10.2305 IUCN - UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12555A215350982.en

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)

IUCN 2022: T12555A215350982
Scope(s): Global
Language: English
Macaca nemestrina, Southern Pig-tailed Macaque

Assessment by: Ruppert, N., Holzner, A., Hansen, M.F., Ang, A. & Jones-Engel, L.
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: Ruppert, N., Holzner, A., Hansen, M.F., Ang, A. & Jones-Engel, L. 2022. Macaca nemestrina.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T12555A215350982.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T12555A215350982.en
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Taxonomy
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Cercopithecidae
Scientific Name: Macaca nemestrina (Linnaeus, 1766)
Synonym(s):
• Macaca brachyurus (Hamilton Smith, 1842)
• Macaca broca Miller, 1906
• Macaca carpolegus (Raffles, 1821)
• Macaca fusca (Shaw, 1800)
• Macaca libidinosus I. Geoffroy, 1826
• Macaca longicruris (Link, 1795)
• Macaca maimon (de Blainville, 1839)
• Macaca nucifera Sody, 1936
• Macaca platypygos (Schreber, 1774)
Common Name(s):
• English: Southern Pig-tailed Macaque, Pig-tailed Macaque, Pigtail Macaque, Sunda Pig-
tailed Macaque, Sundaland Pigtail Macaque
• French: Macaque À Queue De Cochon
• Spanish; Castilian: Macaca Cola De Cerdo
• German: Südlicher Schweinsaffe
• Indonesian: beruk
Taxonomic Notes:
This taxon was formerly treated as a subspecies of the Macaca nemestrina group, which comprised M.
n. nemestrina, M. n. leonina, and M. n. pagensis (Fooden 1975, Rosenblum et al. 1997).
The boundary zone between M. leonina and M. nemestrina is not well defined and lies at the Surat
Thani-Krabi depression (8-9°30'N) where ranges overlap and hybridization is likely to occur
(Malaivijitnond et al. 2012). Formerly, there were reports of hybridization with M. leonina in a small
area in southern mainland Thailand and on the islands of Phuket and Yao Yai (Fooden 1975, in Groves
2001), however more recent reports do not provide conclusive evidence of presence of a M. nemestrina
population on Phuket (iNaturalist 2022, S. Malaivijitnond, pers. comm.). Hybridization of M. nemestrina
with M. fascicularis also occurs in Sepilok, Sabah (Gilhooly et al. 2021) and is occasionally observed in
other parts of Malaysia (N. Ruppert, pers. obs.).
Molecular clock analysis suggests that M. nemestrina arrived in the Malay Peninsula about 0.32 million
years ago; and the Bornean populations are suggested to be the first extant lineages to have separated
from the other examined lineages of M. nemestrina, M. leonina, M. pagensis, and M. siberu in
Southeast Asia (Abdul-Latiff and Md-Zain 2021).
The population from Perak (west Peninsular Malaysia) is reported to differ genetically from other extant
populations based on phylogenetic and population genetic analyses, indicating a possible subspecies
distributed in the state of Perak (Abdul-Latiff and Md-Zain 2021).
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Macaca nemestrina – published in 2022. 1
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria: Endangered A2cde+3cde ver 3.1
Year Published: 2022
Date Assessed: March 13, 2022
Justification:
This species is assessed as Endangered based on a suspected ongoing population reduction of at least
50% in the past three generations (approximately 33 years for this species), which is likely to continue
into the future if the threats are not addressed. This population reduction is suspected due to the
ongoing conversion of their prime habitat to other land use forms, leading to permanent habitat loss
and degradation. This includes conversion of lowland tropical rainforest to large-scale oil palm
monocultures and other crops (e.g., durian, rubber) and for mining activities through clear felling;
habitat degradation due to selective logging for timber extraction and the construction of roads and
linear infrastructure, and other large-scale urban and industrial development projects (e.g., the
establishment of Indonesia’s new capital city Nusantara in Kalimantan), draining of peat swamps, and
seasonal forest burning that will likely become more severe due to predicted extreme weather events in
the region. The incidences of road casualties have also steadily increased over the past years.
Although this species is reported to be able to make use of anthropogenically-impacted habitats such as
agricultural landscapes and urban areas, it is sensitive to severe habitat disturbance and clear-cutting,
leading to a local decline in site occupancy of 10% over four years from 2013 to 2017. A high recorded
mean infant mortality of 66% (range 30–100% between 2014–2021) within the first year in disturbed
habitat indicates that this species is not as adaptable to anthropogenic landscapes as previously
thought.
Where the species persists, there is hunting and trapping for the illegal pet trade, for biomedical
research and export, and for human consumption. They are often persecuted as crop pests and during
other frequent human-macaque conflicts, leading to continued negative public perception of the
species. Together with the observed extremely high annual infant mortality rate in human-impacted
areas, possibly due to pollutants, and the inferred likely decrease in genetic diversity of populations in
highly fragmented landscapes, this paints a concerning outlook for the long-term survival of this species.
Previously Published Red List Assessments

