Week1

1
 Example 7
How many litres of oxygen at STP react with 72 g of aluminum to produce
aluminum oxide?
Solution:
Step 1: 4Al + 3O2 Æ 2Al2 O3
72 g x
Step 2: 4Al + 3O 2 Æ 2Al 2O 3
72 g x

Step 3: 4Al + 3O 2 Æ 2Al O

2 3
(4×27) g (3×22.4) L

72 g x
Step 4: =
108 g 67.2 L
Step 5: x = 44.8 L of O2
Hence, 44.8 litters of oxygen is required at STP to react with 72 g of aluminum.

Exercise 4.10
1. How many litters of oxygen are required to react with 23 g of methane
according to the following equation?
CH4 + 2O2 Æ CO2 + 2H2 O
2. What mass of aluminum would be completely oxidized by 44.8 L of oxygen to
produce Al2 O3 at STP?
3. Calculate the mass of calcium carbide that is needed to produce 100 cm3 of
acetylene according to the following equation.
CaC2 + 2H2 O Æ C2 H2 + Ca(OH)2
4. How many milliliters of Sulphur dioxide are formed when 12.5 g of iron sulphide
ore (pyrite) reacts with oxygen according to the equation at STP?
4FeS2 + 11O2 Æ 2Fe2 O3 + 8SO2

4.6.5 Limiting and Excess Reactants

When all the reactants are completely consumed in a chemical reaction, then such
reactants are said to be in stoichiometric proportions.

2
The reactant that is not completely converted into products is called excess reactant .
The reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction is known as the limiting
reactant, because it limits or determines the amount of products that can be formed.
For example, :
H2 + Cl2 Æ 2HCl
1 mole 2 mole 2 moles
H2 reacts limiting reactant
Cl2 , is excess reactant

Example
How much ammonia is produced if 10 g of hydrogen reacts with 18 g of
nitrogen?
Solution :
3H2 (g) + N2 (g) Æ 2NH3 (g)
First determine the number of moles;
10 g
Moles of H2 = = 5 mol
2 g/mol
18 g
Moles of N2 = 28 g/mol = 0.64 mol
Now, calculate the number of moles or masses of the product that would be
formed by each reactant.
The reactant that gives the smallest amount of product is the limiting reactant.
i. Using the quantity of H2 ii. Using the quantity of N2
5 mol x 0.64 mol x
3 H 2 + N2 Æ 2NH 3 3H 2 + N2 Æ 2NH 3
3 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol

5 mol x 0.64 mol x

= =
3 mol 2 mol 1mol 2 mol
x = 3.33 mol NH3 x = 1.28 mol NH3
Mass of NH3 = 3.33 mol × 17 g /mol Mass of NH3 = 1.28 mol × 17 g /mol
= 56.6 g = 21.8 g

3
 Therefore, the limiting reactant is nitrogen, because it gives less amount of
NH3 , i.e., 21.8 g NH3 . In the reaction, 0.64 mole (18 g) of N2 is consumed.
Hydrogen is in excess. The amount of hydrogen consumed will be:
x 18 g x 0.64 mol
3H 2 + N 2
Æ 2NH 3 or 3H 2 + N 2 Æ 2NH 3
6g 28 g 3 moles 1 mole

x 18 x 0.64 mol
= =
6 28 3 mol 1mol
x = 3.86 g of H2 x = 1.92 mol of H2
Therefore, 3.86 g or 1.92 moles of H2 is used in the reaction, and 6.14 g or
3.08 moles of H2 is left unreacted.

Example
In the chemistry laboratory, a student performed a displacement reaction by
adding 9.5 g of zinc into 9.5 g of HCl in a beaker. What weight of ZnCl2 will
be produced?
Solution:
Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl2 + H2
9.5 g
Moles of Zn = = 0.15 mol
65 g/mol
9.5 g
Moles of HCl = = 0.26 mol
36.5 g/mol
Even though the given masses of the two reactants are the same, they are not
mixed in equimolar ratio as shown above. Thus, the limiting reactant must be
determined first.
i. Using the quantity of Zn ii. Using the quantity of HCl
0.15 mol x 0.26 mol x
Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl2 + H 2 Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl2 + H 2
1 mol 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol

0.15 mol x 0.26 mol x

= =
1 mol 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol
x = 0.15 mol ZnCl2 x = 0.13 mol ZnCl2
Hence, the limiting reactant is HCl.
Mass of ZnCl2 = 0.13 mol × 136 g/mol = 17.68 g ZnCl2

4
 4.6.6 Theoretical, Actual and Percentage Yields
The measured amount of product obtained in any chemical reaction is known as the
actual yield.

