FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION has also been a symbol of purification and of

immortality and renewal, hence the lighting of flames of

Introduction: remembrance. The Temple of Vesta in Rome was an
The development of methods and tools for using outstanding example of the importance of fire to the
and controlling fire was critical in human evolution and Romans. Vesta was originally the goddess of the fire and
is believed to have allowed early humans to spread her shrine was in every home.
northward from the warm climate of either origin into We can only guess that pre-historic people may
the more severe environment of Europe and Asia. The have gained knowledge of fire from observing things in
evidence of early fire use is often ambiguous because of nature. So the origin of fire before the dawn of
the difficulty in determining whether the archeological civilization may be traced to an erupting volcano, or a
evidence is the result of accidental fire or its deliberate forest fire, started by lighting. No one really knows
use. Such evidence include finds of occupation sites where on the earth surface or at what stage of early
with fired or baked soils, bones or stones that have been history man learned how to start a fire and how to make
changed through the application of heat, and areas use of it. Yet, today, man has had fire as:
containing thick layers of ash and charcoal that might  source of warmth and light
have hearth structures.  protection against enemies
The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date  cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit
from about 1.5 million years ago. Less equivocal man’s body structure
evidence exists for deliberate fire use in the Paleolithic  provides processes for modifying chemicals
period, beginning about 500,000 years ago. Neolithic into medicines
sites have yielded objects that may have been used in  provides heat to convert wood, metals, and
fire, making drill for producing friction, heat in wood bones into domestic tools or instruments for
and flints for striking sparks from iron pyrites. aggression
In legend and religion, fire is common thing. For While the application of fire has served man’s needs its
example, in Persian literature fire was discovered during careless and wanton use exact an enormous and
a fight of a hero with a dragon. A stone that the hero dreadful toll from society in life and property. Hence,
used as a weapon missed the monster and struck a man’s understanding of fire would enable him to develop
rock. Light shone forth and human beings saw fire for the technology of prevention and control to a
the first time. In Greek mythology, Prometheus was considerable advance state (Abis).
bestowed with god like powers when he stole the god’s
fire to give it to humanity. Fire has also played a central WHAT IS FIRE?
role in religion. It has been used as a god and recognized Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical
as a symbol of home and family in many cultures. Fire reaction occurring between fuel and an oxidizer-
typically the oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical more air drawn into the flames and more vapor burns,
reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light. the chain reaction keeps increasing – the size of the fire
Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid increases until fuel is consumed.
combination of oxygen, or in some cases gaseous
chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
a flame, which is composed of glowing particles of the Obviously, three things are required for
burning material and certain gaseous products that are combustion or fire: FUEL (Combustible materials to
luminous at the temperature of the burning material. vaporize and burn), OXYGEN (Oxygen in air is the
common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel vapor, air
THE START OF FIRE contains 21% O, 78 N, 1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise
All matters exist of one of the three states – solid, the temperature of the fuel vapor to its ignition
liquid and gas (vapor). The atoms or molecules of a solid temperature). The combinations of these three elements
are packed closely together, and that of a liquid is form the so-called Fire Triangle.
packed loosely, the molecules of a vapor are not packed The Fire Triangle
together at all, they are free to move about. In order for
a substance to oxidize, its molecules must be pretty well
surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of
solids or liquids are too tightly packed to be surrounded. Oxygen Heat
Thus, only vapors can burn.
However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its
molecules move about rapidly. If enough heat is applied,
some molecules break away from the surface to form a
vapor just above the substance. This vapor can now Fuel
mixed with oxygen. If there is enough heat to raise the Figure
vapor to its ignition temperature (temperature needed to Figure 1 will show that if any side of the fire
burn), and if there is enough oxygen present, the vapor triangle is missing, a fire can not start or if any side of
will oxidize rapidly – it will start to burn. the fire triangle is removed, the fire will go off. With the
The start of burning is the start of a Chain presence of the elements of fire, combustion may take
Reaction (the burning process). Vapor from heated fuel place. Before a fuel will burn, it must be changed to its
rises, mixes with air and burns. It produces enough vapor state. In a fire situation, this change usually
heat to release more vapor and to draw in air to burn results from the initial application of heat. The process
that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production is known as PYROLYSIS.
increases. More heat is produced, more vapor released,
 Pyrolysis (also known as thermal decomposition) through the chain reaction. In this sense, the chain
is defined as the “chemical decomposition of matter reaction face keeps the other three faces from falling
through the action of heat”. In this case, the apart.
decomposition causes a change from a solid state to The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming
vapor state. If the vapor mixes sufficiently with air and mode of combustion. The modes of combustion are
heated to high temperature, combustion results. either Flaming mode or Surface mode (Glowing–
The combustion process is better represented by the fire represented by the fire triangle).
tetrahedron. A condensed phased combustion is called glowing
combustion
A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
The Fire Tetrahedron If the process is confined with pressure it is called
explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it
Oxygen produced a detonation
Heat
PROPERTIES OF FIRE

A. The Physical properties

1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of
a solid or liquid substance to the weight of
an equal volume of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of
Fuel Chain Reaction pure gas composed to the volume of dry air
at the same temperature and pressure.
Figure 2 3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the
molecules on the surface of a liquid.
The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and 4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of
remembering the combustion process because it has thermal agitation of molecules.
room for the chain reaction and because each face 5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at
touches the other three faces. which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
The basic difference between the fire triangle and equal to the atmospheric pressure.
the fire tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron illustrates 6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the
how flaming combustion is supported and sustained minimum temperature at which the
 substance must be heated in order to B. The Chemical Properties
initiate combustion. 1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a energy (heat) is absorbed or is added
liquid in an open container at which before the reaction takes place.
vapors are evolved fast enough to support 2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release
combustion. or give off energy (heat) thus they produce
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a substances with less energy than the
flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture reactants.
that ignites (mixture with in the explosive 3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is
range). exothermic, a change in which combustible
material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent (air),
To burn a fuel (combustible material), its react. Example of oxidation is combustion
temperature must be raised until ignition point is which is the same as actual burning (rapid
reached. Thus, before a fuel start to burn or before it oxidation)
can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of 4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very
temperature. When the temperature of a certain bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It
substance is very high, it releases highly combustible is a combustion product and a
vapors known as FREE RADICALS (combustible vapors manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-
such as hydrogen gas, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, phased combustion.
and nitrogen).
