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Robot
A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a
computer—capable of carrying out a complex series of actions
automatically.[2] A robot can be guided by an external control
device, or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be
constructed to evoke human form, but most robots are task-
performing machines, designed with an emphasis on stark
functionality, rather than expressive aesthetics.

Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from

humanoids such as Honda's Advanced Step in Innovative
Mobility (ASIMO) and TOSY's TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot
(TOPIO) to industrial robots, medical operating robots, patient
assist robots, dog therapy robots, collectively programmed swarm
robots, UAV drones such as General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, and
even microscopic nano robots. By mimicking a lifelike appearance
or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of
intelligence or thought of its own. Autonomous things are ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005
expected to proliferate in the future, with home robotics and the
autonomous car as some of the main drivers.[3]

The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,

operation, and application of robots,[4] as well as computer
systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information
processing is robotics. These technologies deal with automated
machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous
environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in
appearance, behavior, or cognition. Many of today's robots are
inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired
robotics. These robots have also created a newer branch of Articulated welding robots used in a
robotics: soft robotics. factory are a type of industrial robot

From the time of ancient civilization, there have been many

accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling humans and other
animals, such as animatronics, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques
developed through the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated
machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control.

The term comes from a Slavic root, robot-, with meanings associated with labor. The word 'robot' was
first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 Czech-language play R.U.R. (Rossumovi
Univerzální Roboti – Rossum's Universal Robots) by Karel Čapek, though it was Karel's brother Josef
Čapek who was the word's true inventor.[5][6][7] Electronics evolved into the driving force of
development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey
Walter in Bristol, England in 1948, as well as Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools in
the late 1940s by John T. Parsons and Frank L. Stulen.

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The first modern digital and programmable robot was invented by

George Devol in 1954 and spawned his seminal robotics company,
Unimation. The first Unimate was sold to General Motors in 1961
where it lifted pieces of hot metal from die casting machines at the
Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section of Ewing
Township, New Jersey.[8]

Robots have replaced humans[9] in performing repetitive and

dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to
do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme
environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There
are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in
society. Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment
as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions.[10]
The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The The quadrupedal military robot
possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have Cheetah, an evolution of BigDog
been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the (pictured), was clocked as the
future. world's fastest legged robot in 2012,
beating the record set by an MIT
bipedal robot in 1989.[1]

Contents
Summary
History
Early beginnings
Remote-controlled systems
Origin of the term 'robot'
Early robots
Modern autonomous robots
Future development and trends
New functionalities and prototypes
Etymology
Modern robots
Mobile robot
Industrial robots (manipulating)
Service robot
Educational (interactive) robots
Modular robot
Collaborative robots
Robots in society
Autonomy and ethical questions
Military robots
Relationship to unemployment
Contemporary uses
General-purpose autonomous robots
Factory robots
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Dirty, dangerous, dull, or inaccessible tasks

Military robots
Mining robots
Healthcare
Research robots
Contemporary art and sculpture
Robots in popular culture
Literature
Films
Sex robots
Problems depicted in popular culture
See also
Specific robotics concepts
Robotics methods and categories
Specific robots and devices
Other related articles
Further reading
References
External links

Summary
The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual
software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots.[11]
There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but
there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that
robots tend to possess some or all of the following abilities and
functions: accept electronic programming, process data or
physical perceptions electronically, operate autonomously to some
degree, move around, operate physical parts of itself or physical
processes, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit KITT (a fictional robot) is mentally
intelligent behavior, especially behavior which mimics humans or anthropomorphic.
other animals.[12][13] Closely related to the concept of a robot is
the field of Synthetic Biology, which studies entities whose nature
is more comparable to beings than to machines.

History
The idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and
inventors from ancient civilizations, including Ancient China,[14] Ancient Greece, and Ptolemaic
Egypt,[15] attempted to build self-operating machines, some resembling animals and humans. Early
descriptions of automata include the artificial doves of Archytas,[16] the artificial birds of Mozi and Lu
Ban,[17] a "speaking" automaton by Hero of Alexandria, a washstand automaton by Philo of
Byzantium, and a human automaton described in the Lie Zi.[14]

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Early beginnings

Many ancient mythologies, and most modern religions include

artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the
Greek god Hephaestus[18] (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay
golems of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and
Galatea, the mythical statue of Pygmalion that came to life. Since
circa 400 BC, myths of Crete include Talos, a man of bronze who
guarded the island from pirates.

In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer Ctesibius (c. 270 BC)

"applied a knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics to produce the iCub is physically anthropomorphic.
first organ and water clocks with moving figures."[19][20] In the
4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum
postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called "The Pigeon". Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD),
a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and
described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.[21]

The 11th century Lokapannatti tells of how the Buddha's relics

were protected by mechanical robots (bhuta vahana yanta), from
the kingdom of Roma visaya (Rome); until they were disarmed by
King Ashoka.[22]

In ancient China, the 3rd-century text of the Lie Zi describes an

account of humanoid automata, involving a much earlier
encounter between Chinese emperor King Mu of Zhou and a
mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. Yan Shi
proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure Al-Jazari – A Musical Toy
of his mechanical 'handiwork' made of leather, wood, and artificial
organs.[14] There are also accounts of flying automata in the Han
Fei Zi and other texts, which attributes the 5th century BC Mohist philosopher Mozi and his
contemporary Lu Ban with the invention of artificial wooden birds (ma yuan) that could successfully
fly.[17]

In 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built a water clock in the form of a tower which featured
mechanical figurines which chimed the hours.[23][24][25] His mechanism had a programmable drum
machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers that operated percussion instruments. The
drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to
different locations.[25]

Samarangana Sutradhara, a Sanskrit treatise by Bhoja (11th century), includes a chapter about the
construction of mechanical contrivances (automata), including mechanical bees and birds, fountains
shaped like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played
instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology.[26][27][28]

