foundation:

 This is a large continuous footing supporting all the columns of the structure.
 This is used when soil conditions are poor but piles are not used.
 Raft foundation is provided
 When load transmitted by columns are so heavy or allowable soil pressure are so
small that individual footings if provided would cover more than about half of the
area, then it is better to provide a continuous footing called raft foundation under all
columns and walls
 Raft foundations are used to reduce settlement of structure located above heavy
compressible deposits i.e. they control differential settlement
 Types of raft foundation:
 Solid raft (A continuous slab covering all the columns)
 Ribbed raft (mat with a central hollow region when all the columns are connected by
a continuous beam which gets supported on the raft slab

Columns

Footing

Raft foundation
 Mat or Raft

DEEP FOUNDATION
1. PILE FOUNDATION

 A pile is a slender column provided with a cap to receive the column load and transfer
it to undelaying soil layer / layers.
 Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation.
 Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length.
 It is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing
capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low.
 Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing.
 Piles are also used to resist structures against uplift and provide structural stability
against lateral and overturning forces.
 They are used to reduce cost, and when as per soil condition considerations, it is
desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow
foundations.
 Pile foundations are economical when

Soil with higher bearing capacity is at a greater depth.

When the foundation is subjected to a heavily concentrated load
The foundation is subjected to strong uplift force
Lateral forces are relatively pre dominant
 When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
Expansive soil like black cotton soil are present at the site
In marshy places where soil is wet soil/ soft soil/ water logged/ low laying area
When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature.
In the case of bridges, when the scouring is more in the river bed.
When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage.

2. PIER FOUNDATION
 Pier is a deep foundation structure above ground level that transmits a more massive
load, which cannot be carried by shallow foundations.
 It is usually shallower than piles.
 Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member that transfer heavy load from
superstructure to the soil by end bearing.
 Unlike piles, it can only transfer load by end bearing only and by not skin friction.

Difference between Pile and Pier foundation

Pile Pier
Piles are always below the ground level Piers are always above the ground
Larger in length and smaller in diameter Smaller in length and larger in diameter
Adopted when there is no hard bearing Adopted when there is hard bearing strata of
strata of soil available at reasonable depth soil available at reasonable depth but other
types of foundation construction is not
economical
Piles are driven through overburden soil Pier is drilled by drilling machine
into load bearing strata
Transfers full load through both bearing and Transfers full load through bearing action
friction action only only
Constructed at greater depth Constructed at shallower depth
Resist greater intensity of load Resist smaller intensity of load
 PIER foundation with PILE

3.WELL / CAISSON FOUNDATION

 Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction
of the dam, etc.
 It is generally used in structures that require foundation beneath a river or similar water
bodies.
 The reason for choosing the caisson is that it can be floated to the desired location and
then sunk into place.
 Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to the
desired level and then filled with concrete, which ultimately converts to a foundation.
 It is mostly used as bridge piers.
 Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures and lack construction expertise.

 There are several types of caisson foundations.

 1. Box Caissons.
2. Floating Caissons.
3. Pneumatic Caissons.
4. Open Caissons.
5. Sheeted Caissons.
6. Excavated Caissons.

CAISSON Foundation

DETAILS OF PILE AND PILE CAP

Classification of Pile foundation:

1. Based on Function or Use:

a) End Bearing Piles:

These are the pile used to transfer loads through water or soft soil to a suitable
bearing stratum.
b) Friction Piles:
This type of pile utilizes the frictional resistance force between
the pile surface and adjacent soil to transfer the superstructure load.
c) Combined end bearing and friction pile:
This pile transfers the super-imposed load both through side friction as well
as end bearing. Such piles are more common, especially when the end
bearing piles pass through granular soils.
d) Compactor Piles:
These are used to compact loose granular soil thus increasing their bearing
capacity.
e) Batter pile:
A pile driven at an angle with the vertical to resist a lateral force
 f) Sheet Piles:
Used as impervious cut-off to reduce seepage and uplift under hydraulic
structures.
They are rarely used to furnish vertical support but are used to function as
retaining wall
g) Anchor pile:
It provides anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling

Anchor piles can transfer both compressive and tensile forces as well as
bending moments to the ground, making them ideal as anchors for offshore
moorings, basements, and tunnels, etc. Moored floating offshore structures
impose a variety of load conditions on the anchor system.
h) Tension/uplift pile:
It anchors down the structures subjected to uplift due to hydro static pressure,
seismic activity or due to overturning moment