2020 – Vulnerable (VU)
2020 – Endangered (EN)


https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12555A3356892.en
1994 – Commercially Threatened (CT)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Kalimantan Borneo, and Sumatra), Malaysia
(Peninsular Malaysia; Sabah and Sarawak in Borneo), and southern Thailand (from Surat Thani-Krabi
depression N8–9° to the Malaysian border) (Groves 2001, Roos et al. 2014). It is apparently native to a
few offshore islands such as Pulau Tioman (east coast of Peninsular Malaysia) and Batam (Riau
Archipelago off the southern tip of the Malay peninsula) (Roos et al. 2014). There were small,
introduced populations in the Natuna Islands (Groves 2001) and a few released individuals in Pulau
Pinang and Singapore in the past that did not establish a viable population (N. Ruppert, A. Ang, pers.
obs.).
The precise geographic boundary between M. nemestrina and M. leonina is not well-defined. There
were previous reports of the two taxa found on either side of the assumed distribution limit in the
Isthmus of Kra, but many of these small populations may have been the result of release by humans and
the natural species boundary may lie further south at the Surat Thani–Krabi depression (N8–9°) as no
recent reports of M. nemestrina indicate their presence further north of this area (iNaturalist 2022).
While the extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species is quite large (the overall geographical area with
reported presence of this species sums up to ca 1.3 million km²) the actual area of occupancy (AOO) is
likely much smaller and likely heavily fragmented. For example, calculations for Peninsular Malaysia
show that of the 131,600 km² available land area, only approximately half of it constitutes potential
Macaca nemestrina habitat, with ca 68,000 km² lying in natural habitat sites such as primary and
secondary forest (of which some lies above the 1,900 m elevation threshold beyond which the habitat is
not suitable for this species), and ca 2,000 km² lying in oil palm plantations adjacent to forest (i.e., area
calculated as a 500 m buffer zone from the forest edge into the plantation that macaques can
potentially use to forage; B. Galea and N. Ruppert, unpublished data).
The EOO, AOO, and habitat quality for this species continues to decline rapidly due to habitat
degradation and loss, which are happening in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and all parts of
Borneo (Global Forest Watch 2020).
Country Occurrence:
Native, Extant (resident): Brunei Darussalam; Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatera); Malaysia (Peninsular
Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak); Thailand
Distribution Map
Population
This species is common in some parts of its range, but numbers have been severely reduced in many
other places due to habitat loss and degradation (e.g., IUCN SSC 1982, Meijaard et al. 2007), capture for
the increased demand for use in biomedical research (e.g., Ha et al. 2000, Johnson et al. 2013, Ritter et
al. 2013, Lee et al. 2021), the illegal pet trade (Zainol et al. 2018), and subsistence hunting (Bernstein
1967, Lappan and Ruppert 2019).
It is suspected that there has been at least a 50% reduction in population of the species in the last three
generations (ca 33 years from 1989 to date) and that there will continue to be a 50% reduction in the
population in the next three generations (ca 33 years from present day to 2055) if business-as-usual
continues. This is suspected based on a range of data including: 1) ongoing habitat degradation across
its range from 2001 to 2020 (e.g., 29% of tree cover loss in Malaysia; 16% to 41% tree cover loss across
its range in Indonesia; Global Forest Watch 2022) which will certainly continue into the future; 2)
evidence of local extirpation in former habitat sites (Holzner et al. 2021b); 3) evidence from the Pasoh