Types of Flames:
During the process of pyrolysis, the following are a. Based on Color and Completeness of
involved: Combustibility of Fuel
1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red,
 the fuel is heated until its temperature deposit soot at the bottom of a
reaches its fire point, vessel being heated due to
 decomposition takes place – moisture in the incomplete combustion and has a
fuel is converted to vapor, low temperature.
 decomposition produces combustible vapors 2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue,
that rise to the surface of the fuel (free there is complete combustion of fuel
radicals) and has relatively high temperature.
 free radicals undergo combustion. b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture
 1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a explain flaming combustion is a chemical chain reaction
Bunsen-type laboratory burner shown in the fire tetrahedron.
where hydrocarbon (any substance
containing primarily carbon and THE FUELS
hydrogen) is thoroughly mixed with FUELS (Combustible Materials)– fuel is matter
air before reaching the flame zone. and matter exist in three physical states: solid, liquid
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when and gas. Solids melt to become liquids, and these may
gas (fuel) alone is forced through a vaporize and become gases. The basic rule is that at
nozzle into the atmosphere which high enough temperature all fuels can be converted to
diffuse in the surrounding gases. And each of the physical states exhibits different
atmosphere in order to form a physical and chemical properties that directly affect a
flammable mixture. The candle fuel’s combustibility. For example, gasoline as a liquid
flame is an example of diffusion does not burn, it is the vapors rising from the liquid that
flame governed purely by molecular burn. Likewise, wood, the most common solid fuel, is
diffusion, and the flame of the not flammable, but gives of flammable vapors (free
oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – radicals).
dispersed, widely spread) FUEL is also a material that provides useful
c. Based on Smoothness energy. Fuels are used to heat and cook food, power
1. Laminar Flame – when a particle engines, and produce electricity. Some fuels occur
follows a smooth path through a naturally and others are artificially created. Such
gaseous flame. natural fuels are coals, petroleum, and natural gases
2. Turbulent Flame – are those having obtained from underground deposits that were formed
unsteady, irregular flows. As million years ago from the remains of plants and
physical size, gas density or velocity animals. They are called fossil fuels, which account for
is increased, all laminar gas flows about 90% of the energy people use today.
tend to become turbulent. Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels,
FIRE ELEMENTS certain types of rock and sand, and biomass.
As mentioned in part one, fire has been described Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen
as having three components: fuel, heat, and oxygen. in the air. But some – especially chemical fuels used in
This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle, which rockets – need special oxidizers in order to burn.
symbolized, in the most basic terms, a chemical Nuclear fuels do not burn but release energy through
relationship. The additional component needed to the fission (splitting) of fusion (joining together) of
atoms.
 example, solid fuels in the form of dust will burn faster
Classification of Combustible Materials than bulky materials.
1. Class Fuels – they are ordinary combustible
materials that are usually made of organic Types of Flammable Solids
substances such as wood and wood-based
products. It includes some synthetic or a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary
inorganic materials like rubber, leather, and accepted combustibles: wood, paper and so on. The
plastic products. vapors released by their chemical decomposition
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form support flaming combustion. This exemplifies a gas-to-
of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with oxygen in
solutions, oil, liquid petroleum products, etc. the air to produce a flame.
3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are
resistant materials such as materials used on difficult to ignite. A common example is charcoal.
electrical wiring and other electrical Chemical decomposition does not occur because there
appliances. are no pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors are
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic released. The glowing combustion that results is an
substances such as magnesium, titanium, example of a gas-to-solid reaction.
zirconium, sodium and potassium. The following are group of solid fuels:
1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable
General Categories of Fuel organic matters like wood, garbage and animal manure
1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes that can be use to produce energy. For example, heat
organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic, produced by burning nutshells, rice and oat hulls, and
and metallic solid materials. other by-products of food processing. They are often
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all used to operate plant equipment.
flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and
toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of wood-based products
ignition. a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood,
the easier it is to burn.
The Solid Fuels b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly
The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cut wood is more difficult to ignite and burn
cloth. Its burning rate depends on its configuration. For than dry wood.
 c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers
takes a longer time to ignite than those a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic
materials that are good conductors of heat. organic fibers are generally highly combustible
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials especially if they are dry. Mineral
materials don’t easily ignite and needs direct fibers and synthetic inorganic fibers are
contact with flame than highly combustible normally fire resistant materials.
materials. b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply combined with organic fibers are supportive to
of oxygen, the rate of burns increases, more continued burning of fabric.
heat is produced and fuel is consumed more c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the
completely. greater its resistance to ignition, thus delaying
f. Ignition temperature – the higher the its ignition.
temperature, the faster it reaches ignition d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are
point and it varies depending on the other woven, the smaller the space it contains, thus
factors above. it takes a longer period to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated
2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles with flame retardant have higher resistance to
are combustible. A fiber is a very fine thin strand or ignition.
thread like object. Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers.
And textiles are machine woven or knitted fabric. Fabric Ignition
Classification of Fibers Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical
a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric to
coconut fiber, Cotton – seed fiber, pulp – wood continuously burn once source of ignition is removed. If
fiber) , from animals (wool, silk, protein fibers the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that it will
– leather), from minerals (asbestos) cease to burn once the flame is removed is also high.
b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition temperature are
cellulose fibers, cellulose acetate, non- safer for clothing and furnishing because they do not
cellulose, and inorganic fibers like fiber glass, ignite easily. Also, they do not continue burning after
steel the source of heat or flame is removed.

3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels

under class A except those materials of or containing
cellulose nitrate. Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical powder
used in bombs, they are also called pyroxylin. Plastics obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and
comprise a group of materials consisting mainly of residual oils. Distillate oils are light oils, which are used
organic substances or high molecular substances. They chiefly to heat homes and small buildings. Residual oils
are solid in the finished state although at some stage of are heavy, and used to provide energy to power utilities,
manufacture plastics can be made to flow into a desired factories and large ships. Oil-based paint products are
shape, usually through the application of heat or also highly flammable liquids. In the process of
pressure or both. vaporization, flammable liquids release vapor in much
4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting the same way as solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater
from the partial decomposition of matter under varying for liquids than solids, since liquids have less closely
degrees of temperature. They are used as fuels in the packed molecules. In addition, liquids can release vapor
production of coal gas, water gas, and many coal over a wide range, example, gasoline starts to give vapor
compounds. They are also used to heat buildings and to at –40C (-45 F).
provide energy for industrial machinery. The forms of This makes gasoline a continuous fire hazard; it
coal are lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, produces flammable vapor at normal temperature.
bituminous coal, anthracite. Bituminous coal is the
most plentiful and important coal used by industry. It General Characteristics of Liquids
contains more carbon and produces more heat than 1. They are matters with definite volume but no
either lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It is also the coal definite shape.
best suited for making coke. Antracite is the least 2. They assume the shape of their vessel because
plentiful and hardest coal. It contains more carbon and there is free movement of molecules.
produces more heat than other coals. However, antracite 3. They are slightly compressible. They are not
is difficult to ignite and burns slowly. capable of indefinite expansion, unlike gas.