2. Based on Materials:
a) Timber Piles
b) Concrete Piles
c) Steel Piles
d) Composite Piles
3. Based on construction process:
a) Bored Piling:
Bored piles are installed by auguring into the ground forming a hole into
which concrete can be poured, thereby casting the pile in position.
b) Driven Piling:
Driven piles are driven or hammered into the ground with the use of
vibration
c) Screw Piling
Screw piles are wound into the ground, much like a screw is wound into
wood. This is an efficient means of installation and coupled with their
mechanism of dispersing load, provides effective in-ground performance in a
range of soils, including earthquake zones with liquefaction potential
d) Mini Piling
Mini piling is a variation on piling that uses a narrower diameter. This makes
them light and inexpensive whilst still being able to support considerably
heavy loads. For the most common type of mini piling a hollow steel shaft is
screwed or drilled into the ground
e) Sheet Piling
Sheet pile walls are retaining walls constructed to retain earth, water or any
other filling materials. These walls are thinner in section compared to
masonry walls. Sheet pile walls are generally used for following: Water front
structures, i.e. in building wharfs, quays and piers.
4. Classification of Piles based on the effect of Installation:
a) Displacement pile:(eg: Driven Cast in Situ concrete pile and Driven Precast
concrete pile)
 b) Non- Displacement pile: (eg: Bored Cast in Situ concrete pile, Bored Precast
concrete pile)
5. Classification of Concrete piles:
a) Driven cast in-situ (CIS) piles (IS 2911-P1-S1-2010)
b) Bore cast in-situ (CIS) piles (IS 2911-P1-S2-2010)
c) Driven precast (PC) piles (IS 2911-P1-S3-2010)
d) Precast (PC) pile in pre bore hole (IS 2911-P1-S4-2010)

Pile foundation:

In this type of foundation, the load is transmitted by a vertical member. This vertical
member is known as a pile. These piles are generally made of steel, concrete and wooden.
These days precast members are used but we can create these members on site as well.

According to function pile foundation are of following types.

a) Bearing pile
b) Friction pile

Bearing pile:

They are driven till hard Strata or layer of Rock beds. The load is transmitted by columns to
the hard layer of soil.

Friction pile:

These piles are used where the soil is soft at a considerable depth. The load is transferred to
the soft soil due to the friction produced between the soft soil which is in contact with these
piles.
 According to material piles are as follow

a) Concrete pile
b) Wooden pile or Timber pile
c) Steel pile
d) Composite pile

Concrete pile:

These piles are made up of concrete. The diameter of these pile varies from 30 to 50 cm.
Minimum length of these pile is not taken less than 20 meters and maximum it can be taken
till 30 meters. Concrete piles are manufactured either by precast or cast in situ method.

Wooden pile or Timber pile:

As the name suggests these piles are made up of wood. For these piles, seasonal Timber
wood is used. The diameter of the timber pile varies in between 20 to 50 cm. Length of a pipe
is taken 20 times that of its diameter. The maintenance cost of these piles is more because as
it is wood if it comes in contact with water then it can be damaged by fungus or white ants.
So care has to be taken.

Steel pile:

These files are generally in shape of ‘I’ or hollow section. It can be easily driven in the soil
because it has a very small cross-sectional area. These piles can be used as a bearing pile but
cannot be used as friction piles because if we use them as a friction pile it can sunk in the soil
due to structural load.

Composite pile:

When the piles are made from more than one material they are known as composite pile.
These piles are made from concrete and wood. These piles are used in those areas where the
water table is up. These piles are used in such conditions just because concrete and wood
both are good water absorbers.
Raft foundation:

The raft foundation is a very commonly used type of foundation system. Raft foundation is
also known as Mat foundation. Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a
large area of soil reinforced with steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from
the structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is spread over the entire area of the structure
it is supporting.

Raft foundation is generally used to support structures like residential or commercial

buildings where soil condition is poor, storage tanks, silos, foundations for heavy industrial
equipment etc.

Raft foundation is preferred when: -

 The soil has a low bearing capacity.

 Load of the structure has to be distributed over a large area.
 Individual or any other foundation area would approximately cover 50% of the total
ground area beneath the structure.
 The columns or walls are placed so closely that the individual footings would overlap.
 Stress on soil needs to be reduced.
 There is a possibility of differential settlement in case individual footing is used.
  When soil strata are unpredictable and contain pockets of compressible soil.
 Basement is to be constructed.
 Any other type of footing cannot be used advantageously.