13th century Muslim Scientist Ismail al-Jazari created several automated devices. He built automated
moving peacocks driven by hydropower.[29] He also invented the earliest known automatic gates,
which were driven by hydropower,[30] created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water
clocks.[31] One of al-Jazari's humanoid automata was a waitress that could serve water, tea or drinks.
The drink was stored in a tank with a reservoir from where the drink drips into a bucket and, after
seven minutes, into a cup, after which the waitress appears out of an automatic door serving the
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drink.[32] Al-Jazari invented a hand washing automaton

incorporating a flush mechanism now used in modern flush
toilets. It features a female humanoid automaton standing by a
basin filled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water
drains and the female automaton refills the basin.[33]

Mark E. Rosheim summarizes the advances in robotics made by

Muslim engineers, especially al-Jazari, as follows:

Unlike the Greek designs, these Arab examples reveal

an interest, not only in dramatic illusion, but in
manipulating the environment for human comfort.
Thus, the greatest contribution the Arabs made, Su Song's astronomical clock tower
besides preserving, disseminating and building on the showing the mechanical figurines
work of the Greeks, was the concept of practical which chimed the hours.
application. This was the key element that was missing
in Greek robotic science.[34]

In Renaissance Italy, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) sketched

plans for a humanoid robot around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks,
rediscovered in the 1950s, contained detailed drawings of a
mechanical knight now known as Leonardo's robot, able to sit up,
wave its arms and move its head and jaw.[36] The design was
probably based on anatomical research recorded in his Vitruvian
Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build it. According
to Encyclopædia Britannica, Leonardo da Vinci may have been
influenced by the classic automata of al-Jazari.[29]

In Japan, complex animal and human automata were built

between the 17th to 19th centuries, with many described in the
18th century Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796). One Model of Leonardo's robot with inner
such automaton was the karakuri ningyō, a mechanized workings. Possibly constructed by
puppet.[37] Different variations of the karakuri existed: the Butai Leonardo da Vinci around 1495.[35]
karakuri, which were used in theatre, the Zashiki karakuri, which
were small and used in homes, and the Dashi karakuri which
were used in religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional
myths and legends.

In France, between 1738 and 1739, Jacques de Vaucanson exhibited several life-sized automatons: a
flute player, a pipe player and a duck. The mechanical duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, and
swallow food from the exhibitor's hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting
matter stored in a hidden compartment.[38]

Remote-controlled systems

Remotely operated vehicles were demonstrated in the late 19th century in the form of several types of
remotely controlled torpedoes. The early 1870s saw remotely controlled torpedoes by John Ericsson
(pneumatic), John Louis Lay (electric wire guided), and Victor von Scheliha (electric wire guided).[39]

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The Brennan torpedo, invented by Louis Brennan in 1877, was

powered by two contra-rotating propellers that were spun by
rapidly pulling out wires from drums wound inside the torpedo.
Differential speed on the wires connected to the shore station
allowed the torpedo to be guided to its target, making it "the
world's first practical guided missile".[40] In 1897 the British
inventor Ernest Wilson was granted a patent for a torpedo The Brennan torpedo, one of the
remotely controlled by "Hertzian" (radio) waves[41][42] and in earliest 'guided missiles'
1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a wireless-controlled
torpedo that he hoped to sell to the US Navy.[43][44]

In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system called
"Telekino", which he wanted to use to control an airship of his own design. Unlike the previous
systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals
received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders.[45][46]

Archibald Low, known as the "father of radio guidance systems" for his pioneering work on guided
rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote controlled aircraft
to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket.

Origin of the term 'robot'

'Robot' was first applied as a term for artificial automata in the 1920 play R.U.R. by the Czech writer,
Karel Čapek. However, Josef Čapek was named by his brother Karel as the true inventor of the term
robot.[6][7] The word 'robot' itself was not new, having been in the Slavic language as robota (forced
labor), a term applied to peasants obligated to compulsory service under the feudal system (see:
Robot Patent).[47][48]
Čapek's fictional story postulated the technological creation of artificial human
bodies without souls, and the old theme of the feudal robota class eloquently fit the imagination of a
new class of manufactured, artificial workers.

English pronunciation of the word has evolved relatively quickly since its introduction. In the U.S.
during the late '30s to early '40s the second syllable was pronounced with a long "O" like "row-
boat."[49] By the late '50s to early '60s, some were pronouncing it with a short "U" like "row-but"
while others used a softer "O" like "row-bought."[50] By the '70s, its current pronunciation "row-bot"
had become predominant.

Early robots

In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots, Eric, was exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model
Engineers Society in London, where it delivered a speech. Invented by W. H. Richards, the robot's
frame consisted of an aluminium body of armour with eleven electromagnets and one motor powered
by a twelve-volt power source. The robot could move its hands and head and could be controlled
through remote control or voice control.[51] Both Eric and his "brother" George toured the world.[52]

Westinghouse Electric Corporation built Televox in 1926; it was a cardboard cutout connected to
various devices which users could turn on and off. In 1939, the humanoid robot known as Elektro was
debuted at the 1939 New York World's Fair.[53][54] Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing 265 pounds
(120.2 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-rpm record player),
smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move its head and arms. The body consisted of a steel gear,
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cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminum skin. In 1928, Japan's

first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist
Makoto Nishimura.

Modern autonomous robots

The first electronic autonomous robots with complex behaviour were

created by William Grey Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at
Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. He wanted to prove that rich
connections between a small number of brain cells could give rise to very
complex behaviors – essentially that the secret of how the brain worked
lay in how it was wired up. His first robots, named Elmer and Elsie, were
constructed between 1948 and 1949 and were often described as tortoises
due to their shape and slow rate of movement. The three-wheeled tortoise W. H. Richards with
robots were capable of phototaxis, by which they could find their way to a "George", 1932
recharging station when they ran low on battery power.