The theoretical yield is the calculated amount of product that would be obtained if
the reaction proceeds completely.

The actual yield (experimentally determined yield) of a product is usually less than
the theoretical yield (calculated yield).

Acutal yield
Percentage yield = × 100
Theoretical yield

Example
25 grams of methane gas (CH4 ) burns in oxygen according to the following
reaction:
CH4 + 2O2 Æ CO2 + 2H2 O
What is the percentage yield if 60.3 grams of carbon dioxide is produced?
Solution :
The actual yield is 60.3 g of CO2 .
Determine the theoretical yield using mass-mass relationship
25 g x
CH 4 + 2O 2 → CO 2 + 2H 2O
16 g 44 g

25 g x
=
16 g 44
x = 68.75 g of CO2 (theoretical yield)

Actual yield
Percentage yield = × 100%
Theoretical yield

60.3 g
= × 100% = 87.7 %
68.75 g

5
 Exercise
1. When 20 g of Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen, 23 g of Sulphur trioxide
is formed. What is the percentage yield?

4.7 OXIDATION AND REDUCTIO N REACTIONS

Can oxidation take place without reduction?

Oxidation: is the process in which a substance loses electrons in a chemical reaction.
For example, in the reaction
2Na + Cl2 Æ 2NaCl

Na + 1e– Æ Na+
Reduction: is the process in which a substance gains electrons in a chemical
reaction.
Cl2 + 2e– Æ Cl–

The oxidation number of sodium is increased from 0 to +1 and thus sodium is

oxidized.

The oxidation number of chlorine is decreased from 0 to –1, and therefore chlorine is
reduced.

4.7.2 Oxidation Number or Oxidation State

Oxidation number or oxidation state is the number of electrons that an atom appears
6
to have gained or lost when it is combined with other atoms.

Rule 1: The oxidation number of all elements in free state is zero. This rule is also
applied for diatomic or polyatomic elements.
Example : The oxidation number of Na = 0, Cu = 0, Cl in Cl2 = 0, O in
O3 = 0, S in S8 = 0.
Rule 2: The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
Example : Na+ = +1, Mg2+ = +2, S 2 – = – 2.
Rule 3: The oxidation number of oxygen in a compound is usually – 2 except in the
following cases:
Exceptions
The oxidation number of oxygen in:
i) peroxides is –1. Example : Na2 O2
ii) superoxides is –1/2. Example : KO2
iii) oxygen diflouride is +2. Example : OF2
Rule 4: The oxidation number of hydrogen in its entire compounds is +1 except
in metal hydrides, (like NaH, CaH2 and AlH3 ), where its oxidation
number is –1.
Rule 5: The sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms in a neutral compound is
zero.
+1 +6 -2
Example : H SO ((+2) + (+6) + (–8) = 0)
2 4

Rule 6: In a polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the constituent
atoms equals the charge on the ion.
+6 –2
Example : (S O 4 ) –2 ((+6) + (–8) = –2)

Rule 7: Elements of group IA have +1 and group IIA have +2 oxidation states in all
of their compounds.
Rule 8: In a compound, the more electronegative element is assigned a negative
oxidation number, and the less electronegative element is assigned a positive
oxidation number.
+3 –1
Example : N Cl3 (chlorine is more electronegative than nitrogen)

Example 1

7
 What is the oxidation number of chromium in Na2 Cr2 O7 ?
Solution :
The oxidation number of O is –2 (Rule 3)
The oxidation number of Na is +1 (Rule 7)
Let the oxidation number of Cr be x.
+1 x –2
Na 2 Cr2 O 7
Since the sum of the oxidation numbers of Na, Cr, and O in Na2 Cr2 O7 is 0
(Rule 5)

8
 +1 x –2
Then, Na 2 Cr2 O 7
(1 × 2) + (x × 2) + (–2 × 7) = 0
2 + 2x – 14 = 0
x =+6
Therefore, the oxidation number of Cr in Na2 Cr2 O7 is +6.