Forest Reserve that highly degraded areas had a 10% decline in macaque site occupancy over a four-
year period (Holzner et al. 2021b); and 3) a mean infant mortality rate of 66% (ranging from 30% to
100%) over an 8-year period (2014–2021) in/near oil palm plantations which already constitute a not-
insignificant portion of the species' potential habitat. In summary, it is known that the species is losing
(and has lost) significant portions of its habitat across its range and that where this has occurred, we
have seen lower site occupancy, higher infant mortality, and local extirpation. There are additional
threats to consider as well, including human-wildlife conflict, the ongoing live trade of the species (it is
one of the top five primate species illegally traded online in Malaysia, Zainol et al. 2018), and potential
hybridization (at the boundary zone between M. leonina and M. nemestrina; with M. leonina in a small
area in southern mainland Thailand; and with M. fascicularis in Sepilok, Sabah and is occasionally
observed in other parts of Malaysia; please see 'taxonomy' section for more information).
Additional supporting information is provided, below:
There are no conclusive reports about the current overall estimated population size of this species
within their distribution range, as wild macaques are extremely elusive and difficult to encounter and
count in a dense rainforest environment (Bernstein 1967). In Peninsular Malaysia, M. nemestrina is
reported to have already experienced an estimated 43.7% population decline from 80,000 individuals in
1957 to 45,000 in 1975 (IUCN SSC 1982). Given the magnitude and rate of forest conversion to other
land use forms since 1975, we suspect a substantial further population decline to have happened.
The species can persist in selectively-logged forests but is sensitive to severe habitat disturbance and
clear-cutting, leading to a decline in site occupancy of 10% between 2013-2017 and local extirpation in
former habitat sites (Holzner et al. 2021b).
A former census in west-central Sumatra (1996-1999) yielded density estimates of 1.7 groups/km² in
lowland forest, 1.5 groups/km² in hill dipterocarp forest, 0.7 groups/km² in montane forest and 0.8
groups/km² in sub-montane forest (Yanuar et al. ²2009). An assessment of habituated study groups in a
mixed lowland dipterocarp forest-oil palm landscape in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia indicated
approximately 1.5 groups/km² with group home range sizes of ca. 1 km² that partially overlap (Holzner
et al. 2021a).
Group sizes appear to starkly vary between habitat types and study sites. In West Sumatra, the average
group size of wild, unprovisioned M. nemestrina was assessed at 10–11 individuals (range 1–20) in hill
dipterocarp forest, seven individuals (range 6–8) in montane forest, 9–10 individuals in sub-montane
forest, and 8–9 individuals (range 1–13) in lowland forest (Yanuar et al. 2009), and ranged between
16–21 individuals (mean 18.3) for a Sumatran-wide survey (Crockett and Wilson 1980). However, Oi
(1990) reported larger group sizes between 21 and 81 individuals in Sumatra, where animals were
provisioned and observed at baiting sites. Numbers from wild, unprovisioned macaques reported from
Peninsular Malaysia range between 15-50 individuals with mean group sizes estimated to fluctuate
around 30 individuals of all sex-age classes (Caldecott 1986, Bernstein 1967, Ruppert et al. 2018,
Holzner et al. 2021a). Temporary encounters of neighbouring groups may suggest the existence of large
groups of over 80 individuals, but these aggregations are rare and usually only last for a few hours, as
most inter-groups encounters are agonistic (N. Ruppert, pers. obs.). This may have also led to higher
reported group sizes from baiting sites in Sumatra (Oi 1990).