Walter stressed the importance of using purely analogue electronics to simulate brain processes at a
time when his contemporaries such as Alan Turing and John von Neumann were all turning towards a
view of mental processes in terms of digital computation. His work inspired subsequent generations
of robotics researchers such as Rodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Mark Tilden. Modern incarnations
of Walter's turtles may be found in the form of BEAM robotics.[55]

The first digitally operated and programmable robot was invented

by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate.
This ultimately laid the foundations of the modern robotics
industry.[56] Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in
1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New
Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and
stack them.[57] Devol's patent for the first digitally operated
programmable robotic arm represents the foundation of the
modern robotics industry.[58]

The first palletizing robot was introduced in 1963 by the Fuji

Yusoki Kogyo Company.[59] In 1973, a robot with six
electromechanically driven axes was patented[60][61][62] by KUKA
robotics in Germany, and the programmable universal
manipulation arm was invented by Victor Scheinman in 1976, and
the design was sold to Unimation.

Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use

U.S. Patent 2,988,237, issued in performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and
1961 to Devol. reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are
too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are
widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport,
earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of
consumer and industrial goods.[63]

Future development and trends

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Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of External video

robotics and robots. One method is evolutionary robotics, in Atlas, The Next Generation (http
which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those
s://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVlh
which perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent
MGQgDkY)
"generation" of robots. Another method is developmental
robotics, which tracks changes and development within a single
robot in the areas of problem-solving and other functions. Another new type of robot is just recently
introduced which acts both as a smartphone and robot and is named RoboHon.[64]

As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system
designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System is an open-source set of programs being
developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Technical
University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program a robot's navigation
and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-level commands for
items like image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robot's computer, it
would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots' limbs. It would relay this
data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a "Windows for robots" system with its
Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007.[65]

Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological
research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.[66]

Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the
capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction.[67][68] As early as 1982 people were
confident that someday robots would:[69] 1. Clean parts by removing molding flash 2. Spray paint
automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. Pack things in boxes—for example, orient and nest
chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. Make electrical cable harness 5. Load trucks with boxes—a
packing problem 6. Handle soft goods, such as garments and shoes 7. Shear sheep 8. prosthesis 9.
Cook fast food and work in other service industries 10. Household robot.

Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale.

New functionalities and prototypes

In 2008, Caterpillar Inc. developed a dump truck which can drive itself without any human
operator.[70] Many analysts believe that self-driving trucks may eventually revolutionize logistics.[71]
By 2014, Caterpillar had a self-driving dump truck which is expected to greatly change the process of
mining. In 2015, these Caterpillar trucks were actively used in mining operations in Australia by the
mining company Rio Tinto Coal Australia.[72][73][74][75] Some analysts believe that within the next few
decades, most trucks will be self-driving.[76]

A literate or 'reading robot' named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can read
newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and understand that
some restaurants are better places to eat than others.[77]

Baxter is a new robot introduced in 2012 which learns by guidance. A worker could teach Baxter how
to perform a task by moving its hands in the desired motion and having Baxter memorize them. Extra
dials, buttons, and controls are available on Baxter's arm for more precision and features. Any regular
worker could program Baxter and it only takes a matter of minutes, unlike usual industrial robots that

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take extensive programs and coding to be used. This means Baxter needs no programming to operate.
No software engineers are needed. This also means Baxter can be taught to perform multiple, more
complicated tasks. Sawyer was added in 2015 for smaller, more precise tasks.[78]

Prototype cooking robots have been developed and could be programmed for autonomous, dynamic
and adjustable preparation of discrete meals.[79][80]

Etymology
The word robot was introduced to the public by the Czech
interwar writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's
Universal Robots), published in 1920.[81] The play begins in a
factory that uses a chemical substitute for protoplasm to
manufacture living, simplified people called robots. The play does
not focus in detail on the technology behind the creation of these
living creatures, but in their appearance they prefigure modern
A scene from Karel Čapek's 1920
ideas of androids, creatures who can be mistaken for humans.
play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal
These mass-produced workers are depicted as efficient but Robots), showing three robots
emotionless, incapable of original thinking and indifferent to self-
preservation. At issue is whether the robots are being exploited
and the consequences of human dependence upon commodified labor (especially after a number of
specially-formulated robots achieve self-awareness and incite robots all around the world to rise up
against the humans).

Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the
Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother, the painter and writer Josef Čapek, as its
actual originator.[81]

In an article in the Czech journal Lidové noviny in 1933, he explained that he had originally wanted to
call the creatures laboři ("workers", from Latin labor). However, he did not like the word, and sought
advice from his brother Josef, who suggested "roboti". The word robota means literally "corvée", "serf
labor", and figuratively "drudgery" or "hard work" in Czech and also (more general) "work", "labor" in
many Slavic languages (e.g.: Bulgarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Polish, Macedonian, Ukrainian,
archaic Czech, as well as robot in Hungarian). Traditionally the robota (Hungarian robot) was the
work period a serf (corvée) had to give for his lord, typically 6 months of the year. The origin of the
word is the Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) rabota "servitude" ("work" in contemporary
Bulgarian and Russian), which in turn comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *orbh-. Robot is
cognate with the German root Arbeit (work).[82][83]

The word robotics, used to describe this field of study,[4] was coined by the science fiction writer Isaac
Asimov. Asimov created the "Three Laws of Robotics" which are a recurring theme in his books.
These have since been used by many others to define laws used in fiction. (The three laws are pure
fiction, and no technology yet created has the ability to understand or follow them, and in fact most
robots serve military purposes, which run quite contrary to the first law and often the third law.
"People think about Asimov's laws, but they were set up to point out how a simple ethical system
doesn't work. If you read the short stories, every single one is about a failure, and they are totally
impractical," said Dr. Joanna Bryson of the University of Bath.[84])

Modern robots
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Mobile robot

Mobile robots[85] have the capability to move around in their

environment and are not fixed to one physical location. An
example of a mobile robot that is in common use today is the
automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV). An
AGV is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor,
or uses vision or lasers.[86] AGVs are discussed later in this article.