Example
What is the oxidation number of manganese in MnO4– ?

Solution :
Let the oxidation number of Mn be x.
–
 x –2 
 Mn O 4 
 

The sum of the oxidation numbers of Mn and O in MnO4– is –1 (Rule 6)

x + (–2 × 4) = –1
x – 8 = –1
x = +7
Therefore, the oxidation number of Mn in MnO4– is +7.

Example
Determine the oxidation number of phosphorus in Ca(H2 PO4 )2.
Solution:
The oxidation number of Ca is +2 (Rule 7).
Let, the oxidation number of P be x.
+2
 +1 x–2


9
 Ca  H 2 PO 4 
 2
+2 + (4 × (+1)) + (2 × x) + (8 × (–2)) = 0
2 + 4 + 2x – 16 = 0
2x –10 = 0 or x = +5

. 4.7.3 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Oxidizing agoxidazing agents are
substances that:
– are reduced (gain electrons)
– contain elements whose oxidation number decreases
• Reducing agents are substances that:
– are oxidized (lose electrons)
– contain elements whose oxidation number increases

Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical Reaction

1. Nature of the reactants

Mg + 2HCl Æ MgCl2 + H2 ... (very fast reaction)

Fe + 2HCl Æ FeCl2 + H2 ... (slow reaction)
Cu + HCl Æ No reaction

2. Temperature
An increase in temperature increases the rate of a reaction.

3. Concentration of reactants
The number of collisions is proportional to the concentration of reactants. The higher
the concentration of the reactants, the more collisions between the reacting particles
and thus the higher the rate of the reaction

4. Surface area
. The higher the surface area of reactants, the faster is the rate of the reaction.

5. Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
being consumed in the reaction
10
 4.8.2 Chemical Equilibrium
. Irreversible reactions proceed only in one direction (forward
direction) and expressed by a single arrow ( ).

Examples
2Na + Cl2 Æ 2NaCl
2KClO 3 Æ 2KCl + 3O2

However, there are many chemical reactions that do not proceed to completion.

The products at the same time react to give (produce) the reactants. These are
called reversible reactions.

Example
N2 + 3H2 Y Z 2NH 3
Z ZX

Does a reaction stop if it attains equilibrium?

At equilibrium,

Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction

The concentration of species is denoted by enclosing the formula in square bracket [
].
Thus, for the reversible reaction:
Z ZX
aA+bB Y Z cC + dD

Rate of forward reaction = Kf [A]a [B]b where Kf and Kr are rate constants for the

Rate of reverse reaction = Kr [C]c [D]d forward and reverse reactions respectively.

11
 Kf [A]a [B]b = Kr [C]c [D]d
c d
Kf C D
= a b
Kr A B

Solving for the constants, Kf /Kr, gives a new constant, termed as the equilibrium
constant, Keq .
c d
Kf C D
Therefore, Keq = = a b
Kr A B

Example
For the reaction,
N2 + 3H2 Z Z 2NH 3
YZX
Rate of forward reaction = Kf [N2 ][H2 ]3
Rate of reverse reaction = Kr [NH3 ]2 .
2
Kf NH 3
Keq = =
Kr N2 H 2
Kf
[
C
]
c

[
D
]d
K
r
e

[
A
]
a

[
B
]
b

12
 Example
The following equilibrium has been studied at 230°C.
2NO(g) + O2 (g) Y Z 2NO 2 (g)
Z ZX

Solution :
The equilibrium constant is given by
2
NO 2
K= 2
NO O2

Substituting the concentration, we find that

2
(15.5)
K= 2 6.44 10 5 M 1

(0.0542) (0.127)

.
The factors affecting chemical equilibrium and their effects:

1. Effect of temperature
The effect of temperature changes on equilibrium depends on whether the reaction is
exothermic or endothermic. An increase in the temperature of a system will favour an
endothermic reaction and a decrease in temperature favors an exothermic reaction.
For example, consider the following reaction:

H2 O(g) + CO(g) Z
Y ZX
Z H2 (g) + CO2 (g); H = – 41 kJ
Since the reaction is exothermic,
i) if temperature is increased, the system will shift to the left.
ii) if temperature is decreased, the system will shift to the right and a high yield of
products (H2 and CO2 ) is obtained.