5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in
swamps called bags and used as a fuel chiefly in areas 2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels
where coal and oil are scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, 1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a
for example, peat is cut formed in blocks, and dried; the flash point of 37.8 C (100F) and a vapor
dried bloks are then burned to heat homes. pressure not exceeding 40 psia (2068.6 um) at
37.8 C.
The Liquid Fuels 2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash
Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, point at or above 37.8 C (100F).
but some synthetic liquids are also produced. Petroleum
is also called crude oil. They may be refined to produce
gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene. Other fuel oils
Burning Characteristics of Liquids The Gas Fuels
Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are
Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid in rapid movement and random motion. They have no
which burn, the case of ignition as well as the rate of definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and
burning can be related to the physical properties such volume of their container.
as vapor pressure, flash point, boiling point, and There are both natural and manufactured
evaporation rate. flammable gases. Gas fuels flow easily through pipes
and are used to provide energy for homes, businesses,
1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range and industries. Examples of gas fuels are acetylene,
above the liquid surface at the stored propane, and butanes.
temperature have rapid rate of flame
propagation. Some properties of gas fuels are:
2. Liquids having flash points above stored  compressibility – expandability -
temperature have slower rate of flame permeability (open to passage or
propagation. The chemical explanation is, it is penetration) - diffusion (intermingling of
necessary for the fire to heat sufficiently the molecules)
liquid surface to form flammable vapor-air Compressibility and expandability refer to the
moisture before the flame will spread through potential in changes in volume. Diffusion is the uniform
the vapor. distribution of molecules of one substance through
those of another. Permeability means that other
Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and substances may pass through or permeate a gas.
Burning of Liquids
Characteristics of Gas Fuels
Wind velocity - temperature - heat of combustion - 1. They are matters that have no definite shape.
latent heat of evaporation - atmospheric pressure 2. They are composed of very tiny particles
(molecules) at constant random motion in a
Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a straight line
substance from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to 3. Gas molecules collide against one another and
gas. Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a against the wall of the container and are
gas to liquid or liquid to a solid. relatively far from one another.
Classification of Gases: b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal
1. Based on Source temperature inside its container, exist
a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat partly in the liquid state and partly in
buildings, cook food, and provides energy gaseous state and under pressure as long
for industries. It consists chiefly of as any liquid remains in the container. The
methane, a colorless and odorless gas. pressure basically depends on the
Natural gas is usually mixed with temperature of the liquid although the
compounds of foul-smelling elements like amount of liquid also affects the pressure
sulfur so gas leaks can be detected. under some condition. A liquefied gas
Butane and propane, which make up a exhibits a more complicated behavior as
small proportion of natural gas, become the result of heating.
liquids when placed under large amount of c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which
pressure. When pressure is released, they exist in its container at temperature far
change back to gas. Such fuels, often below normal atmospheric temperature,
called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or usually slightly above its boiling point and
liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), are easily correspondingly low to moderate pressure.
stored and shipped as liquid. Examples of this gas are air, carbon
b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like monoxide, ethylene, fluorine, helium,
synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.
certain fuels are abundant and others are
scarce. Coal, petroleum, and biomass can 3. According to Usage
all be converted to gas through heating a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually
and various chemical procedures. used for burning with air to produce heat,
2. According to Physical Properties utilize as power, light, comfort, and
a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all process. Most commonly used gases are
normal temperature inside its container; natural gas and the LPG (butane and
exist solely in the gaseous state under propane).
pressure. The pressure depends on the b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a
pressure to which the container is large number of gases used for industrial
originally charged and how much gas processes as those in welding and cutting
remains in the container. However, (oxygen, acetylene); refrigeration (freon,
temperature affects the volume and ammonia, sulfur dioxide); chemical
pressure of the gas. processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia,
 chlorine); water treatment (chlorine,  Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light
fluorine). nuclei of atom
c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment THE HEAT ELEMENT
such as anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous
oxide); respiratory therapy (oxygen). HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or
Burning of Gaseous Fuels substance due to molecular activity. In physics, heat is
Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State. the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to
Only the proper intermixed with oxygen and sufficient another or from one body to another by virtue of a
heat is needed for ignition. Gases like flammable liquids, difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it
always produce a visible flame, they do not smolder. always flows from substance at a higher temperature to
the substance at a lower temperature, raising the
Chemical Fuels temperature of the latter and lowering that of the former
Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains
form, create great amounts of heat and power. They are constant. Heat does not flow from lower to a higher
used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket temperature unless another form of energy transfer
propellants consist of both a fuel and an oxidizer. A work is always present. The study of energy is rooted in
common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The the subject of thermodynamics, a very logical science
oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen tetroxide, that that carefully defines energy, heat, temperature and
contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the other properties.
oxidizer provides the oxygen the fuel needs to burn.
Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars. Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot
to a cold region. Thermal energy is a property of matter
Nuclear Fuels directly associated with the concept of temperature.
Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or
fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the most commonly Heat and Temperature
used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides Heat should not be confused with temperature,
nuclear energy. When the atoms of these elements which is the measurement of the relative amount of heat
undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of energy contained with in a given substance.
heat. Nuclear fuels are used mainly to generate Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in
electricity. They also power some submarines and ships. degrees on the Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or
Nuclear energy can also be produced through the fusion Kelvin scales. Heat is the measurement of quantity and
of hydrogen atoms. is given in British thermal units (Btu). One Btu is the
 Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms
amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one this rule. The phase of a substance refers to its
degree Fahrenheit: occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes
1 Btu heats 1 lb of water 1 F in pure substances occur at definite temperatures and
1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 lb pressures. The process of changing from solid to gas is
8.33 Btu heat 1 gallon of water 1 F referred to as SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as
Temperature is the measurement of the degree of melting and from liquid to vapor as VAPORIZATION. If
thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness or coldness the pressure is constant, the process occurs at constant
of something. Thermometer is the instrument used to temperature. The amount of heat to produce a change of
measure temperature and commonly expressed in C, phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats
F, and K. of sublimation, melting and vaporization exist. If water
Although it is very easy to compare the relative is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the
temperatures of two substances by the sense of touch, it temperature does not rise above 100C (212F), no
is impossible to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the matter how much heat is added. For example, the heat
temperature by subjective reactions. Adding heat to a that is absorbed without changing the temperature of
substance, however, not only raises its temperature, the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but expended
causing it to impart a more acute sensation of warmth, in changing the water to steam and is then stored as
but also produces alterations in several physical energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam
properties, which may be measured with precision. is condensed to form water (Condensation). Similarly, if
the mixture of water and ice in a glass is heated, its
Specific Heat temperature will not change until all the ice is melted.
The heat capacity or the measure of the amount The latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the
of heat required raising the temperature of a unit mass forces holding the particles of ice together and is stored
of a substance one-degree. If the heating process occurs as energy in the water.
while the substance is maintained at a constant volume Temperature Scales
or is subjected to a constant pressure the measure is Five different temperature scales are in use today,
referred to as a specific heat at constant volume. they are:
1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0C and a
Latent Heat boiling point of 100C. It is widely used
A number of physical changes are associated with through out the world, particularly for
the change of temperature of a substance. Almost all scientific works.
substances expand in volume when heated and contract 2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-
when cooled. The behavior of water between 0 and 4C speaking countries for purposes other than
(32 and 39 F) constitutes an important exemption to scientific works and based on the mercury
 thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point resistance, a loose ground, and too much
of water is 32F and the boiling point is 212 current flowing through an improperly sized
F. wire are other sources of electrical heat.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly 4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed,
used thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero its molecular activity is greatly increased
is defined as absolute zero of temperature, producing heat.
that is, - 273.15 c, or –459.67 F. 5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale splitting or fusing of atomic particles (Fission
employing absolute zero as its lowest point in or fusion respectively). The tremendous heat
which each degree of temperature is energy in a nuclear power plant produces
equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit steam to turn steam turbines.
scale. The freezing point of water under this
scale is 492 R and the boiling point is 672 R. Heat Transfer
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, The physical methods by which energy in the
scientist of 31 nations adopted a new form of heat can be transferred between bodies are
international temperature scale with conduction and radiation. A third method, which also
additional fixed temperature points, based on involves the motion of matter, is called convection.
the Kelvin scale and thermodynamic Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat:
principles. The international scale is based on Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
the property of electrical resistively, with Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular
platinum wire as the standard for temperature activity with in a material or medium, usually a solid.
between –190  and 660C. Direct contact is the underlying factor in conduction.