Mobile robots are also found in industry, military and security

environments.[87] They also appear as consumer products, for
entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum cleaning.
Mobile robots are the focus of a great deal of current research and
almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on
mobile robot research.[88]

Mobile robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments

such as on assembly lines because they have difficulty responding A laparoscopic robotic surgery
to unexpected interference. Because of this most humans rarely machine
encounter robots. However domestic robots for cleaning and
maintenance are increasingly common in and around homes in
developed countries. Robots can also be found in military applications.[89]

Industrial robots (manipulating)

Industrial robots usually consist of a jointed arm (multi-linked

manipulator) and an end effector that is attached to a fixed
surface. One of the most common type of end effector is a gripper
assembly.

The International Organization for Standardization gives a

definition of a manipulating industrial robot in ISO 8373:

"an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose,

manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be
either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation
applications."[90]
A pick and place robot in a factory
This definition is used by the International Federation of
Robotics, the European Robotics Research Network (EURON) and
many national standards committees.[91]

Service robot

Most commonly industrial robots are fixed robotic arms and manipulators used primarily for
production and distribution of goods. The term "service robot" is less well-defined. The International
Federation of Robotics has proposed a tentative definition, "A service robot is a robot which operates
semi- or fully autonomously to perform services useful to the well-being of humans and equipment,
excluding manufacturing operations."[92]
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Educational (interactive) robots

Robots are used as educational assistants to teachers. From the 1980s, robots such as turtles were
used in schools and programmed using the Logo language.[93][94]

There are robot kits like Lego Mindstorms, BIOLOID, OLLO from ROBOTIS, or BotBrain Educational
Robots can help children to learn about mathematics, physics, programming, and electronics.
Robotics have also been introduced into the lives of elementary and high school students in the form
of robot competitions with the company FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and
Technology). The organization is the foundation for the FIRST Robotics Competition, FIRST Tech
Challenge, FIRST Lego League Challenge and FIRST Lego League Explore competitions.

There have also been robots such as the teaching computer, Leachim (1974).[95] Leachim was an early
example of speech synthesis using the using the Diphone synthesis method. 2-XL (1976) was a robot
shaped game / teaching toy based on branching between audible tracks on an 8-track tape player,
both invented by Michael J. Freeman.[96] Later, the 8-track was upgraded to tape cassettes and then
to digital.

Modular robot

Modular robots are a new breed of robots that are designed to increase the use of robots by
modularizing their architecture.[97] The functionality and effectiveness of a modular robot is easier to
increase compared to conventional robots. These robots are composed of a single type of identical,
several different identical module types, or similarly shaped modules, which vary in size. Their
architectural structure allows hyper-redundancy for modular robots, as they can be designed with
more than 8 degrees of freedom (DOF). Creating the programming, inverse kinematics and dynamics
for modular robots is more complex than with traditional robots. Modular robots may be composed of
L-shaped modules, cubic modules, and U and H-shaped modules. ANAT technology, an early
modular robotic technology patented by Robotics Design Inc., allows the creation of modular robots
from U and H shaped modules that connect in a chain, and are used to form heterogeneous and
homogenous modular robot systems. These "ANAT robots" can be designed with "n" DOF as each
module is a complete motorized robotic system that folds relatively to the modules connected before
and after it in its chain, and therefore a single module allows one degree of freedom. The more
modules that are connected to one another, the more degrees of freedom it will have. L-shaped
modules can also be designed in a chain, and must become increasingly smaller as the size of the
chain increases, as payloads attached to the end of the chain place a greater strain on modules that are
further from the base. ANAT H-shaped modules do not suffer from this problem, as their design
allows a modular robot to distribute pressure and impacts evenly amongst other attached modules,
and therefore payload-carrying capacity does not decrease as the length of the arm increases. Modular
robots can be manually or self-reconfigured to form a different robot, that may perform different
applications. Because modular robots of the same architecture type are composed of modules that
compose different modular robots, a snake-arm robot can combine with another to form a dual or
quadra-arm robot, or can split into several mobile robots, and mobile robots can split into multiple
smaller ones, or combine with others into a larger or different one. This allows a single modular robot
the ability to be fully specialized in a single task, as well as the capacity to be specialized to perform
multiple different tasks.

Modular robotic technology is currently being applied in hybrid transportation,[98] industrial

automation,[99] duct cleaning[100] and handling. Many research centres and universities have also
studied this technology, and have developed prototypes.
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Collaborative robots

A collaborative robot or cobot is a robot that can safely and effectively interact with human workers
while performing simple industrial tasks. However, end-effectors and other environmental conditions
may create hazards, and as such risk assessments should be done before using any industrial motion-
control application.[101]

The collaborative robots most widely used in industries today are manufactured by Universal Robots
in Denmark.[102]

Rethink Robotics—founded by Rodney Brooks, previously with iRobot—introduced Baxter in

September 2012; as an industrial robot designed to safely interact with neighboring human workers,
and be programmable for performing simple tasks.[103] Baxters stop if they detect a human in the way
of their robotic arms and have prominent off switches. Intended for sale to small businesses, they are
promoted as the robotic analogue of the personal computer.[104] As of May 2014, 190 companies in
the US have bought Baxters and they are being used commercially in the UK.[10]

Robots in society
Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in
Europe, and 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in
Africa.[107] 40% of all the robots in the world are in Japan,[108]
making Japan the country with the highest number of robots.