13
 3. Effect of Concentration
The equilibrium shifts to the reverse direction. For example, in the reaction,
Z ZX
N2 + 3H2 Y Z 2NH 3

If the concentration of N2 or H2 is increased (i.e., if more N2 or H2 is added), the

equilibrium will shift to the right direction and more NH3 will be produced.

4. Effect of catalysts
Catalysts change the speed of both the forward and reverse reactions equally.

The Haber and contact processes provide excellent illustrations of the effects of
temperature, pressure and catalyst on the equilibrium systems.
A Haber process (the industrial production of ammonia).
Fe
N2 (g) + 3H2 Z X 2NH3 (g); H = – 92 kJ/mol
Catalys t

B Contact process (the industrial production of sulphuric acid).

159
 WEEWEWE

160
161
 All object around us is called matter.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It can exist in the form of gas,
liquid and solid.

Different state of matter show different behaviour.

Solid
A solid has
• a definite shape and a definite volume.
• almost completely incompressible and have very high average density.
• A high average density
• The particles are tightly packed and highly organized.
• The particles are vibrate about a fixed position;

Liquid

• Has a definite volume, but does not have a definite shape.

• take the shape of their container.
• At room temperature, water, ethanol, benzene and oil are liquids.

Gas

• A gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.

• This particles are virtually independent of one another. For example, air,
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are gases.

Plasma

• A gaseous mixture of positive ions and electrons, at very high temperature

(million degrees Celsius) is called plasma
•
KINETIC THEORY AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
The kinetic theory of matter is based on the following three assumptions:
1. All matter is composed of particles which are in constant motion.
2. The particles possess kinetic energy and potential energy.
3. The difference between the three states of matter is due to their energy contents
and the motion of the particles.

5.2.2 Properties of Matter

163
Properties of Gases

1. Have no definite shape and definite volume.

2. Can be easily compressed.
3. Have low densities compared with liquids and solids.
4. Exert pressure in all directions..
5. Easily flow and diffuse through one another.
Properties of Liquids

1. Have a definite volume, but have no definite shape.

2. Have higher densities than gases.
3. Are slightly compressible.
4. Are fluids. can easily flow.
Properties of Solids
1. Have a definite shape and a definite volume.
2. Have higher densities than gases and liquids.
3. Are extremely difficult to compress..
4. Are not fluids.

Exercise 5.2
Arrange the three states of matter in order of increasing:
a intermolecular force
b density
c compressibility
d kinetic energy

5.3 THE GASEOUS STATE

The gas laws

Are the products of many experiments on the physical properties of gases,
The gas laws express mathematical relationships between the volume, temperature,
pressure, and quantity of a gas.

164
 Pressure: pressure is defined as the force applied per unit area.

Force
Pressure =
Area

It is one of the measurable properties of gases.

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and
Units of pressure are : 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 76 cmHg = 760 torr =
101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
Volume: Volume is the space taken up by a body. The SI unit of volume is the cubic
metre (m3 ).
1 cm3 = (1×10–2 m)3 = 1×10–6 m3
Units of volume are: 1 dm3 = (1×10–1 m)3 = 1×10–3 m3 = 1 L

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

The relation among units of tempreture: K = °C + 273

5
°C = (°F – 32 )
9
9
°F =  × °C  + 32
5 

Exercise 5.3
Convert the following:
a 500 mmHg into atm, torr, and cmHg
b 100 dm3 into mL, cm3 , L, m3
c 54°C into K and °F.
. Molar Volume and Standard Conditions (STP)
The conditions of a pressure of 1 atmosphere and a temperature of 0o C (273.14 K)
are called standard temperature and pressure or STP for gases.

At STP the volume of one mole of any gas is equal to 22.4 litres. This volume is
known as molar gas volume.
Quantity of gas: The quantity of a gas is expressed in mole (n).