Grillage foundation:

A foundation made of two or more than two-tier beams superimposed in a concrete layer to
distribute the load over a large area refer to grillage foundation. The beams are placed at the
right angle to disperse the load evenly. It is suitable when the load transmitted by a column or
wall is hefty, and bearing capacity of the soil is deficient. It also helps to eliminate the deep
excavation for the foundation. It is provided at column’s base.

Based on material there are two types of grillage foundation.

a) Steel grillage
b) Timber grillage

Steel grillage:

This foundation consists of one or two-tier of RSJ (Rolled Steel Joints) embedded in cement
concrete. RSJs used in this foundation are also known as grillage beams. In this foundation
the depth is limited to 1m to 1.5m, and the width is increased considerably to pressure the soil
with in the permissible limit.

Timber grillage:

Timber grillage consists of timber planks, and timber beams can also be used to support
heavy loads on weak soils. This foundation is suitable for the ground that always remains
water logged. In this foundation, no concrete block is used, but instead, the timber platform is
used that consists of 50mm to 75 mm thick wood planks installed touching each other.
 2. BRICK MASONRY:
Masonry is bricks or pieces of stone which have been stuck together with cement as part of
a wall or building. Masonry is the bricks and pieces of stone that are used to make
a building.

Brick masonry is defined as the placement of bricks in a systematic manner using mortar to
bind the bricks together and create a solid mass that can withstand a great deal of pressure.

General principle

1. Good brick masonry should utilize bricks, which are sound, hard, well burnt and
tough with uniform colour, shape and size.
2. The bricks should be compact, homogeneous, free form holes, cracks, flaws, air-
bubbles and stone lumps and soaked in water for at least two hours before use.
3. In the brickwork, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing
upwards.
4. The brick courses should be laid truly horizontal and should have truly vertical joints.
5. As far as possible the use of brick – bats should be discouraged.
6. As far as possible the brick wall should be raised uniformly less than 1.5m in day with
proper bond.
7. When the mortar is green the face joints should be racked to a depth of 12 to 19mm in
order to have a proper key for plastering or pointing.
8. In order to ensure continuous bond between the old and new, the wall should be
stopped with a toothed end.
9. Finished brick work should be cured for a period of 2-3 weeks for lime mortar and 1-2
weeks for cement mortar.

Characteristics of brick bond or rules for bonding:

1. The brick masonry should have bricks of uniform shape and size.
2. For satisfactory bondage the lap should be one-fourth of the brick along the length of
the wall and half brick across thickness of the wall.
3. The vertical joints in the alternate courses should coincide with the centre line of the
stretcher.
4. The alternate courses the centre line of header should coincide with the centre line of
stretcher, in course below or above it.
5. The stretcher should be used only in the facing while hearting should be done in the
headers only.

Types of bond:

a) Stretcher Bond: It is the most commonly used bond. In this a pattern is made only
using stretchers, with the joins on each course centred above and below by half
a brick. This type of bonding is not particularly strong.
b) English Bond: This is a pattern formed by laying alternate courses of stretchers and
headers. The joins between the stretchers are centred on the headers in the course
below. This is one of the strongest bonds but requires more facing bricks than
other bonds.

c) English Garden Wall: This is similar to the English bond but with one course of
headers for every three courses of stretcher. The headers are centred on the headers
in course below. This gives quick lateral spread of load and uses fewer facings than
an English bond.

d) English Cross Bond: This alternates courses of stretchers and headers, with the
alternating stretcher course being offset by half a brick. The stretchers are centred
on the joins between the stretchers below them, so that the alternating stretcher
courses are aligned. Staggering stretchers enables patterns to be picked out in
different texture or coloured bricks.
e) Flemish Bond: This is formed by laying headers and stretchers alternately in each
course. The headers of each course are centred on the stretchers of the course
below. This bond is strong and often used for walls which are two-bricks thick.

f) Double Flemish Bond: In this type, alternate heads and stretchers are laid in each
course. The facing and backing are of the same appearance brickbats and queen
closers are used.
g) Flemish Garden Wall: This is also called as Sussex Bond. This variant of
Flemish bond uses one header to three stretchers in each course. The header is
centred over the stretcher in the middle of a group of three in the course below.
 h) Monk Bond: This variant of Flemish bond involves two stretchers between the
headers in each course. The headers are centred over the join between the two
stretchers in the course below.

i) Header Bond: This bond features courses of headers offset by half a brick. It is
similar to the stretcher bond but with headers instead of stretchers.