It is estimated that in Peninsular Malaysia alone, oil palm plantations now constitute ca 3% of M.
nemestrina’s potential habitat (B. Galea and N. Ruppert, unpublished data) that they enter from nearby
forests for short foraging bouts (Ruppert et al. 2018). The conversion of their natural forest habitat into
oil palm monocultures leads to changes in the activity budgets of M. nemestrina, with reduced
sociality/affiliative social interactions and prolonged infant care in oil palm plantation habitat (compared
to the forest). Ultimately, this may induce long-term changes in survival and fitness of these populations
(Holzner et al. 2021a). The mean annual infant mortality rate (2014-2021) in this habitat type was
estimated to be ca 66% within the first year of infant life, fluctuating from 30% in 2014 to 100% in 2019
(A. Holzner and N. Ruppert, unpublished data). This indicates a very low recruitment in
anthropogenically-shaped landscapes, possibly due to the exposure to anthropogenic stressors, such as
the presence of humans and agricultural pollution through large-scale pesticide and fertilizer use (N.
Ruppert, pers. obs.). This high infant mortality is similar to wild macaques that are heavily exposed to
tourism (e.g., M. thibetana: Berman et al. 2007), but much higher than in other wild species (e.g., ca.
17% in M. maura: Okamoto et al. 2000; ca 8% in M. mulatta: Southwick et al. 1980); and much higher
than for this and other macaque species in captivity (e.g., ca 15% for captive M. nemestrina: Dazey and
Erwin 1976; ca 13% for captive M. fascicularis: Erwin, 1977). An infant mortality rate of 66% is not
assumed to be sustainable for this species.
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Macaca nemestrina occupies lowland primary and secondary forest, as well as coastal, swamp and
montane forest. Although this species is known to occur from sea level up to ca. 1,900 m above sea
level, they are best adapted to lowland and hill dipterocarp forests up to 900 m (Crockett and Wilson,
1980, Yanuar et al. 2009) and prefer dry forested grounds on the foot of hills and slopes (Bersacola et al.
2019). In Peninsular Malaysia, M. nemestrina occasionally visits lowland alluvial freshwater swamps
(Ruppert et al. 2018) in search of fruits, such as Salacca and rattan (G. Villa and N. Ruppert, unpublished
data).
This species is also frequently found around agricultural areas, hillside farms, and fringes of urban
environments. Moreover, it has been reported in oil palm plantations (especially in Peninsular Malaysia
and Borneo), both near to the forest edge and further inside the plantations (up to ca 500 m from the
forest edge, Ruppert et al. 2018, Holzner et al. 2019, 2021a).
Macaca nemestrina lives in multi-male multi female groups and is often seen in association with long-
tailed macaques (M. fascicularis). Interspecies interactions are common (N. Ruppert, pers. obs.) and
hybridization can occur (Gilhooly et al. 2020). The species is diurnal and uses both terrestrial and
arboreal habitat to travel and forage during the day. Adult males and females of a wild, habituated
group of macaques spend most of their activity time (>50%; Ruppert et al. 2018) on the ground, but all
individuals readily climb and forage in the trees. Previously, Caldecott (1986) reported M. nemestrina to
spend only 8-10% of their activity time on the ground and 58–64% in the middle and upper canopy. The
discrepancy from the above study may be explained by the lower habituation level of the animals
observed by Caldecott (1986).
Although this species frequently uses oil palm plantations as a foraging ground, they exclusively choose
mature trees in the forest as their sleeping sites (Ruppert et al. 2018). Similarly, resting and most social
behaviours (e.g., grooming) are conducted mostly in the forest, even when their home ranges span over