1. Boyle’s Law
165
 • The first quantitative experiments on gases
• Boyle's law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure at a constant temperature.
1 (at constant T and n )
V α
P
From which follows,
1
V= k or PV = k ;
P
where k is a constant at a specific temperature for a given sample of gas

P1 V1 = P2 V2 ;
Experiment 5.1
Example 1
An inflated balloon has a volume of 0.55 L at sea level (1.0 atm) and is
allowed to rise to a height of 6.5 km, where the pressure is about 0.40 atm.
Assuming that the temperature remains constant, what is the final volume of the
balloon?
Solution:
Givens:
Initial conditions Final conditions
P 1 = 1.0 atm P 2 = 0.40 atm
V 1 = 0.55 L V2 = ?

Use Boyles’ law equation: P1 V1 = P2 V2

P1 V1 1.0 atm
Therefore, V2 = = 0.55 L × = 1.4 L.
P2 0.40 atm

166
 2.Charles’ law.
Mathematically;
V
V = kT, or = k
T

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
where V1 and T1 represent the initial condition; V2 and T2 represent the new
condition.
. This temperature in which the lowest temperature attained by a gas is called
absolute zero.

Example 3
A gas at 65°C occupies 4.22 L. What will be the volume of the gas at a
temperature of 36.9°C, assuming a constant pressure?
Solution:
Given:
Initial conditions Final conditions
T 1 = 65°C T 2 = 36.9°C + 273 = 309.9 K
= 65 + 273 = 338 K
V 1 = 4.22 L V2 = ?
From Charles’ law
V1 V T1
= 2 fi V2 = × T2
T1 T2 V1

4.22 L × 309.9 K
=
338 K
= 3.87 L

167
 Exercise 5.5
1. At constant pressure, by what fraction of its volume will a quantity of gas
change if the temperature changes from -173°C to 27°C?
2. At what temperature will the volume of a gas be
a halved, b doubled,
c tripled at constant pressure if the original temperature is 17°C?
3. The Combined Gas Law

Boyle’s law and Charles’ law can be combined to give one expression called the
combined gas law.

The combined gas law expresses the relationship between pressure, volume, and
temperature of a fixed amount of gas.
Derivation of the combined gas law:
Boyle’s law: V a 1/P
Charles’ law: V a T
Then, V a T/P (combined)

P1 V1 P2V2
= k and =k
T1 T2
Since in each case k is constant, the combined gas law equation is given as follows:
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
Where P1 , V1 and T1 are the initial pressure, volume and temperature; P2 , V2 and T2
are the final pressure, volume and temperature of the gas respectively.

Example 4
A 300 cm3 sample of a gas exerts a pressure of 60.0 kPa at 27°C. What
pressure would it exert in a 200 cm3 container at 20°C?
Solution :
Given:
Initial Conditions V 1 = 300 cm3 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K P 1 = 60.0 kPa
Final Conditions V 2 =200 cm3 T2 = 20 + 273 = 293 K P2 = ?

 PV PV 
Using the combined gas law,  1 1 = 2 2  .
 T1 T2 

PV T 3
60.0 kPa × 300 cm 293 K
P = 1 1× 2 = ×
⇒ 2 300 K 3
T1 V2 200 cm

168
 P2 = 87.9 kPa

Exercise 5.6
If a 50 cm3 sample of gas exerts a pressure of 60.0 kPa at 35°C, what
volume will it occupy at STP?

4. Avogadro’s law

Avogadro. Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of different gases, under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the same number of
molecules. at STP.
Mathematically, V α n; where V is the volume and n is number of moles.

5. The Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas law is a combination of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s
law.
1
Boyle's law: V α (at constant T and n)
P
Charles' law: V α T (at constant P and n)
Avogadro's law: V α n (at constant P and T )
This relationship indicates how the volume of gas depends on pressure, temperature
and number of moles.
nT
Vα
P
nT
or V =R
P
where R, is a proportionality constant called the gas constant.
PV = nRT (the ideal gas equation)
.
PV
R=
nT
(1
=
atm)
(22.4
14 L)
(1
mol)(
273.1
5 K)

169
 L.atm
0.082057 = 8.314 L. kPa/K.mol = 8.314 J/mol.K
K.mol
For calculations, we round off the value of R to three significant figures
(0.0821 L.atm/K.mol) and use 22.4 L for the molar volume of a gas at STP.