Merits of English bond

1. Avoids repetition of header faces in each course.

2. Often distinctly different from the colour of stretcher faces.
3. Provides good strength.
4. Provides good stability.
5. No strict supervision and skill is demanded.
6. Can be preferred if plastering of finished wall is to be done.
Demerits of English Bond

1. Penetration of damp through transverse joint.

2. The appearance is not good as Flemish bond.
3. Quick oxidation.
4. Expensive as compared to Flemish bond.

Merits of single Flemish bond

1. It provides better appearance.

2. It can be made more economical by using cheap quality of bricks on the back of the
wall.
3. Economical as compared to English bond.
4. Can be preferred if only pointing is to be done to the finished wall.

Demerits:

1. It weakens the overall strength of the wall because of maximum use of brick bats and
existence of continuous vertical joints.
2. It cannot be provided in walls having thickness less than one and half brick.
3. Less strong and compact compared to English bond.
4. Requires good workmanship and careful supervision.

Merits of double Flemish bond

1. Each Course has headers and stretchers placed alternately.

2. The facing and backing of the wall have the same appearance.
3. In alternate courses, quoin closers are placed next to quoin headers.

Demerits

1. Comparatively weaker than English bonds

2. Requires skilled labour.

3. STONE MASONRY:

The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone masonry.

General Principle of Stone masonry

 The stones which are used in the construction of stone masonry should
be hard, tough, and durable.
 The pressure which is acting on the stones should be in the vertical plane.
 The heads and the stones should not be of dumb bell shape.
 The stone should be dressed properly as per the requirements.
 A large flat stone should be used under the ends of girders and trusses two uniformly
distributed loads.
 The water which is used in the construction of the stone masonry should be of good
quality.
  The plumb bob should be used to check the accurate verticality of the stone masonry
walls.
 Stonemasonry should be design to take the compressive stresses and not tensile
stresses.
 The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and not the
tensile stresses.
 The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being sucked

Points to remember for stone masonry: -

1. Try to lay sedimentary stones (limestone and sandstones) so their natural bedding
planes (BP) are horizontal, not vertical with the natural cleft (NC) face exposed.
2. No stone should be laid taller than it is long, except at corners.
3. Avoid block or running joints only one stone on at least one side of a vertical joint.
4. Avoid setting more than three stones against a riser.
5. Risers should be evenly distributed throughout the wall. Grouping together of like-
sized stones should be avoided.
6. Avoid using more than two stones of the same size on top of each other.
7. Unless by design, avoid the lining up of vertical joints in alternate courses.
8. Generally, risers should never touch except at corners and openings (jambs).
9. Don’t allow horizontal joints to run more than four or five feet. If possible, break up
the horizontals on short stretches between windows and doors.
10. Try to provide a substantial bonding lap. A minimum of a quarter, and ideally a third,
of the length of a stone being set should cross the joint between the stones below it.

Types of stone masonry

Based on the arrangement of the stone in the construction and degree of refinement in the
surface finish, the stone masonry can be classified broadly in the following two categories

1. Rubble masonry
2. Ashlar masonry

Rubble Masonry
In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly dressed having wider joints.
This can be further subdivided as uncoursed, coursed, random, dry, polygonal and flint.

I. Uncoursed Rubble Masonry: This is the cheapest, roughest and poorest form of stone
masonry. The stones used in this type of masonry very much vary in their shape and
size and are directly obtained from quarry. Uncoursed rumble masonry are again
subdivided into following type.

a) Uncoursed random rubble

b) Uncoursed square rubble
Uncoursed random rubble
The weak corners and edges are removed with mason’s hammer. Generally, bigger stone
blocks are employed at quoins and jambs to increase the strength of masonry.
 (Uncoursed random rubble masonry)

Uncoursed square rubble

In this type the stone blocks are made roughly square with hammer. Generally the facing
stones are given hammer-dressed finish. Large stones are used as quoins. As far as possible
the use of chips in bedding is avoided.
 (Uncoursed square rubble masonry)

II. Coursed Rubble Masonry; This type of masonry is commonly used in the
construction of low height walls of public buildings, residential buildings, abutment
and piers of ordinary bridges. The stones of 5 to 20cm size are used in each course.