Example, if you touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a
Heat Production first result of conducted heat passing from the stove
There are five ways to produce heat: directly to your hand. In a structural fire, superheated
1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the pipes, steel girders, and other structural members such
result of rapid oxidation. as walls and floors may conduct enough heat to initiate
2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product fires in other areas of the structure.
of friction. The rubbing of two sticks together Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a
to generate enough heat is an example. circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat transfer
3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire
arcing, shorting or other electrical in structures. The supper-heated gases evolved from a
malfunction. Poor wire connections, too much fire are lighter than air, and consequently rise, they can
and do initiate additional damage. In large fires, the oxygen is insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen
high fireball that accompanies the incident is referred to can support flash point, and 16-21% oxygen can
as a firestorm and is an example of convected heat. support fire point.
Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much
like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the speed, as does FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION
visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily The behavior of fire maybe understood by
responsible for the exposure hazards that develop and considering the principle of thermal balance and
exist during a fire. Heat waves travel in a direct or thermal imbalance.
straight line from their source until they strike an Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement
object. The heat that collects on the surface of the object or the pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the
or building in the path of the heat waves is subsequently pattern is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the
absorbed into its mass through conduction. other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to the
Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often
portions of bodies exchanging heat, but radiation does confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact
not require contact or the presence of any matter point where the fire originated.
between the bodies. Convection occurs when a liquid or
gas is in contact with a solid body at a different Dangerous Behavior of Fire
temperature and is always accompanied by the motion Fire is so fatal when the following conditions
of the liquid or gas. The science dealing with the transfer occurred:
of heat between bodies is called heat transfer. 1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent)
burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs
Oxidizing Agent (Oxygen): The 3rd Element in the form of explosion. This may occur because of
Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, improper ventilation. If a room is not properly ventilated,
tasteless, gaseous chemical element, the most abundant highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that
of all elements: it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming when a door or window is suddenly opened, the room
one fifth of its volume, and in combination in water, violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and
sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur, which may
combine with nearly all other elements, and is essential happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
to life processes and to combustion. The common 2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated
oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composes radical gases produced when there is incomplete
21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1 % inert gas combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free
(principally Argon). 21% normal oxygen is needed to radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash produced
produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12% when temperature rises until flash point is reached.
When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly patterns (fire fingerprints), occurrence of
burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of flashover.
causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form 3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the
of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with following characteristics: oxygen content
in a few seconds. drops to 13% or below causing the flame to
3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the vanish and heat to develop in layers, products
fire resists extinguishment operations and become of incomplete combustion increase in volume,
stronger and bigger instead. particularly carbon monoxide with an ignition
4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This temperature of about 1125 F, ceiling
may happen when the metal post that is completely temperature is 1000-1300 F, heat and
covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The pressure in the room builds up,
dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously building/room contains large quantities of
thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces superheated fuel under pressure but little
a very bright flash followed by an explosion. oxygen, when sufficient supply of oxygen is
introduced, backdraft occurs.
The Three Stages of Fire
1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this Classification of Fires
stage, the following characteristics are Based on Cause
observed: normal room temperature, the 1. Natural causes – such as
temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800  Spontaneous heating – the automatic
F, ceiling temperature is about 200 F, the chemical reaction that results to
pyrolysis products are mostly water vapor and spontaneous combustion due to auto-
carbon dioxide, small quantities of carbon ignition of organic materials, the
monoxide and sulfides maybe present. gradual rising of heat in a confined
2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following space until ignition temperature is
characteristics: accelerated pyrolysis process reached.
take place, development of convection current:  Lightning – a form of static electricity; a
formation of thermal columns as heat rises, natural current with a great magnitude,
temperature is 800-1000 F at the base of fire, producing tremendous amperage and
1200-1600 F at ceiling, pyrolytic voltage. Lightning usually strikes
decomposition moves upward on the objects that are better electrical
walls(crawling of the flame) leaving burnt conductors than air. It can cause fire
directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it
 strikes telephone and other 3. Sparking – production of incandescent
transmission lines, causing an induced particles when two different potentials (charged
line surge. It can also cause flash fire or conductors) come in contact; occurs during short
dust explosion. When lightning strikes circuits or welding operations.
steel or metal rod covered with dust, 4, Induced Current – induced line surge – increased
the dust will suddenly burn thus electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced current;
resulting to an explosion. sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the
burning of insulating materials, explosion of the fuse
A lightning may be in the form of: box, or burning of electrical appliances.
 Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only 5. Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase
of igniting combustible materials or rising of amperage while electric current is flowing in
 Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of a transmission line resulting to the damage or
splintering a property or literally blowing destruction of insulating materials, maybe gradual or
apart an entire structure, produces rapid, internal or external.
electrical current with tremendous  Purely accidental causes
amperage and very high temperature.  Negligence and other forms of human
 Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits error
a concave mirror, concentrating the light
on a combustible material thereby igniting 3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)
it. If in the burned property, there are preparations
or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers, then the
2. Accidental Causes – such as cause of fire is intentional.
 Electrical accidents in the form of: Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are
1. Short Circuit – unusual or accidental used to facilitate flame propagation.
connections between two points at different Plant – the preparation and or gathering of
potentials (charge) in an electrical circuit of combustible materials needed to start a fire.
relatively low resistance. Trailer – the preparation of flammable
2. – the production of sustained luminous substances in order to spread the fire.
electrical discharge between separated electrodes;
an electric hazard that results when electrical Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)
current crosses the gap between 2 electrical 1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the
conductors. types of fire resulting from the burning wood,
paper, textiles, rubber and other
 carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the Before the advent of modern fire fighting
type of fire caused by ordinary combustible techniques, fires often destroyed whole settlements.
materials. When a fire broke out, all the people in the community
2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by rushed to the scene to help. Today, fire fighting
flammable and or combustible liquids such as organizations in most industrialized nations have well-
kerosene, gasoline, benzene, oil products, trained men and women and a variety of modern fire
alcohol and other hydrocarbon deviations. fighting equipment.
3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires
that starts in live electrical wires, equipment, History of Fire Fighting
motors, electrical appliances and telephone Most fire services around the world were formed
switchboards. after a major fire made people realize that lives and
4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result property would have been saved if they had had a
from the combustion of certain metals in proper body of people trained to fight fires. One of the
finely divided forms. These combustible metals first organized fire fighting forces was established in
include magnesium, potassium, powdered Rome, about 500 B.C. The first fire fighters were Roman
calcium, zinc, sodium, and titanium. slaves who, under the command of the city's
magistrates, were stationed on the walls and the gates of
FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND Rome. These units were called Familia Publica.