Example 5
Calculate the volume (in liters) occupied by 7.4 g of CO2 at STP?
Solution :
The ideal gas equation is given as
PV = nRT

nRT  mRT 
V=  since n = m/M by rearranging V = 
P
 M P 
7.4 g L.atm 273 K
= × 0.082 = 3.77 L
44 g / mol K mol 1 atm

Example 6

At STP, 0.280 L of a gas weighs 0.400 g. Calculate the molar mass of the
gas.
Solution:
Given: V = 0.280 L, m = 0.400 g
At conditions of standard temperature and pressure
T = 273 K, P = 1 atm
R = 0.082 L.atm/K.mol
⇒ PV = nRT

m m
PV = ⋅ RT (Since n = );
M M

mRT = 0.400 g × 0.082 L. atm/K.m ol × 273 K

⇒ M= = 31.98g/mol
PV 1 atm × 0.280 L

170
 Exercise 5.7
The density of a gas at a pressure of 1.34 atm and a temperature of 303 K
is found to be 1.77 g/L. What is the molar mass of this gas?
6. Graham's Law of Diffusion

The spreading of gas molecules is called diffusion.

Graham’s law of diffusion states that at constant temperature and pressure, the rate
of diffusion of a gas, r, is inversely proportional to the square root of its density,
d, or molar mass, M.
Mathematically it can be expressed as:
1 1 ;
r ∝ or r ∝
d M
where r is the rate of diffusion, d is the density and M is the molecular mass of the gas.
For two gases (Gas 1 and Gas 2), their rates of diffusion can be given as:
1 1
r1 ∝ or r1 ∝
d1 M1
1 1
and r2 ∝ or r2 ∝
d2 M2
Rearranging these relationships gives the following expression
r1 d2 r1 M2
= or =
r2 d1 r2

171
 Example 7
Which gas will diffuse faster, ammonia or carbon dioxide? What is the relative
rate of diffusion?
Solution :
The molecular weight of CO2 is 44 g/mol and that of NH3 is 17 g/mol.
Therefore, NH3 diffuses faster than CO2 .
We can calculate the rate of diffusion as follows:
Let the rate of diffusion of NH3 be rNH
3
Let the rate of diffusion of CO2 be rCO
2

rNH 3 M CO 44
= 2
= = 1.6
rCO 2 M NH 3
17

This means rate of diffusion of NH3 is 1.6 times that of CO2 .

Example 8
The rate of diffusion of methane (CH4) is twice that of an unknown gas. What
is the molecular mass of the gas?
Solution :
Let rCH and rx be the rates of diffusion of CH4 and the unknown gas
4
respectively.
Let MCH and Mx be the molecular masses of CH4 and the unknown gas
4
respectively.
The rate of diffusion of CH4 is two times faster than the unknown gas. This
can be written mathematically as rCH = 2rx.
4
Now, substitute 2rx in place of rCH and solve for Mx using Graham’s law.
4

r1 M2 rCH 4 Mx
= fi =
r2 M1 rx M CH 4

2rX MX
= fi MX = 64
rX 16
Therefore, the molecular mass of the unknown gas is 64.

172
 Also the rate at which a gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the time taken.
Mathematically,
1
r ∝
t

r1 t M2
= 2 =
r2 t1 M1
.

5.4 THE LIQUID STATE

This attraction between liquid particles is caused by the intermolecular forces

(dipole-dipole forces, London dispersion forces, and hydrogen bonding).

Liquids are more ordered than gases because of the stronger intermolecular forces
and the lower mobility of liquid particles.
Energy Changes in Liquids

The process by which a liquid changes to a gas is known as vaporization.

Evaporation is the process by which liquid molecules break freely from the liquid
urface and enter the vapor phase..

The process in which gas turns to liquid is called condensation.

Evaporation
Z
Liquid YZZZZZZ X Gas
Condensation

The rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on three factors. These are

temperature,
intermolecular forces,
and surface area of the liquid.

The partial pressure of the vapour above a liquid is called vapour pressure.

173
Boiling and Boiling Point

Boiling is the change of a liquid to bubbles of vapour that appear throughout the
liquids.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the equilibrium vapour
pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure.

5 THE SOLID STATE

The temperature at which a crystalline solid is converted to a liquid is known as the

melting point.
The . process of converting liquid to solid is called freezing or solidification.
Z melting ,0 °C X
Ice YZZZZZ Z Liquid water
freezing ,0 °C

The amount of heat needed to convert one gram of a solid to a liquid at the melting
point is called heat of fusion.
.
∆Hcryst = –∆Hfus
. This process changing solid togas directly is called sublimation.