(Coursed Rubble Masonry)

III. Coursed Square Rubble: This type of masonry is made up of hammer squared stones
facing with bonded backing of uncoursed random rubble masonry. The stones
employed in each course are of equal height. The backing and facing construction
should be carried simultaneously. In order to avoid thick mortar joints, small chips
may be used.

IV.
(Coursed Square Rubble)
V. Built to regular course: In this type of stone masonry the uniform height stones are
used in horizontal layers not less than 13cm in height. Generally, the stone beds are
hammered or chisel dressed to a depth of at least 10cm from the face. The stones are
arranged in such a manner so that the vertical joints of two consecutive curse do not
coincide with each other.

(Built to regular course)

VI. Polygonal rubble masonry: In this type of masonry the stones are roughly dressed to
an irregular polygonal shape. The stones should be so arranged as to avoid long
vertical joints in face work and to break joints as much as possible. Small stone chips
should not be used to support the stones on the facing.

(Polygonal rubble masonry)

VII. Flint rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the areas where the flint is
available in plenty. The flint stones varying in thickness from 8 to 15cm and in
length from 15 to 30 cm are arranged in the facing in the form of course or
uncoursed masonry.

(Flint rubble masonry)

VIII. Dry rubble masonry: This type of masonry is used in the construction of retaining
walls pitching earthen dams and canal slopes in the form of random rubble masonry
without any mortar. The hallow spaces left around stones should be tightly packed
with smaller stone pieces.

(Dry rubble masonry)

Ashlar Masonry:
This type of masonry is built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine joints of
about 3mm thickness by arranging the stone blocks in various patterns. The backing of ashlar
masonry walls may be built of ashlar masonry or rubble masonry. The size of stones blocks
should be in proportion to wall thickness. The various types of masonry can be classified
under the following categories.

(i)Ashlar fine
(ii)Ashlar rough
(iii)Ashlar rock or quarry faced
(iv)Ashlar facing
(v)Ashlar chamfered
(vi)Ashlar block in course

(Ashlar fine)
 (Ashlar facing)

(Ashlar chamfered)

Merits of stone masonry

1. Provides great strength.

2. Offers good resistance to weather effects.
3. As stone is able to withstand wear, pressure, and damage it provides good durability.
4. Stones come in a variety of textures, sizes, and even colours so provides variety of
option for aesthetical purpose.
5. Due to its durability, the buildings constructed through stone masonry require very
little maintenance.
Demerits:
1. The stones used are heavy and produce thick walls.
2. It requires skilled worker.
3. Due to the thickness and heavyweight of the stones, handling these aspects can be
challenging and accidents can easily happen.
4. The construction cost of stone masonry is a bit on the higher side because of the
skilled labour required, the expensive equipment to be used and many other costs
incurred.
5. Stones are mostly found in designated areas such as quarries and therefore,
transportation of these stones to the sites is necessary. This is then more costly
because of the weight of the stones.
6. The total construction period takes a lot of time.

4. CAVITY WALL:

Cavity walls are constructed with two separate walls for single wall purpose with some space
or cavity between them. These two separate walls are called as leaves of cavity wall. The
inner wall is called as internal leaf and outer wall is called as external leaf. Cavity wall is also
called as Hollow wall.
For non-load bearing cavity wall, two leaves are of equal thickness or sometimes
internal leaf with more thickness is provided. The cavity size should be in between 4 to 10cm.
The internal and external leaves should have at least 10mm thickness. The two leaves are
interconnected by metal ties or links

Construction of cavity wall

In general, cavity wall doesn’t require any footings under it, just a strong concrete base is
provided on which cavity wall is constructed centrally. Two leaves are constructed like
normal masonry, but minimum cavity must be provided in between them. The cavity may be
filled with lean concrete with some slope at top up to few centimetres above ground level.
Weep holes are provided for outer leaf at bottom with an interval of 1 m.
Normal bricks are used for inner leaf and facing bricks are used for outer leaf. Different
masonry is also used for cavity wall leaves. The leaves are connected by metal ties or wall
ties, which are generally made of steel and are rust proof.
The maximum horizontal spacing of wall ties is 900mm and maximum
vertical spacing is 450mm. The wall ties are provided in such a way that they do not carry
any moisture from outer leaf to inner leaf. Different shapes of wall ties.
To prevent mortar dropping in cavity, wooden battens are provided in the
cavity with suitable dimensions. These battens are supported on wall ties and whenever the
height of next wall tie location is reached, then the battens are removed using wires or ropes
and wall ties are provided.
Two leaves should be constructed simultaneously. Spacing should be uniform
and it is attained by predetermining the location of wall ties. Damp proof course is provided
for two leaves separately. In case of doors and windows, weep holes are provided above the
damp proof course.