EXTINGUISHMENT However, this system was not very effective, probably
Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives because the slaves had no choice in whether they fought
and property. It is one of the most important emergency fires or not. In A.D. 6, after an enormous fire devastated
services in a community. Fire fighters battle fires that Rome, the Emperor Augustus created the vigiles, a fire
break out in homes, factories, office buildings, shops, fighting force of 7,000 men that was divided into seven
and other places. Fire fighters risk their lives to save regiments. Like many of today's fire services, the vigiles
people and protect property from fires. had the power to inspect buildings to check for fire
risks, and could punish property owners whose
The people who work as fire fighters also help negligence led to fires. The vigiles' fire fighting
others who are involved in many kinds of emergencies equipment included pumps, squirts, siphons, buckets,
besides fires. For example, fire fighters rescue people and ladders. Wicker mats and wet blankets were used
who may be trapped in cars or vehicles after an for rescue and salvage work. The Romans developed
accident. They aid victims of such disasters as advanced fire fighting equipment. But when the empire
typhoons, floods, landslides, and earthquakes. fell, much of this technology was lost for centuries.
 After the collapse of the Roman Empire, mostly taken over by the army, but fires continued to
European cities and towns became disorganized and ravage the city and fire fighting efforts were not always
nobody coordinated fire fighting. Some people even effective. In 1810, the Emperor Napoleon attended a
thought that prayer was the best way to control fires. ball at the Austrian Embassy. A candle set the curtains
Slowly, however, some fire laws evolved. In many cities ablaze, and the fire spread quickly, causing a dreadful
people were required to put out their cooking and home panic. After this fire, Napoleon ordered the creation of
fires at night. In some towns, thatched roofs were the Battalion de Sapeurs Pompiers and the French Fire
forbidden and night watchmen were employed to raise Brigade was born.
the alarm if they discovered a fire. Better equipment for getting water to fires and for
Organized fire services in Europe were usually fighting fires was developed in the 1500's. Tools
only formed after hugely destructive fires. The Great included syringes, which squirted water, but most
Fire of London in 1666 led to the development of fire people relied on bucket brigades, relays of men passing
insurance industries in England. These companies buckets of water. The problems with bucket brigades
marked their insured properties with metal badges were that many men were needed, it was very tiring
called fire marks and formed private fire brigades to work, and it was not very efficient--buildings often
protect those properties. Each company's brigade burned to the ground. In 1672, an uncle and nephew in
attended only those premises bearing the company's Amsterdam, both called Jan van der Heide, invented a
own fire mark. There was much competition, and flexible hose, which could be joined together to form a
occasionally rival fire brigades even obstructed each long pipe. Later, the same men invented a pump to
other in their fire fighting efforts. It was not until the deliver water through the hose, and fire fighting became
1800's that London insurance companies began to much more efficient. In many places around the world,
cooperate and a single London Fire Engine fire pumps were first drawn to fires by horses or even by
Establishment was formed. The new service fought fires people. Warning bells enabled people to get out of the
in any premises within the London area. way when the pumps were rushing to a fire. The
Serious blazes also caused death and destruction German company Daimler invented the first petrol-
elsewhere in Europe, and rulers began to realize that it driven pump in 1885, but the pump still had to be taken
was necessary to have organized forces to deal with to fires by horses. Petrol-powered fire engines were
fires. In France, groups of citizens kept watch for introduced in the early 1900's, but many countries were
outbreaks of fire, and regulations controlled rescue slow to change from horse-drawn pumps. Although
operations. In the 1600's, a number of serious fires today's fire services have a range of modern equipment,
spread terror throughout Paris. The king of France fire can be just as dangerous now as it was thousands of
bought 12 pumps, and a private fire service was years ago.
established. In 1750, the company of firemen was
 called engines, which carry a pump and hoses for
The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) spraying water on a fire. Ladder companies use ladder
Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 trucks, which carry ladders of various lengths. Ladder
(Chapter 4, Section 53-59) created the Bureau of Fire trucks also have a hydraulically extended ladder or
Protection (BFP) to be responsible for the prevention and elevating platform to rescue people through windows or
suppression of all destructive fires and to enforce the to spray water from a raised position.
laws on fire. Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types
Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring of fires. Each type requires a different plan of action to
to the various methods used by the bureau to stop, put it out. For example, the methods used to fight a
extinguish and control destructive fire for eventual building fire differ greatly from those used to fight a
prevention of loss of life and property. It has the forest or grassland fire.
following objectives: To prevent destructive fire from
starting, To extinguish (stop or put out) on going Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control
destructive fire, To confine a destructive fire at the place Fire protection and control is affected by the
where it began, To prevent loss of life and property when accumulation of fire hazards in a building or area.
fire starts Fire Hazard is any condition or act that
Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the increases or may cause increase in the probability that
various safety measures utilized to stop harmful or fire will occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or
destructive fires from starting. interfere with fire fighting operations and the
The laws related with the fire prevention and fire safeguarding of life and property
protection in the Philippine setting includes PD # 1185,
Fire Code of the Philippine (26 August 1977), PD # Conditions of Fire Hazards
1096, Building Code of the Philippine (19 February 1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of
1977) combustible or explosives in the building not
The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of designed to store such materials.
well-trained fire fighters. In fighting fires, they bring 2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/
with them ladders and pumps. Additional specialist equipment.
vehicles can provide turntable ladders, hydraulic 3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.
platforms, extra water, foam, and specialist appliances 4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated
for hazardous incidents. opening for fire fighters.
In some countries, such as the United States, 5. Dangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and
fire-fighting units are divided into engine companies and other highly combustible materials.
ladder companies. Engine companies operate trucks
 6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of livestock from the burning building and other
grease in the kitchen. involved properties, conveying them to a secure
7. Building under repair place
8. Very old building or building is primarily made of 6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is
combustible materials the activity of securing other buildings near the
burning structure in order to prevent the fire
Fire Fighting Operations from the extending to another building.
Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression 7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting
activities. In general the following procedures should be the fire at the place (room) where it started : the
observed: process of preventing fire from extending from
1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves another section or form one section to another
developing and defining systematic course of section of the involved building.
actions that maybe performed in order to realize 8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely
the objectives of fire protection: involves the conducted to displace toxic gases. It includes the
process of establishing the SOP in case fire process of displacing the heated atmosphere
breaks out. within the involved building with normal air from
2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning outside atmosphere.
or sizing-up the situation) - this is the process 9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the
knowing the emergency situation. It involves properties from preventable damage other than
mental evaluation by the operation officer-in- the fire. The steps are a) remove the material
charge to determine the appropriate course of outside the burning area, and b) protecting or
action that provides the highest probability of cover the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton
success. canvass treated with water proofing).
3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring 10.EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of
people, livestock, and property away from the putting out the main body of fire by using the 4
burning area to minimize damage or destruction general methods of fire extinguishments.
that the fire might incur in case it propagates to 11.OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed
other adjacent buildings. check of the structure and all materials therein to
4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash;
burning structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible involves complete extinguishments of sparks or
manner. smouldering (glowing) substances (embers) to
5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing prevent possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.