Autonomy and ethical questions

As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played
and academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ping pong at Tokyo International
ethics might govern robots' behavior, [110][111] and whether robots Robot Exhibition (IREX)
might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal 2009[105][106]
rights.[112] One scientific team has said that it was possible that a
robot brain would exist by 2019.[113] Others predict robot
intelligence breakthroughs by 2050.[114] Recent advances have made robotic behavior more
sophisticated.[115] The social impact of intelligent robots is subject of a 2010 documentary film called
Plug & Pray.[116]

Vernor Vinge has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are smarter than
humans. He calls this "the Singularity".[117] He suggests that it may be somewhat or possibly very
dangerous for humans.[118] This is discussed by a philosophy called Singularitarianism.

In 2009, experts attended a conference hosted by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial
Intelligence (AAAI) to discuss whether computers and robots might be able to acquire any autonomy,
and how much these abilities might pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some robots have
acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own
and being able to independently choose targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some
computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved "cockroach intelligence." They noted that
self-awareness as depicted in science-fiction is probably unlikely, but that there were other potential

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hazards and pitfalls.[117] Various media sources and scientific

groups have noted separate trends in differing areas which might
together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy,
and which pose some inherent concerns.[119][120][121]

Military robots

Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for
military combat, especially when such robots are given some
degree of autonomous functions.[122] There are also concerns
about technology which might allow some armed robots to be
controlled mainly by other robots.[123] The US Navy has funded a
report which indicates that, as military robots become more
complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their
ability to make autonomous decisions.[124][125] One researcher
states that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they An android, or robot designed to
could make decisions more effectively. However, other experts resemble a human, can appear
question this.[126] comforting to some people and
disturbing to others[109]
One robot in particular, the EATR, has generated public
concerns[127] over its fuel source, as it can continually refuel itself
using organic substances.[128] Although the engine for the EATR is designed to run on biomass and
vegetation[129] specifically selected by its sensors, which it can find on battlefields or other local
environments, the project has stated that chicken fat can also be used.[130]

Manuel De Landa has noted that "smart missiles" and autonomous bombs equipped with artificial
perception can be considered robots, as they make some of their decisions autonomously. He believes
this represents an important and dangerous trend in which humans are handing over important
decisions to machines.[131]

Relationship to unemployment

For centuries, people have predicted that machines would make workers obsolete and increase
unemployment, although the causes of unemployment are usually thought to be due to social
policy.[132]

A recent example of human replacement involves Taiwanese technology company Foxconn who, in
July 2011, announced a three-year plan to replace workers with more robots. At present the company
uses ten thousand robots but will increase them to a million robots over a three-year period.[133]

Lawyers have speculated that an increased prevalence of robots in the workplace could lead to the
need to improve redundancy laws.[134]

Kevin J. Delaney said "Robots are taking human jobs. But Bill Gates believes that governments should
tax companies’ use of them, as a way to at least temporarily slow the spread of automation and to fund
other types of employment."[135] The robot tax would also help pay a guaranteed living wage to the
displaced workers.

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The World Bank's World Development Report 2019 puts forth evidence showing that while
automation displaces workers, technological innovation creates more new industries and jobs on
balance.[136]

Contemporary uses
At present, there are two main types of robots, based on their use: general-
purpose autonomous robots and dedicated robots.

Robots can be classified by their specificity of purpose. A robot might be

designed to perform one particular task extremely well, or a range of tasks
less well. All robots by their nature can be re-programmed to behave
differently, but some are limited by their physical form. For example, a
factory robot arm can perform jobs such as cutting, welding, gluing, or acting
as a fairground ride, while a pick-and-place robot can only populate printed
circuit boards.

General-purpose autonomous robots

General-purpose autonomous robots can perform a variety of functions

independently. General-purpose autonomous robots typically can navigate
A general-purpose
independently in known spaces, handle their own re-charging needs,
robot acts as a guide
interface with electronic doors and elevators and perform other basic tasks.
during the day and a
Like computers, general-purpose robots can link with networks, software and security guard at night.
accessories that increase their usefulness. They may recognize people or
objects, talk, provide companionship, monitor environmental quality,
respond to alarms, pick up supplies and perform other useful tasks. General-purpose robots may
perform a variety of functions simultaneously or they may take on different roles at different times of
day. Some such robots try to mimic human beings and may even resemble people in appearance; this
type of robot is called a humanoid robot. Humanoid robots are still in a very limited stage, as no
humanoid robot can, as of yet, actually navigate around a room that it has never been in. Thus,
humanoid robots are really quite limited, despite their intelligent behaviors in their well-known
environments.

Factory robots

Car production

Over the last three decades, automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical factory
contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines, with one robot
for every ten human workers. On an automated production line, a vehicle chassis on a conveyor is
welded, glued, painted and finally assembled at a sequence of robot stations.

Packaging

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Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for
example for rapidly taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them into boxes,
or for loading and unloading machining centers.

Electronics

Mass-produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick-and-place
robots, typically with SCARA manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components from strips or
trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy.[137] Such robots can place hundreds of
thousands of components per hour, far out-performing a human in speed, accuracy, and
reliability.[138]

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)

Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision[86]

or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as
warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.[139]

Early AGV-style robots

Limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and had to be

performed the same way every time. Very little feedback or intelligence
was required, and the robots needed only the most basic exteroceptors
(sensors). The limitations of these AGVs are that their paths are not
easily altered and they cannot alter their paths if obstacles block them. If
one AGV breaks down, it may stop the entire operation.
An intelligent AGV drops-off
Interim AGV technologies goods without needing lines
or beacons in the
Developed to deploy triangulation from beacons or bar code grids for workspace.
scanning on the floor or ceiling. In most factories, triangulation systems
tend to require moderate to high maintenance, such as daily cleaning of
all beacons or bar codes. Also, if a tall pallet or large vehicle blocks beacons or a bar code is marred,
AGVs may become lost. Often such AGVs are designed to be used in human-free environments.

Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)

Such as SmartLoader,[140] SpeciMinder,[141] ADAM,[142] Tug[143] Eskorta,[144] and MT 400 with

Motivity[145] are designed for people-friendly workspaces. They navigate by recognizing natural
features. 3D scanners or other means of sensing the environment in two or three dimensions help to
eliminate cumulative errors in dead-reckoning calculations of the AGV's current position. Some AGVs
can create maps of their environment using scanning lasers with simultaneous localization and
mapping (SLAM) and use those maps to navigate in real time with other path planning and obstacle
avoidance algorithms. They are able to operate in complex environments and perform non-repetitive
and non-sequential tasks such as transporting photomasks in a semiconductor lab, specimens in
hospitals and goods in warehouses. For dynamic areas, such as warehouses full of pallets, AGVs
require additional strategies using three-dimensional sensors such as time-of-flight or stereovision
cameras.
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Dirty, dangerous, dull, or inaccessible tasks

There are many jobs that humans would rather leave to robots. The job may be boring, such as
domestic cleaning or sports field line marking, or dangerous, such as exploring inside a volcano.[146]
Other jobs are physically inaccessible, such as exploring another planet,[147] cleaning the inside of a
long pipe, or performing laparoscopic surgery.[148]

Space probes

Almost every unmanned space probe ever launched was a robot.[149][150] Some were launched in the
1960s with very limited abilities, but their ability to fly and land (in the case of Luna 9) is an
indication of their status as a robot. This includes the Voyager probes and the Galileo probes, among
others.

Telerobots

Teleoperated robots, or telerobots, are devices remotely operated

from a distance by a human operator rather than following a
predetermined sequence of movements, but which has semi-
autonomous behaviour. They are used when a human cannot be
present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away,
or inaccessible. The robot may be in another room or another
country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. For
instance, a laparoscopic surgery robot allows the surgeon to work
inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to
open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time.[148] They can A U.S. Marine Corps technician
also be used to avoid exposing workers to the hazardous and tight prepares to use a telerobot to
spaces such as in duct cleaning. When disabling a bomb, the detonate a buried improvised
operator sends a small robot to disable it. Several authors have explosive device near Camp
been using a device called the Longpen to sign books remotely. [151] Fallujah, Iraq.
Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle, are increasingly being used by the military. These
pilotless drones can search terrain and fire on targets.[152][153] Hundreds of robots such as iRobot's
Packbot and the Foster-Miller TALON are being used in Iraq and Afghanistan by the U.S. military to
defuse roadside bombs or improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in an activity known as explosive
ordnance disposal (EOD).[154]

Automated fruit harvesting machines

Robots are used to automate picking fruit on orchards at a cost lower than that of human pickers.

Domestic robots

Domestic robots are simple robots dedicated to a single task work in home use. They are used in
simple but often disliked jobs, such as vacuum cleaning, floor washing, and lawn mowing. An example
of a domestic robot is a Roomba.

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Military robots

Military robots include the SWORDS robot which is currently

used in ground-based combat. It can use a variety of weapons and
there is some discussion of giving it some degree of autonomy in
battleground situations.[155][156][157]

Unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs), which are an upgraded

form of UAVs, can do a wide variety of missions, including
combat. UCAVs are being designed such as the BAE Systems
Mantis which would have the ability to fly themselves, to pick
their own course and target, and to make most decisions on their The Roomba domestic vacuum
own.[158] The BAE Taranis is a UCAV built by Great Britain which cleaner robot does a single, menial
can fly across continents without a pilot and has new means to job
avoid detection.[159] Flight trials are expected to begin in 2011.[160]

The AAAI has studied this topic in depth[110] and its president has commissioned a study to look at
this issue.[161]

Some have suggested a need to build "Friendly AI", meaning that the advances which are already
occurring with AI should also include an effort to make AI intrinsically friendly and humane.[162]
Several such measures reportedly already exist, with robot-heavy countries such as Japan and South
Korea[163] having begun to pass regulations requiring robots to be equipped with safety systems, and
possibly sets of 'laws' akin to Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics.[164][165] An official report was issued
in 2009 by the Japanese government's Robot Industry Policy Committee.[166] Chinese officials and
researchers have issued a report suggesting a set of ethical rules, and a set of new legal guidelines
referred to as "Robot Legal Studies."[167] Some concern has been expressed over a possible occurrence
of robots telling apparent falsehoods.[168]

Mining robots

Mining robots are designed to solve a number of problems currently facing the mining industry,
including skills shortages, improving productivity from declining ore grades, and achieving
environmental targets. Due to the hazardous nature of mining, in particular underground mining, the
prevalence of autonomous, semi-autonomous, and tele-operated robots has greatly increased in
recent times. A number of vehicle manufacturers provide autonomous trains, trucks and loaders that
will load material, transport it on the mine site to its destination, and unload without requiring
human intervention. One of the world's largest mining corporations, Rio Tinto, has recently expanded
its autonomous truck fleet to the world's largest, consisting of 150 autonomous Komatsu trucks,
operating in Western Australia.[169] Similarly, BHP has announced the expansion of its autonomous
drill fleet to the world's largest, 21 autonomous Atlas Copco drills.[170]

Drilling, longwall and rockbreaking machines are now also available as autonomous robots.[171] The
Atlas Copco Rig Control System can autonomously execute a drilling plan on a drilling rig, moving the
rig into position using GPS, set up the drill rig and drill down to specified depths.[172] Similarly, the
Transmin Rocklogic system can automatically plan a path to position a rockbreaker at a selected
destination.[173] These systems greatly enhance the safety and efficiency of mining operations.