Components
Cavity wall consists of 3 main parts
1. The outer leaf, which is the exterior part of the wall
2. The cavity, the continuous open air space
3. The inner leaf, which is the interior part of the wall.

Purpose of providing cavity wall is:

1. Damp prevention
2. Thermal insulation
3. Sound insulation
4. Efflorescence
 5. ARCH:

An arch is a vertical curved structure that spans an elevated space and may or may not
support the weight above it, or in case of a horizontal arch like an arch dam, the hydrostatic
pressure against it.

Terminologies

1. Intradose: This is the inner curve of arch.

2. Soffit: This is the inner surface of the arch.

3. Extrados or Back: This is the external curve of an arch.

4. Voussoirs: These are the wedge-shaped units forming the courses of an arch.
5. Crown: This is the highest point of the extrados.

6. Key: This is the wedge-shaped unit at the crown of an arch.

7. Arcade: This is a row of arches supporting a wall above & being supported by the
piers.
8. Abutment: This is the end supports of an arcade.
9. Piers: These are the intermediate supports of an arcade.

10. Springing point: These are the points from which the curve of an arch springs.
11. Springing line: This is the imaginary horizontal line joining the two springing points.

12. Skewback: This is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment.

13. Springer: This is the first voussoir at springing level on either side of an arch & it is
immediately adjacent to the skewback.
14. Span: This is the clear horizontal distance between the supports.

15. Rise: This is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados &
the springing line.

16. Centre: This is the geometrical centre of the curve of an arch.

17. Ring: This is the circular course forming an arch.

18. Depth or height: This is the perpendicular distance between the intrados & extrados.
19. Spandrel: This is the irregular triangular space formed between the intrados &
extrados.
 20. Haunch: This is the lower half portion of the arch between the crown & the skewback.
21. Thickness or breadth of soffit: The horizontal distance measured perpendicular to the
front & back faces of an arch is known as the thickness or breadth of soffit.
22. Impost: The projecting course at the upper part of a pier or an abutment to stress the
springing line is called the impost.

Types of arches

According to shape
a) Pointed shape: The pointed shape arch carries two arcs of the circle which fulfils at
the apex and sets a triangle.

b) Horseshoe shape: its shape is like a horseshoe that curves better than the semicircle.
The horseshoe arches are normally utilized for architectural provisions.

c) Flat arch: The Flat arch creates an equilateral triangle within Intrados as a base at an angle
of 60° degrees. The Flat arch is normally utilized for the construction of light load structures.
The Extrados in the Flat arches is straight and Flat. The intrados is similarly Flat
and provided a slight increase of camber of about 10 mm to 15 mm. A flat arch is
generally the weakest arch.

d) Segmental arch: The segmented arch is a type of arch in which a circular arc is less
than 180° degrees. This type of arch is recognized as a Syrian arch. The segmental
arch is one of the toughest arches which has a decent capacity to withstand thrust.

e) Semi circular arch: The semi-circular arch is in the centre will lie on the spring line.
In the semi-circular arch, the thrust transmitted to the abutment is completely in a
vertical direction. The shape of the arch looks like a semi-circle.

f) Venetian arch: A Venetian arch is a three-centred arch. It has a deeper depth at

the crown than the springing line. Venetian arch is another form of the pointed arch. It
includes four centres, all placed on the springing line.
 g) Semi elliptical arch : The semi-elliptical arch has a form of a semi-ellipse which has
either 3 or 5 centres. The semi-elliptical arch is similarly recognized as the basket-
handle arch.

h) Stilted arch: The stilted arch is the type of arch in which the curve starts above
the impost line. This arch contains a semicircular arch with two vertical parts at
springing. The centre of the stilted arches on the straight line.

i) Relieving arch: This type of arches is created above the Flat arch or on
a wooden lintel. The major purpose of the Relieving arch is to give greater strength.
The ends of this arch should be taken adequately into the abutments.