(extricating), thus saving, people and other
 12.FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final
stage of fire suppression activities. It is an inquiry The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that
conducted to know or determine the origin and “to extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the supply of
cause of fire. any or all of the elements of fire.” Fire can be
extinguished by reducing/ lowering the temperature,
What is a Sprinkle System? eliminating the fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes chain reaction.
installed throughout a building. The pipes carry water
to nozzles in the ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the 4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment
nozzles directly above the fire to open and spray water. 1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction
The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public - Cooling the temperature of the fire
buildings to enforce the local code. The officials check environment: usually done by using water.
the operating condition of the fire protection systems. - Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to
They note the number and location of exits and fire a point where it does not produce sufficient
extinguishers. The inspection also covers housekeeping vapors that burn.
practices and many other matters that affect fire safety. 2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal
Fire inspectors may also review plans for a new building - Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which
to make sure it meets the safety code. maybe done by stopping the flow of liquid fuel,
preventing the production of flammable gas,
What is a Smoke Detector? removing the solid fuel at the fire path,
Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is
if a small amount of smoke enters their sensors. Smoke consumed
detectors are attached to the ceiling or wall in several 3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution - reduction of
areas of the home. Fire protection experts recommend oxygen concentration at the burning area, by
at least one detector for each floor of a residence. introducing inert gases, by separating oxygen from the
Fire fighters also recommend that people have fuel
portable fire extinguishers in their homes. A person 4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition
must be sure, however, to call the fire fighting service - Some extinguishments agents, like dry
before trying to extinguish a fire. It is also important to chemical and halon, interrupt the production
use the right kind of extinguisher for the type of fire of flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of
involved. the fire. This method is effective only on
burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot
The Fire Extinguishment Theory burn in smoldering mode of combustion.
 contents for the purpose of putting out fire (particularly
What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 small fire ) before it propagates, and is capable of being
Classes of Fire? readily moved from place to place. It is also a portable
1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: device used to put out fires of limited size.
water is the best agent in cooling the burning
solid materials; water has a quenching effect that What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?
can reduce the temperature of a burning material 1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled
below its ignition temperature; (Fire extinguishers with water use of fight Class A and Class B
which have water, sand, acid, foam and special fires except class C fires.
solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found 2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those
in the loaded stream extinguisher, should be extinguishers that contain Carbon Monoxide
used for this type of fire.) Gas use to fight class A, B, and C fires
2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing 3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that
(oxygen exclusion). This type of fire is put or contain chemical powder intended to fight all
controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon classes of fires.
dioxide, dry chemical and vaporizing liquid. 4. Foam Extinguisher– contains sodium
3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing agent in a
extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is to larger compartment and a solution of
always de-energize the electrical circuit. aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder;
Extinguishers that should be used to put out reaction between the two solutions forms a
these type of fires are Carbon Dioxide stabilized foam of carbon dioxide bubbles.
Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids. 5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with
4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing sodium bicarbonate mixed with water; a small
agents marked specifically for metals. GE type, bottle of sulfuric acid is suspended inside
meth LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry (near the top) in such a way that when the
talc can put out class D fires extinguisher is turned up-side-down, the acid
5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon
methods. dioxide is formed by the reaction which results
to the building of pressure inside the
Fire Extinguishers extinguisher; this pressure forces the water
A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, solution out from the container through a
usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or hose.
gasses for stopping fires, the means for application of its
 6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains must be labelled or marked to show at least the
non-conducting liquid, generalization carbon following:
tetrachloride or chlorobromethane; operation
is by manual pumping or using a stored 1. Date of original filling
pressure; the stream of liquid that is expelled 2. Chemical Contents
is vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a 3. Type of extinguisher
smothering blanket. This type is usually used 4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in
in fires involving flammable liquids or usage
electrical equipment. 5. Name and address of the manufacturer
7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective 6. Name and address of the dealer.
against burning liquids and fires in live
electrical equipment; used mainly to put out What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?
Class C fires. Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that
the following types of fires extinguishers are prohibited
What are examples of extinguishing agents? for manufacture or sale:
1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the 1. All inverting types which make it necessary to
Mono-Ammonium Phosphate ( NH H PO ) invert the container before the extinguisher’s
2. BCF-HALON 1211 or operation
Bromochlorodifluoromethane 2. Soda-acid extinguishers
3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a 3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam
synthetic foam-forming liquid designed for use solution, unless and air-aspiring nozzle is
with fresh water. provided
4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can 4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon
deliver a quick smothering action to the tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane in any
flames, reducing the oxygen and suffocating concentration of formulation
the fire. Carbon dioxide dissipates without 5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one
leaving any contamination or corrosive kilogram extinguishing agent
residue. 6. Glass bulb, “ grenade” type, or “bomb” type of
vaporizing liquid extinguishers which have to be
What are the markings required on Fire thrown to the fire or are mounted on specific
Extinguishers? location and which operate upon the melting of a
Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire fusible link.
extinguishers manufactured or sold in the Philippines
 7. Thermatic special hazards single station What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire
extinguishers with extinguishing capability of less Extinguishment?
than four and a half (4.5) cubic meters The general operating procedures in using a fire
8. Other types which maybe hereinafter prohibited. extinguisher may be modified by the acronym PASS.

What are the prohibited acts involving the P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps
operation of fire extinguishers? the handle from being pressed. Press the plastic or thin
From the same legal basis above, the following wire inspection band.
are declared prohibited acts concerning the use of fire A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose
extinguishers: assemblies are dipped to the extinguisher body.
1. Removal of inspection tags attached to fire Released it and then point at the base of the fire.
extinguishers S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to
2. Refilling a discharge extinguisher with a discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The handle
extinguishing agent other than what the unit was can be released to stop the discharge at any time.
designed to contain S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame
3. Selling fire extinguishers not appropriate to the to disperse the extinguishing agent.
hazard After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot
4. Selling fire extinguishers prohibited by Rule 37, spots or possible re-flash of flammable liquids. Make
Section 104 sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area.
5. Selling defective or substandard extinguishers
6. Using/installing two or more thermatic special Fire Fighting Equipment
hazard vaporizing liquid units in rooms with
volume greater than the nominal capability of one The most important equipment for fire fighters
unit. includes:
7. Installing pressure gauges in fire extinguishers
which do not indicate the actual pressure of the 1. Communication Systems
interior of vessel such as, but not limited to use They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the
of uncalibrated gauges, not providing or blocking outbreak of a fire. Most fire alarms are telephoned to
the connection between the gauge and the the fire department. Many countries have introduced a
interior, or fixing the indicator/needle to indicate simple, 3-digit number as the telephone number to call
a certain pressure. in emergencies. This number can be dialed from almost
any telephone and from most pay phones without a
coin. Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the Common forcible entry tools include axes, power saws,
emergency line is 166. and sledge hammers.
Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with
2. Fire Vehicles many of the same kinds of forcible entry tools that
Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The ladder appliances carry. But rescue vehicles also carry
main types are (1) engines, (2) ladder appliances, and (3) additional equipment for unusual rescues. They have
rescue vehicles. such tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through
Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump metal, and hydraulic jacks, for lifting heavy objects.
that takes water from a fire hydrant or other source. They may also carry other hydraulic tools. With a
The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it hydraulic rescue tool, fire fighters can apply a large
through hoses. Engines carry several sizes of hoses and amount of pressure to two objects to squeeze them
nozzles. Many also have a small-diameter hose called a together or prise them apart. The tool is often used to
booster line, which is wound on a reel. The booster line free people trapped in cars and other vehicles after an
is used chiefly to put out small outdoor fires. accident. Many rescue vehicles also carry small hand
Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder tools, such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and
appliances--turntable ladders and hydraulic platforms. harnesses for rescuing people from water or high places.
A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension In addition, they carry medical supplies and equipment.
ladder mounted on a turntable. The ladder can be Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and
raised as high as 30 meters, or about eight storeys. hazardous materials units. Airport crash tenders are
A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning
can hold several people. The platform is attached to a aircraft. Water is ineffective against many aircraft fires,
lifting device that is mounted on a turntable. The lifting such as those that involve jet fuel or certain metals.
device consists of either a hinged boom (long metal arm) In addition to the above fire fighting equipment,
or an extendable boom made of several sections that fit fire fighters are also required to use protective clothing.
inside each other. The boom on the largest vehicles can Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against
extend 46 meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the flames, falling objects, and other hazards. They wear
boom and is used to direct water on a fire. In most coats and trousers made of fire-resistant material.
cases, a pump in a nearby engine generates the Other clothing includes special boots, gloves, and
pressure needed to spray the water. helmets. Fire fighters also use a breathing apparatus to
Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable avoid inhaling smoke and toxic gases.
ladders of various types and sizes. They also carry
forcible entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry
into a building and to ventilate it to let out smoke.
Fire Prevention and Public Safety Who are qualified to investigate fires?
As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term A fire investigator should have the following
for the many safety measures used to keep harmful fires traits:
from starting. Fires not only cause extensive damage to 1. Possession of knowledge of investigational
valuable property, but also responsible for large techniques.
numbers of deaths. 2. He should have an insight of human behavior.
3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the
BASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION chemistry of fire and its behavior
In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is 4. He should be resourceful.
the main government agency responsible for the
prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?
buildings, houses and other structures, forest, land Fire investigation is complex and unique because
transportation vehicles and equipments, ships or vessels of the following reasons:
docked at piers or major seaports, petroleum industry 1. Fire destroys evidence
installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents, 2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and
as well as the enforcement of the Fire Code and other committed is discreet.
related laws. It has the major power to investigate all 3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.
causes of fires and necessary, file the proper complaints
with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over the What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire
case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54). Investigation?
Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of
Why Fires should be investigated? the fire investigators. Hence, they are valuable sources
The very reason why fires should be investigated of information. They are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of
is to determine the cause of the fire in order to prevent the police before, during and after the fire has been
similar occurrences. The determination of the origin and placed under control. The information taken from them
cause of fire is arrived at only after a thorough may be categorize as:
investigation. Since basic investigation is prelude to the 1. Information attainable or developed prior to
discovery of the true c ause of the fire, an understanding the arrival at the scene
of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior 2. Information available to the firemen at the
should be a concern for successful investigation. scene
3. Information available during overhaul and
thereafter.
Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation had knowledge that there are persons in said
ARSON defined building or edifice at the time it is set on fire
and regardless also of whether the building is
Arson actually inhabited or not.
 is the intentional or malicious destruction of 3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel,
property by fire. airship or airplane devoted to transportation
 It is the concern of fire investigation to prove or conveyance, or for public use,
malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be entertainment or leisure.
proved, otherwise, no crime exist. The law 4. Any building, factory, warehouse
presumes that a fire is accidental, hence criminal installation and any appurtenances thereto,
designs must be shown. Fire cause by accident or which are devoted to the service to public
criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by utilities.
accident or negligence does not constitute arson. 5. Any building the burning of which is for
the purpose of concealing or destroying
What is Destructive Arson? evidence of another violation of law, or for the
Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as purpose of concealing bankruptcy or
amended, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death defrauding creditors or to collect from
shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn: insurance.
1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices, Irrespective of the application of the above
consequent to one single act of burning, or as enumerated qualifying circumstances, the penalty of
a result of simultaneous burnings, or reclusion to death shall likewise be imposed when the
committed on several or different occasions. arson is perpetrated or committed by two or more
2. Any building of public or private persons or by group of persons, regardless of whether
ownership, devoted to the public in general or their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building
where people usually gather or congregate for or the building merely constitutes an overt act in the
a definite purpose such as, but not limited to commission or another violation of law.
official governmental function or business,
private transaction, commerce, trade The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall
workshop, meetings and conferences, or also be imposed upon any person who shall burn:
merely incidental to a definite purpose such
as but not limited to hotels, motels, transient 1. any arsenal, shipyard,
dwellings, public conveyance or stops or storehouse or military power or firework
terminals, regardless of whether the offender
 factory, ordinance, storehouse, archives or 4. Building burned is a public
general museum of the government. building and purpose is to destroy evidence
2. in an inhabited place, any kept therein to be used in legislative, judicial
storehouse or factory of inflammable or or administrative proceeding, irrespective of
explosives materials. the damage, if the evidence is to be used
If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts against defendant of any crime punishable
penalized under this Article, death results, the under existing law.
mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed (sec. 10,
RA 7659). Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)
Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse,
What is the basis of criminal liability in arson? barn, shed, or any other property, under circumstances
1. Kind and character of the building burned clearly excluding all danger of the fire spreading, value
2. Location of the building of the property not exceed 25.00 pesos.
3. Extent or value of the damage
4. Whether inhabited or not. Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)
The offender causes destruction by any of the following
What are other forms of arson? means:
Other forms of arson refers to those enumerated 1. explosion
under Article 321 of the Revised Penal Code, as 2. discharge of electric current
amended like the following: 3. inundation, sinking or stranding of a
1. Setting fires to any building, vessel
farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel 4. taking up the rails from a railway track
in port, knowing it to be occupied at the time 5. malicious changing of railway signals for
by one or more person. the safety of moving trains
2. Building burned is a public 6. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph
building and value of damage exceeds six post or those any other communication
thousands pesos (P6000.00). system
3. Building burned is a public 7. by using any other agency or means of
building and purpose is to destroy evidence destruction as effective as the above
kept therein to be used in instituting
prosecution for punishment of violators of law, Burning one’s own property as a means to
irrespective of the amount of damage. commit arson (Read Case of U.S vs. Budiao, 4 Phil. 502)
(Article 325, RPC)
 materials soaked therewith or containers
Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property thereof, or any mechanical, electrical,
Exclusively Owned By the Offender chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to
start a fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of any of
This act is punished if the purpose of the offender the foregoing are found in the ruins or
is to: premises of the burned building or property.
1. Defraud or cause damage to another or 4. If the building or property is insured for
2. damaged is actually caused upon another’s substantially more than its actual value at the
property even if such purpose is absent time of the issuance of the policy.