174
175
 5.

176
 CHEMISTRY GRADE 9

REVIEW EXERCISE ON UNIT 5

Part I: Assert your answers based on the given instructions:

We have three physical states of substances namely solid, liquid, and gas. Identify the
following as solid, liquid or gas based on the properties given to explain their
characteristics.
1. They have a definite shape and a definite volume.
2. Their molecules are highly disordered.
3. The motion of their molecules is highly restricted.
4. They can be easily compressed.
5. They have a tendency to flow.
6. They can take the shape of their container.
7. They can move in all direction at high speed.
8. They can easily diffuse through each other.
9. They can sublime.
10. They have less density relative to the other states.

Part II: Matching-type questions

A B
11. Melting point A Solid → gas
12. Heat of fusion B Liquid → gas
13. Heat of sublimation C Gas → solid
14. Sublimation point D Solid → liquid
15. Melting E Liquid → solid
16. Freezing F Same as freezing point
17. Sublimation G Same as deposition point
18. Deposition H Same as heat of crystallization
I Similar to fusion
J Similar to crystallization
K Similar to heat of deposition

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 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Part III: Write the missing words in your exercise book

19. In a solid the particles are very close together and can only about a
fixed position.
20. Sublimation occurs when a solid changes directly to a passing the
state.
21. The melting point of a solid is the same as .
22. When the water boils, its vapour pressure is equals to .
23. The temperature at which a crystalline solid is converted to a liquid, is called .
24. The lowest attainable temperature is .
25. “Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal numbers of molecules”; this is a statement of law.

Part IV: Short-answers type questions

26. What is the difference between volatile and non-volatile substances? Give an
example of each.
27. Why is the temperature of a substance constant at its melting point; even though
heat is added to it?
28. What factors affect the rate of evaporation of a liquid?

Part V: Problems to solve

29. Convert the following pressure measurements:
a 720 mmHg to atm b 1.25 atm to mmHg
c 542 mmHg to atm d 740 mmHg to kPa
e 700 kPa to atm
30. A 2.50 L container is filled with 175 g of argon:
a if the pressure is 10.0 atm, what is the temperature?
b if the temperature is 22 K, what is the pressure?
31. If 0.500 mole of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 11.2 L at 0°C; what volume
will 2.00 mole of nitrogen gas occupy at the same temperature and pressure?
32. A certain gas is found in the exhaust of automobiles and power plants. Consider
a 1.53 L sample of a gas at a pressure of 5.6 × 104 Pa. If the pressure is
changed to 1.5 × 104 Pa at a constant temperature, what will be the new
volume of the gas?

201
 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Part III: Write the missing words in your exercise book

19. In a solid the particles are very close together and can only about a
fixed position.
20. Sublimation occurs when a solid changes directly to a passing the
state.
21. The melting point of a solid is the same as .
22. When the water boils, its vapour pressure is equals to .
23. The temperature at which a crystalline solid is converted to a liquid, is called .
24. The lowest attainable temperature is .
25. “Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal numbers of molecules”; this is a statement of law.

Part IV: Short-answers type questions

26. What is the difference between volatile and non-volatile substances? Give an
example of each.
27. Why is the temperature of a substance constant at its melting point; even though
heat is added to it?
28. What factors affect the rate of evaporation of a liquid?

Part V: Problems to solve

29. Convert the following pressure measurements:
a 720 mmHg to atm b 1.25 atm to mmHg
c 542 mmHg to atm d 740 mmHg to kPa
e 700 kPa to atm
30. A 2.50 L container is filled with 175 g of argon:
a if the pressure is 10.0 atm, what is the temperature?
b if the temperature is 22 K, what is the pressure?
31. If 0.500 mole of nitrogen gas occupies a volume of 11.2 L at 0°C; what volume
will 2.00 mole of nitrogen gas occupy at the same temperature and pressure?
32. A certain gas is found in the exhaust of automobiles and power plants. Consider
a 1.53 L sample of a gas at a pressure of 5.6 × 104 Pa. If the pressure is
changed to 1.5 × 104 Pa at a constant temperature, what will be the new
volume of the gas?

201