According to material used

a) Stone arches: The stone arches are similarly sub-classified into two types as
 Ashlar arches
 Rubble arches
b) Brick arches: these are also 3 types
 Rough brick arch
 Fine axed brick arch
 Gauged brick arches
c) Concrete arches: these are also 2 types
 Monolithic concrete arches
 Precast concrete arches

According to number of centres

1. One centred arch: The one-centred type of arches has simply one special centre. These
types of arches which arrive under the classification of types of arches are semicircular
arches, Flat arches, horseshoe arches, and segmental arches, etc.
2. Two centred arches: The two-centred type of arches has simply two centres. The pointed
arches or gothic arches or lancet arches come under the category of two centred
arches. Semi elliptical arches similarly come under this classification.
3. Equilateral arch: An Equilateral Arch possesses a two-centre. The Curves surface
creates 2 Centre Points. The shape arrives at an equilateral Arch so-called an equilateral
Arch.
4. Lancent arch: Lancet Arch appears in Two Centre Arch. The curved surface creates 2
centre points.
5. Venetian arch: Venetian Arch possesses 2 centres. Its curved surface is responsible for
creating two numbers of centre points.
6. Three centred arch: These types of arches contain three centres. The elliptical arches as
well as equilateral arches approach under the classification of three centred arches.
7. Four centred arch: These types of arches contain four centres. The Venetian arches come
under the classification of four centre arches which have a sum of four
centres. Tudor similarly comes under this category.
8. Five centred arches: The Five centre arches possess a total of five centres and it enables
in getting a decent semi-elliptical shape.
 6. DOORS:

A door is a movable barrier secured in an opening, known as the doorway, through a

building wall or partition for the purpose of providing access to the inside of a building or
rooms of a building. A door is held in position by doorframes, the members of which are
located at the sides and top of the opening or doorway.

TYPES OF DOORS BASED ON PLACING OF COMPONENTS

1. Battened and legged doors

 Battens are vertical bonds which are having grooves are attached together by horizontal
supports called ledges as shown in below figure.
 General Dimensions of batten are 100-150mm width and 20-30mm thick.
 General dimension of ledges are 100-200mm width and 25-30mm thick.
 This type of battened and ledged doors suitable for narrow openings.

2. Battened, legged and braced doors

 To make more rigid, braces are provided diagonally in additional to battens and ledges as
shown in figure.
 Braces are having 100-150mm width and 25-30mm thickness are preferable.
 Braces should place upwards from handing side, then they acts as struts and take
compression.
 These types of doors can be used for wider openings.
3. Battened, legged and framed doors

 For the simple battened and ledged door, frame work is provided in the form of two
verticals, known as stiles.
 Stiles are generally 100mm wide and as far as thickness is concerned, the thickness of
stile should be equal to the combined thickness of ledge and batten. Preferably 40 mm.

4. Battened, legged, braced and frame doors

 In this type, the door made up of battens, ledges, stiles and braces. So, it is more rigid.
 The braces are connected diagonally between the ledges, at about 40mm from the stiles.
5. Framed and panelled doors

 These are very strong and will give good appearance when compared to battened doors.
These are the widely used doors in almost all types of buildings.
 Stiles, vertical members and rails, horizontal members are grooved along the inner edges
of frame to receive the panels.
 The panels are made up of timber or plywood or A.C. sheets or glass.
 These doors may be single leaf for narrow openings and double leaf for wider openings.
 Minimum width of stile should be 100mm and minimum width of bottom and locked rail
should be 150mm.

6. Glazed doors

 Glazed doors are generally provided in interior wall openings or in hospitals, colleges
etc.
 The interior of room is visible through glazed doors and light also passes through glazed
portion of the door.
 These may be fully glazed or partly glazed and partly panelled. Glass panels are provided
for glazed doors.

7. Flush doors

In flush doors, a solid or semi-solid or core portion is covered on both sides with
plywood or face veneer. Now days these types of doors are widely used because of good
appearance, economic, ease of construction and greater durability.

(SOLID CORE) (HOLLOW CORE)

8. LOUVERED DOORS

 The louvers permit natural ventilation when the door is closed and also provide privacy
in the room.
 These are generally used for toilets of residential and public buildings.
 The door may be fully louvered are partly louvered.
 Louvers are made up of timber or glass or plywood and these may be either fixed or
movable.