forest and oil palm plantation habitat, indicating that M. nemestrina heavily depends on intact nearby
forest (Holzner et al. 2021a) and confirming previous doubts on their ability to permanently persist in
highly disturbed habitats (Caldecott 1986). In this mixed habitat type, habituated groups exhibit
different activity budgets in forest and oil palm plantation, spending most of their activity time in
plantations on feeding and foraging (ca 70%) but most of their activity time in the forest on resting (ca
40%) (Holzner et al. 2021a). An adjusted overall activity budget assessed locomotion (ca 35%), feeding
(ca 30%), resting (ca 15%) and foraging (ca 12%), social behaviour (ca 7%) and other behaviours during
an 18-month study of this species in forest and oil palm plantation (Ruppert et al. 2018).
Macaca nemestrina is omnivorous. In Peninsular Malaysia, its diet in the forest consists of ripe and
unripe fruits (32%), arthropods and invertebrates (32%), plant shoots and stems (15%), leaves (11%),
and other items including small vertebrates, flowers, fungi and tree bark (Ruppert et al. 2018).
Swarming termites, grasshoppers, other insects, spiders, fruits, seeds, young leaves, leaf stems, and
fungi were also consumed elsewhere in the same region (Bernstein 1967). The macaques were found to
act as key seed dispersers for non-climbing rattan species in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Malaysia
(Ruppert et al. 2014).
In agricultural lands, they are known to feed on crops of oil palm (Holzner et al. 2019), corn, eggplants,
chili pepper, and tapioca, reportedly able to forage on crops until a favourite crop such as corn is
completely consumed (Crockett and Wilson 1980). They are also reported to crop forage on rice, papaya
and banana crops, causing more damage compared to other crop-foraging species in Sumatra (Linkie et
al. 2007). In Peninsular Malaysia, M. nemestrina was found to regularly feed on rats that they actively
hunt in oil palm plantations, indicating a potential role as a biological pest control agent (as one group of
macaques kills ca 3,000 rats per year, Holzner et al. 2019). However, this does not necessarily indicate
healthy populations in monocultural landscapes as the very high infant mortality in this habitat type
does not deem it suitable for the species and no populations are reported that thrive in oil palm
plantations far from natural forests (A. Holzner and N. Ruppert, unpublished data).
Systems: Terrestrial
Use and Trade
The species is trapped for use in biomedical research (e.g., Ha et al. 2000, Ritter et al. 2013, Lee et al.
2021), hunted for food (Lappan and Ruppert 2019) and the illegal pet trade (Zainol et al. 2018), and as
working animals in the coconut-plucking industry (e.g., Bernstein 1976, Choong 2019). Pet trade occurs
in local markets and has also moved online to social media platforms such as Facebook. For example, in
Indonesia, 1,274 individuals were offered for online sale from 2020 to 2021 alone (Anonymous,
unpublished data). The legality of this is questionable, as the species is not protected in Indonesia
(MOEF, 2018), however, the wild harvest quota for the species is zero and therefore capture from the
wild is illegal (KLHK, 2021). In Malaysia, this species belongs to the Top-5 primate species illegally traded
as pets on online platforms, reaching a trading value of ca 100 USD per infant (Zainol et al. 2018).
Locally and internationally, this species is bred in colonies for biomedical and behavioural research, for
example in Bogor, Indonesia (Sari et al. 2013), Australia (HRA 2022) and the USA (e.g., ORIP 2021). It is
traded with approximately 50–150 individuals exported per year between 2013–2020 (CITES Trade
Database 2022). Indonesia used to be a main exporter, but there is currently no trade quota on the
species.
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