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Healthcare

Robots in healthcare have two main functions. Those which assist an individual, such as a sufferer of a
disease like Multiple Sclerosis, and those which aid in the overall systems such as pharmacies and
hospitals.

Home automation for the elderly and disabled

Robots used in home automation have developed over time from

simple basic robotic assistants, such as the Handy 1,[174] through
to semi-autonomous robots, such as FRIEND which can assist the
elderly and disabled with common tasks.

The population is aging in many countries, especially Japan,

meaning that there are increasing numbers of elderly people to
care for, but relatively fewer young people to care for
them.[175][176] Humans make the best carers, but where they are
unavailable, robots are gradually being introduced.[177]

FRIEND is a semi-autonomous robot designed to support

disabled and elderly people in their daily life activities, like The Care-Providing Robot FRIEND
preparing and serving a meal. FRIEND make it possible for
patients who are paraplegic, have muscle diseases or serious
paralysis (due to strokes etc.), to perform tasks without help from other people like therapists or
nursing staff.

Pharmacies

Script Pro manufactures a robot designed to help pharmacies fill prescriptions that consist of oral
solids or medications in pill form.[178] The pharmacist or pharmacy technician enters the prescription
information into its information system. The system, upon determining whether or not the drug is in
the robot, will send the information to the robot for filling. The robot has 3 different size vials to fill
determined by the size of the pill. The robot technician, user, or pharmacist determines the needed
size of the vial based on the tablet when the robot is stocked. Once the vial is filled it is brought up to a
conveyor belt that delivers it to a holder that spins the vial and attaches the patient label. Afterwards
it is set on another conveyor that delivers the patient's medication vial to a slot labeled with the
patient's name on an LED read out. The pharmacist or technician then checks the contents of the vial
to ensure it's the correct drug for the correct patient and then seals the vials and sends it out front to
be picked up.

McKesson's Robot RX is another healthcare robotics product that helps pharmacies dispense
thousands of medications daily with little or no errors.[179] The robot can be ten feet wide and thirty
feet long and can hold hundreds of different kinds of medications and thousands of doses. The
pharmacy saves many resources like staff members that are otherwise unavailable in a resource scarce
industry. It uses an electromechanical head coupled with a pneumatic system to capture each dose
and deliver it to either its stocked or dispensed location. The head moves along a single axis while it
rotates 180 degrees to pull the medications. During this process it uses barcode technology to verify
it's pulling the correct drug. It then delivers the drug to a patient specific bin on a conveyor belt. Once

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the bin is filled with all of the drugs that a particular patient needs and that the robot stocks, the bin is
then released and returned out on the conveyor belt to a technician waiting to load it into a cart for
delivery to the floor.

Research robots

While most robots today are installed in factories or homes, performing labour or life saving jobs,
many new types of robot are being developed in laboratories around the world. Much of the research
in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robot,
alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. It is expected
that these new types of robot will be able to solve real world problems when they are finally realized.

Bionic and biomimetic robots

One approach to designing robots is to base them on animals. BionicKangaroo was designed and
engineered by studying and applying the physiology and methods of locomotion of a kangaroo.

Nanorobots

Nanorobotics is the emerging technology field of creating machines or robots whose components are
at or close to the microscopic scale of a nanometer (10−9 meters). Also known as "nanobots" or
"nanites", they would be constructed from molecular machines. So far, researchers have mostly
produced only parts of these complex systems, such as bearings, sensors, and synthetic molecular
motors, but functioning robots have also been made such as the entrants to the Nanobot Robocup
contest.[180] Researchers also hope to be able to create entire robots as small as viruses or bacteria,
which could perform tasks on a tiny scale. Possible applications include micro surgery (on the level of
individual cells), utility fog,[181] manufacturing, weaponry and cleaning.[182] Some people have
suggested that if there were nanobots which could reproduce, the earth would turn into "grey goo",
while others argue that this hypothetical outcome is nonsense.[183][184]

Reconfigurable robots

A few researchers have investigated the possibility of creating robots which can alter their physical
form to suit a particular task,[185] like the fictional T-1000. Real robots are nowhere near that
sophisticated however, and mostly consist of a small number of cube shaped units, which can move
relative to their neighbours. Algorithms have been designed in case any such robots become a
reality.[186]

Robotic, mobile laboratory operators

In July 2020 scientists reported the development of a mobile robot chemist and demonstrate that it
can assist in experimental searches. According to the scientists their strategy was automating the
researcher rather than the instruments – freeing up time for the human researchers to think
creatively – and could identify photocatalyst mixtures for hydrogen production from water that were
six times more active than initial formulations. The modular robot can operate laboratory
instruments, work nearly around the clock, and autonomously make decisions on his next actions
depending on experimental results.[187][188]

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Soft-bodied robots

Robots with silicone bodies and flexible actuators (air muscles, electroactive polymers, and
ferrofluids) look and feel different from robots with rigid skeletons, and can have different
behaviors.[189] Soft, flexible (and sometimes even squishy) robots are often designed to mimic the
biomechanics of animals and other things found in nature, which is leading to new applications in
medicine, care giving, search and rescue, food handling and manufacturing, and scientific
exploration.[190][191]

Swarm robots

Inspired by colonies of insects such as ants and bees, researchers are modeling the behavior of
swarms of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something
hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the emergent behavior of the swarm is
more complex. The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the
same way an ant colony can be considered a superorganism, exhibiting swarm intelligence. The
largest swarms so far created include the iRobot swarm, the SRI/MobileRobots CentiBots project[192]
and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective
behaviors.[193][194] Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and
ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for
space exploration missions, where failure is normally extremely costly.[195]

Haptic interface robots

Robotics also has application in the design of virtual reality interfaces. Specialized robots are in
widespread use in the haptic research community. These robots, called "haptic interfaces", allow
touch-enabled user interaction with real and virtual environments. Robotic forces allow simulating
the mechanical properties of "virtual" objects, which users can experience through their sense of
touch.[196]

Contemporary art and sculpture

Robots are used by contemporary artists to create works that include mechanical automation. There
are many branches of robotic art, one of which is robotic installation art, a type of installation art
that is programmed to respond to viewer interactions, by means of computers, sensors and actuators.
The future behavior of such installations can therefore be altered by input from either the artist or the
participant, which differentiates these artworks from other types of kinetic art.