9. Wire gauged doors:

Wire gauged doors permits natural ventilation and restricts the entry of flies, mosquitoes,
insects etc. These doors are commonly used in hotels, restaurants and for cup boards
containing eatables.
Types of door based on working operation

1. Revolving doors
Revolving doors are only provided in public buildings like museums, banks,
libraries etc., because of constant visitors. It consists mullion at its centre to
which four radiating shutters are attached.

2. Sliding doors
In this type, with the help of runners and guide rails the door slides to the
sides. The door may have one or more sliding shutter depending up on the
opening available.
3. Swing doors:

In this case, the shutter is attached to frame by double action spring which
helps the shutter to move inwards as well as outwards.

4. Collapsible steel doors:

Collapsible steel doors are generally used for workshops, sheds, warehouses
etc. It acts like a steel curtain which will opened or closed by horizontal pull or
push. Vertical double channel units of (20x10x2 mm) are spaced at 100 to 120
mm thick and are braced flat iron diagonals 10 to 20mm wide and 5mm thick.
 5. Rolling steel shutter doors

Rolling steel shutter doors are commonly used for warehouses, garages, shops
etc.. These are very strong and offer proper safety to the property. The door
consists frame, drum and a shutter of thin steel plate inter locked together. A
horizontal shaft is provided in the drum which helps to open or close the
shutter.

7. WINDOWS

A window is a vented barrier provided in a wall opening to admit light and air into the
structure and also to give outside view. Windows also increases the beauty appearance of the
building.
TYPES OF WINDOWS

1. Fixed windows;

Fixed windows are fixed to the wall without any closing or opening operation. In
general, they are provided to transmit the light into the room. Fully glazed shutters are
fixed to the window frame. The shutters provided are generally weatherproof.

2. Sliding windows:
In this case, window shutters are movable in the frame. The movement may be
horizontal or vertical based on our requirements. The movement of shutters is done by
the provision of roller bearings. Generally, this type of window is provided in buses,
bank counters, shops, etc.
3. Pivoted windows:

In this type of windows, pivots are provided to window frames. Pivot is a shaft which
helps to oscillate the shutter. No rebates are required for the frame. The swinging may
either horizontal or vertical based on the position of pivots.

4. Double Hung windows:

Double hung windows consist of pair of shutters attached to one frame. The shutters
are arranged one above the other. These two shutters can slide vertically within the
frame. So, we can open the windows on top or at bottom to our required level. To
operate the double hung windows, a chain or cord consisting metal weights is
 provided which is connected over pulleys. So, by pulling the weights of cord the
shutters can move vertically. Then we can fix the windows at our required position of
ventilation or light etc.

5. Louvered windows:
Louvered windows are similar to louvered doors which are provided for the
ventilation without any outside vision. The louvers may be made of wood, glass or
metal. Louvers can also be folded by provision of cord over pulleys. We can maintain
the slope of louvers by tilting cord and lifting cord. Recommended angle of
inclination of louvers is about 45o. The sloping of louvers is downward to the outside
to run-off the rain water. Generally, they are provided for bathrooms, toilets and
privacy places etc.

6. Casement windows:
Casement windows are the widely used and common windows nowadays. The
shutters are attached to frame and these can be opened and closed like door shutters.
Rebates are provided to the frame to receive the shutters. The panels of shutters may
be single or multiple. Sometimes wired mesh is provided to stop entering of flies.
7. Metal windows:
Generally mild steel is used for making metal windows. These are very cheap and
have more strength. So, now days these are widely using especially for public
buildings, private building etc. Some other metals like aluminium, bronze, stainless
steel etc. also used to make windows. But they are costly compared to mild steel
windows. For normal casement windows also, metal shutters are provided to give
strong support to the panels.

8. Sash windows:

Sash window is type of casement window, but in this case panels are fully glazed. It
contains top, bottom and intermediate rails. The space between the rails is divided
into small panels by mean of small timber members called sash bars or glazing bars.
9. Bay windows:

Bay windows are projected windows form wall which are provided to increase the
area of opening, which enables more ventilation and light from outside. The
projections of bay windows are of different shapes. It may be triangular or rectangular
or polygonal etc. They give beautiful appearance to the structure.

10. Lantern windows:

Lantern windows are provided for over the flat roofs. The main purpose of this
window is to provide the more light and air circulation to the interior rooms.
Generally, they are projected from the roof surface so, we can close the roof surface
when we required.
11. Gable window:
Gable windows are provided for sloped roof buildings. These windows are provided
at the gable end of sloped roof so; they are called as gable windows. They also
improve the appearance of building.

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