This species is threatened by habitat loss, which is very serious in many parts of its range. There has
been extensive loss and degradation of lowland forest in Malaysia and Indonesia through clear felling to
expand monocultures such as oil palm plantations, durian and rubber, for mining activities and urban
and industrial expansion (Global Forest Watch 2020, 2022), as well as habitat loss/degradation through
selective logging for timber extraction and forest fires/drought (Meijaard et al. 2007, ASMC 2022).
Habitat loss and fragmentation through the spread of African oil palm (Elaeis guineens) seems the
greatest threat to its populations, both in Indonesia and Malaysia. From 1967 to 2000, the area under oil
palm cultivation here increased from less than 2000 km² to more than 30,000 km². In 2011, 83,000 km²
were planted with oil palm, including 20,000 km² in Peninsular Malaysia, 24,000 km² on Borneo, and
39,000 km² in Sumatra (Koh et al. 2011). In 2013, this number had grown to 116,000 km² (71,000 km² in
Indonesia and 45,000 km² in Malaysia; Vijay et al. 2016), and the area planted with oil palm continues to
increase rapidly (Meijaard and Sheil 2013). The establishment of oil palm monocultures does not only
lead to loss of biodiversity but also contributes to habitat fragmentation and environmental pollution
through chemical fertilizers or pesticide runoffs (reviewed in Fitzherbert et al. 2008), which directly
affects M. nemestrina, who frequently uses plantations for short foraging bouts (Holzner et al. 2019,
2021a), and may thus get in direct and prolonged contact with dangerous chemicals, such as paraquat,
which is a reportedly harmful herbicide (CDC 2018) still commonly used in Peninsular Malaysia (N.
Ruppert, pers. obs.).
During the past decade, Malaysia alone has lost 11.3% of its primary forest and 16.8% of tree cover
(Mongabay, 2021) and Macaca nemestrina is reported to be sensitive to timber harvest (Meijaard et al.
2007), and has experienced a 10% decline in local site occupancy in heavily disturbed and clear-cut
forest sites over a period of only four years, recently (2013-2017; Holzner et al. 2021b).
Human-wildlife conflict and a generally negative public perception of this species is quite severe.
Macaca nemestrina has consistently been in the Top-5 list of public complaints about wildlife filed to the
Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia (mean 298 annual complaints between
2013-2018 for Peninsular Malaysia alone; DWNP 2018). Negative public perceptions also occur due to
crop foraging, which results in the macaques being perceived as pests. A study on crop foraging by
Linkie et al. (2007) in Sumatra found that M. nemestrina was one of the most frequently reported crop
foragers for rice, banana and papaya here. However, in Peninsular Malaysia, it was shown that M.
nemestrina frequently forages in oil palm plantations but causes little damage to ripe oil palm fruits
(<0.6%); it instead contributes to increasing oil palm yield by foraging on pest rodents in plantations
(Holzner et al. 2019). However, due to the high infant mortality, palm oil plantations are not suitable
habitats for the species, and it needs healthy forest adjacent to the plantations. Also, the publication by
Holzner et al. (2019) led to a misunderstanding regarding the role of the species in oil palm plantations
and its habitat needs, with the public assuming the species would thrive in oil palm plantations alone,
which is not the case (N. Ruppert, pers. obs.).