3. thing burned is a building in an inhabited 5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire
place. insurance policy more than two fires have
occurred in the same or other premises owned
Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on or under the control of the offender and / or
Arson insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion
Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson of the effects insured and stored in a building
1. If committed with intent to gain: or property had been withdrawn from the
2. If committed with the benefit of another: premises except in the ordinary course of
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred business.
towards the owner or occupant of the property 7. If a demand for money or other valuable
burned: consideration was made before the fire in
4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more exchange for the desistance of the offender or
persons). the safety of the person or property of the
victim.
Prima Facie Evidence of Arson
1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than Arson Investigation
one part of the building or establishment
2. If substantial amounts of flammable What Constitutes Arson?
substance or materials are stored within the 1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis
building not necessary in the business of the must takes place. In other words, there must
offender nor for house hold use. be burning or changing, i.e. the fibber of the
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.
flammable or combustible substances or
 2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies
that the act was done purposely and What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson
intentionally. Investigation?
3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for The arson investigator must have to inquire on
revenge. the following a) point of origin of fire b) motives of
4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the arsonist c) prime suspects d) the telltale signs of arson.
commission of the crime.
5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which 1. Point of origin of fire
the act is done and involves the will. Initially, the important point to be established is the
point of origin of fire. In other words, at what particular
Methods of Proof in Arson place in the building the fire started? This may be
Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. established by an examination of the witness, by an
To prove arson was committed, Corpus Delicti must be inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying
shown and identify of the arsonist must be established. the fingerprint of fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs
Corpus Delicti (body of the crime) is the fact of that during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic
crime was committed. The following must show it: decomposition moves upward on the walls leaving a
bunt pattern.
1. Burning – that there was fire that may be
shown by direct testimony of complaint, Witnesses must be questioned as to:
firemen responding to the crime, other 1. His identity
eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building 2. What attracted his attention
may also indicate location. 3. Time of observation
2. Criminal Design – must show that it was 4. His position in relation to the fire at the time
wilfully and intentionally done. The presence of observation
of incendiary devices, flammables such as 5. Exact location of the blaze
gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the 6. Size and intensity
fire is not accidental. 7. Rapidity of spread
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were 8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position
removed from the building before the fire, ill- this
feeling between the accused and the 9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the
occupants of the building burned, absence of witness
effort to put off fire and such other
indications.
Note fire setting mechanism lack of raw materials, over supply of
1. matches merchandise can be a big reason for arson.
2. candles c. Existing business transaction that
3. electrical system the arsonist would like to avoid such as
4. mechanical means impending liquidation, settlement of estate,
5. chemical methods need for cash, prospective business
failure, and increase rentals
2. Motive of Arsonist d. Profit by the Perpetrator other
To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson than the Assured like insurance agents
investigator have to note the following that fires are set wishing business with the assured,
by: business competitors planning to drive
others, person seeking job as personnel
Persons with Motives protection, salvagers and contractors
a. Those with desire to defraud the wishing to contact another building
Insurer 2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of
b. Employees or such other person who hiding a crime or committing a crime, arson
have a grievance (Fire revenge) was used as means.
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of 3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict
a crime injury to another due to hatred, jealousy and
d. Those who set fire for purposes of revenge.
intimidation 4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist
as saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to
People without motives intimidate management or employer.
a. Those who are mentally ill 5. Pyromania
b. Pathological fire-setters A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable
c. Pyros and the Psychos impulse to burn anything without any motivation.
They do not run away from the fire scene since
Motives of Arsonist they love watching fire burning.
1. Economic Gain
a. Insurance fraud – benefiting Types of Pyromania
b. Desire to dispose merchandise – a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles
lost of market value being out of season, and morons
 b. Hero Type – a person set a building on concealed that moths of patient investigation to show
fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the that it is set off will be required.
alarm or make some rescue works to
appear as “hero” 1. Burned Building – the type of the building
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics may indicate a set fire under certain
d. Sexual deviates and perverts. circumstance. A fire of considerable size at the
time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is
3. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-
Evidences) concrete building.
The development of prime suspects - this involves 2. Separate fires – when two or more separate
identification results from the full development of leads, fire breaks out within a building. The fire is
clues and traces, the testimony particularly certainly suspicious.
eyewitnesses and the development of expert testimony, 3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or
The following technique may serve the investigation: no smoke but they are exception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence: start of the fire since once the fire has
a. Protection of the scene assumed a major proportion, the value of the
b. Mechanics of search smoke is lost, because the smoke will not
c. Collection and preservation of indicate the material used by the arsonist
evidences a.) When white smoke appears before the
d. Laboratory aids water from the fire hose comes in
2. Background study of policyholders, occupants contact with the fire, it indicates humid
of premises, owner of building or other person material burning. Example – burning
having major interest in the fire. hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus
3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who (with garlic odor).
discovered the fire, and the one who turned b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and
the first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses. throat and causing lacrymation and
4. Surveillance coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if
4. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson accompanied by large flames it
These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman indicates petroleum products and
at the scene will suspects arson or they maybe so well rubber.
 d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates possibility of a fire having more than one place
nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04, HN03, or of origin.
HCI. 11.Size of Fire – This is important when
e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire: correlated with the type of alarm, the time
 Black smoke with deep red flame – received and the time of arrival of the first fire
petroleum products, tar, rubber, apparatus. Fires make what might be termed
plastics, etc. a normal progress. Such progress can be
 Heavy brown with bright red flame – estimated after an examination of the material
nitrogen products burned the building and the normal
 White smoke with bright flame – ventilation offered of the fire. The time element
magnesium products and the degree of headway by the flames
 Black smoke with red and blue green flame become important factors to determine factors
– asphalt to determine possible incendiarism.
 Purple-violet flame – potassium 12.Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that
products no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it
 Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or can be shown that fire makes normal progress
Manganese products through various types of building materials,
 Bright reddish yellow flame – combustibility of contents, channel of
Calcium products ventilation and circumstances surrounding
the sending of alarm, an experienced
8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a investigator can determine whether a fire
good indication of the intensity of the fire, an spread abnormally fast.
important factor in determining incendiarism. 13.Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a
9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates fire and the color of its flame oftentimes
heat of 5000 degrees centigrade, a real bright indicate that some accelerant has been added
read about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames to the material normally present in a building
indicate of petroleum. Blue flame indicates and the investigator must look for further
use of alcohol as accelerant. evidence pointing to use of such accelerant.
10.Smoke Marks – An experience investigation Difficulty in extinguishing the fire is often a
will determine the volume of smoke involved at lead to suspect presence of such fluid as
a fire and the character as residue deposited gasoline and kerosene.
on walls or elsewhere. Smoke in marks have 14.Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene
often been of assistance in determining the and other inflammable liquids which are often
 used as accelerant is characteristics and
oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of
this telltale sign. Most of fire – setters are
inclined to use substance which will make the
blaze certain and at the same time burn up
any evidence of their crime.
15.Condition of Content – Persons tending to set
their house on fire frequently remove objects
of value either materially or sentimentally.
Store and other business establishments
oftentimes remove a major portion of their
content or replace valuable merchandise
without of style articles.