Le Grand Palais in Paris organized an exhibition "Artists & Robots", featuring artworks created by
more than forty artists with the help of robots in 2018.[197]

Robots in popular culture

Literature

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Robotic characters, androids (artificial men/women) or gynoids

(artificial women), and cyborgs (also "bionic men/women", or
humans with significant mechanical enhancements) have become
a staple of science fiction.

The first reference in Western literature to mechanical servants

appears in Homer's Iliad. In Book XVIII, Hephaestus, god of fire,
creates new armor for the hero Achilles, assisted by robots.[198]
According to the Rieu translation, "Golden maidservants hastened
to help their master. They looked like real women and could not
only speak and use their limbs but were endowed with intelligence
and trained in handwork by the immortal gods." The words
"robot" or "android" are not used to describe them, but they are Toy robots on display at the Museo
nevertheless mechanical devices human in appearance. "The first del Objeto del Objeto in Mexico City.
use of the word Robot was in Karel Čapek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's
Universal Robots) (written in 1920)". Writer Karel Čapek was
born in Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic).

Possibly the most prolific author of the twentieth century was Isaac Asimov (1920–1992)[199] who
published over five-hundred books.[200] Asimov is probably best remembered for his science-fiction
stories and especially those about robots, where he placed robots and their interaction with society at
the center of many of his works.[201][202] Asimov carefully considered the problem of the ideal set of
instructions robots might be given to lower the risk to humans, and arrived at his Three Laws of
Robotics: a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm; a robot must obey orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law; and a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.[203] These were introduced in his 1942 short story
"Runaround", although foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: "A
robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the rest of the laws
are modified sequentially to acknowledge this.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!" (1941)
that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. Asimov was not initially
aware of this; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with mechanics, hydraulics, and other
similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge.[204]

Films

Robots appear in many films. Most of the robots in cinema are fictional. Two of the most famous are
R2-D2 and C-3PO from the Star Wars franchise.

Sex robots

The concept of humanoid sex robots has drawn public attention and elicited debate regarding their
supposed benefits and potential effects on society. Opponents argue that the introduction of such
devices would be socially harmful, and demeaning to women and children,[205] while proponents cite
their potential therapeutical benefits, particularly in aiding people with dementia or depression.[206]

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Problems depicted in popular culture

Fears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed

in a wide range of books and films. A common theme is the
development of a master race of conscious and highly intelligent
robots, motivated to take over or destroy the human race.
Frankenstein (1818), often called the first science fiction novel,
has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or android
advancing beyond its creator.

Other works with similar themes include The Mechanical Man,

Italian movie The Mechanical Man
The Terminator, Runaway, RoboCop, the Replicators in
(1921), the first film to have shown a
Stargate, the Cylons in Battlestar Galactica, the Cybermen and
battle between robots.
Daleks in Doctor Who, The Matrix, Enthiran and I, Robot. Some
fictional robots are programmed to kill and destroy; others gain
superhuman intelligence and abilities by upgrading their own software and hardware. Examples of
popular media where the robot becomes evil are 2001: A Space Odyssey, Red Planet and Enthiran.

The 2017 game Horizon Zero Dawn explores themes of robotics in warfare, robot ethics, and the AI
control problem, as well as the positive or negative impact such technologies could have on the
environment.

Another common theme is the reaction, sometimes called the "uncanny valley", of unease and even
revulsion at the sight of robots that mimic humans too closely.[109]

More recently, fictional representations of artificially intelligent robots in films such as A.I. Artificial
Intelligence and Ex Machina and the 2016 TV adaptation of Westworld have engaged audience
sympathy for the robots themselves.

See also
Index of robotics articles Cognitive robotics
Outline of robotics Companion robot
Artificial intelligence Domestic robot
William Grey Walter Epigenetic robotics
Evolutionary robotics
Humanoid robot
Specific robotics concepts
Autonomous robot
Robot locomotion
Microbotics
Simultaneous localization and mapping
Robot control
Tactile sensor
Teleoperation
Uncanny valley Specific robots and devices
von Neumann machine AIBO
Wake-up robot problem Autonomous spaceport drone ship
Neuromorphic engineering Driverless car
Friendly Robotics
Lely Juno family
Robotics methods and categories
Liquid handling robot
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Paro (robot) Other related articles

PatrolBot Unmanned vehicle
RoboBee Remote control vehicle
Roborior Automated guided vehicle
Robot App Store

Further reading
Sarah Al-Arshani (29 November 2021). "Researchers behind the world's first living robot have
found a way to make it reproduce — by shaping it like Pac-Man" (https://www.businessinsider.co
m/researchers-working-on-worlds-first-living-robot-reproduce-itself-2021-11). Business Insider.
See this humanoid robot artist sketch drawings from sight (CNN, Video, 2019) (https://www.cnn.co
m/videos/business/2019/06/06/uk-oxford-university-ai-da-humanoid-robot-artist-ge-lon-orig.cnn-bu
siness/video/playlists/business-robots/)
Margolius, Ivan. 'The Robot of Prague', Newsletter, The Friends of Czech Heritage no. 17,
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External links
Robotics (https://curlie.org/Computers/Robotics) at Curlie
Journal of Field Robotics (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1556-4967)

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