In all range countries, the species along with M. leonina is used in the coconut plucking industry and the
entertainment industry, which further threatens its survival (e.g., Bangkok Post 2015).
There is ongoing and active trade of the species, especially in Indonesia, where the species is still
offered for sale in markets, and 1,274 individuals were offered for sale on Facebook in 2020/21 alone
(Anonymous, unpublished results). The illegal online pet trade of this species is also rampant in Malaysia
(Zainol et al. 2018). Macaca nemestrina is increasingly sought for use in biomedical science studies for
HIV/AIDS and other infectious disease research (e.g., Ha et al. 2000, Lee et al. 2021, Ritter et al. 2013),
and hunted for food (Bernstein 1967, Lappan and Ruppert 2019).
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It is not listed as a protected species in Indonesia (MOEF,
2018), but as it does not currently feature on the wildlife capture quota list, its capture from the wild is
not allowed (KLHK 2021).
Protected status of Macaca nemestrina is warranted in Peninsular Malaysia under the Wildlife
Conservation Act of 2010 (Act 716), in Sabah under the Wildlife Conservation Enactment of 1997 (Act 6
of 1997), and in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance of 1998. “Protected” indicates that no
hunting, keeping, or trade is permitted without a licence, which can be obtained from the relevant
wildlife authority in each jurisdiction. Hunting for food is a traditional practice among indigenous
hunter-gatherers in Malaysia and Schedule 6 of the Wildlife Conservation Act of 2010 provides for an
exception for subsistence hunting of M. nemestrina by indigenous Malaysians in Peninsular Malaysia
(Lappan and Ruppert, 2019).
In Thailand, it is not specifically listed on the Wild Animal Preservation and Protection Act, B.E. 2562
(2019), but it is given the general protection of wildlife, which restricts hunting and capture in all
protected areas and forest lands.
The species is not protected in Brunei, however no export is allowed (Brunei Wildlife Act 1978, updated
1984).
Finally, the effectiveness of protected areas should be assessed for this species, as these areas seem to
be strongholds for M. nemestrina. The majority land-use classification for remnant habitat is logging
concession, and the selective extraction of mature trees may further negatively impact their
persistence, given their reliance on trees as foraging and sleeping sites in the forest.
Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.
Credits
Assessor(s): Ruppert, N., Holzner, A., Hansen, M.F., Ang, A. & Jones-Engel, L.
Reviewer(s): Reuter, K.E.
Contributor(s): Cheyne, S., Eudey, A., Mittermeier, R.A., Boonratana, R., Choudhury, A. &
Supriatna, J.
Authority/Authorities: IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group
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Citation
Ruppert, N., Holzner, A., Hansen, M.F., Ang, A. & Jones-Engel, L. 2022. Macaca nemestrina. The IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T12555A215350982. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-
1.RLTS.T12555A215350982.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Supplementary Material, and for Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the
Red List website.
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Major
Habitat Season Suitability
Importance?
1. Forest -> 1.6. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland - Suitable Yes
1. Forest -> 1.7. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Mangrove Vegetation Above - Suitable No

High Tide Level
1. Forest -> 1.8. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Swamp - Suitable No
1. Forest -> 1.9. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane - Suitable Yes
3. Shrubland -> 3.6. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.1. Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.3. Artificial/Terrestrial - Plantations - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.4. Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.5. Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas - Marginal -
14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.6. Artificial/Terrestrial - Subtropical/Tropical - Marginal -

Heavily Degraded Former Forest
Use and Trade

End Use Local National International
1. Food - human Yes Yes No
13. Pets/display animals, horticulture Yes Yes No
14. Research Yes No Yes
17. Other (free text) Yes Yes No
Threats
Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score
1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.1. Ongoing Majority (50- Causing/could Medium
Housing & urban areas 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion

1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
Commercial & industrial areas 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
Tourism & recreation areas 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual & Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.1. Shifting 90%) declines impact: 6
agriculture
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual & Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.2. Small-holder 90%) declines impact: 6
farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual & Ongoing Majority (50- Very rapid High impact: 8
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.3. Agro-industry 90%) declines
farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.2. Wood & pulp Ongoing Majority (50- Very rapid High impact: 8
plantations -> 2.2.2. Agro-industry plantations 90%) declines
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming Ongoing Majority (50- Causing/could Medium
& ranching -> 2.3.3. Agro-industry grazing, ranching 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
or farming
3. Energy production & mining -> 3.1. Oil & gas Ongoing Minority (50%) Rapid declines Medium
drilling impact: 6
4. Transportation & service corridors -> 4.1. Roads & Ongoing Minority (50%) Rapid declines Medium
railroads impact: 6
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping Ongoing Majority (50- Causing/could Medium
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species is 90%) cause fluctuations impact: 6
the target)
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significant Low impact: 5
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.3. Persecution/control declines
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.1. Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
Recreational activities 90%) declines impact: 6
7. Natural system modifications -> 7.1. Fire & fire Ongoing Minority (50%) Causing/could Low impact: 5
suppression -> 7.1.1. Increase in fire cause fluctuations
frequency/intensity
7. Natural system modifications -> 7.3. Other Ongoing Minority (50%) Causing/could Low impact: 5
ecosystem modifications cause fluctuations
9. Pollution -> 9.3. Agricultural & forestry effluents -> Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
9.3.3. Herbicides and pesticides 90%) declines impact: 6
10. Geological events -> 10.2. Earthquakes/tsunamis Ongoing Minority (50%) Causing/could Low impact: 5
cause fluctuations
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.2. Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
Droughts 90%) declines impact: 6
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.4. Storms Ongoing Majority (50- Slow, significant Medium
& flooding 90%) declines impact: 6
Conservation Actions in Place

Conservation Action in Place

In-place research and monitoring
Action Recovery Plan: No
Systematic monitoring scheme: No
In-place land/water protection
Conservation sites identified: No
Area based regional management plan: No
Occurs in at least one protected area: Yes
Invasive species control or prevention: Not Applicable
In-place species management
Harvest management plan: No
Successfully reintroduced or introduced benignly: No
Subject to ex-situ conservation: No
In-place education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: Yes
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management / trade controls: Yes
Conservation Actions Needed

Conservation Action Needed

1. Land/water protection -> 1.1. Site/area protection
1. Land/water protection -> 1.2. Resource & habitat protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management
Conservation Action Needed
2. Land/water management -> 2.3. Habitat & natural process restoration
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.2. Trade management
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.2. National level
5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.2. National level
Research Needed
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends
1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology
1. Research -> 1.4. Harvest, use & livelihoods
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
1. Research -> 1.6. Actions
3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.3. Trade trends
3. Monitoring -> 3.4. Habitat trends
Additional Data Fields

Distribution
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Yes
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Yes
Upper elevation limit (m): 1,900
Population
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Extreme fluctuations: Unknown
Population severely fragmented: Yes
Habitats and Ecology

Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Yes
Generation Length (years): 11
The IUCN Red List Partnership
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: ABQ BioPark; Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic
Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International; Missouri Botanical Garden;
NatureServe; Re:wild; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University;
and Zoological Society of London.
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

ISSN 2307-8235 (online)

Macaca nemestrina, Southern Pig-tailed Macaque

THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Cercopithecidae

Scientific Name: Macaca nemestrina (Linnaeus, 1766)

Year Published: 2022

Date Assessed: March 13, 2022

Previously Published Red List Assessments

2020 – Endangered (EN)

2008 – Vulnerable (VU)

2000 – Vulnerable (VU)

1996 – Vulnerable (VU)

Additional supporting information is provided, below:

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

Reviewer(s): Reuter, K.E.

Authority/Authorities: IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group

ASMC. 2022. ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Center. Available at: http://asmc.asean.org/home/.

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CITES. 2022. CITES Trade Database. Available at: https://trade.cites.org/#.

iNaturalist. 2022. Macaca nemestrina. Available at: https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/43455-Macaca-

Mongabay. 2021. Available at: https://rainforests.mongabay.com/. (Accessed: 13 March, 2022).

1. Forest -> 1.6. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland - Suitable Yes

1. Forest -> 1.7. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Mangrove Vegetation Above - Suitable No

1. Forest -> 1.8. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Swamp - Suitable No

1. Forest -> 1.9. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane - Suitable Yes

3. Shrubland -> 3.6. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.1. Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.3. Artificial/Terrestrial - Plantations - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.4. Artificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.5. Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas - Marginal -

14. Artificial/Terrestrial -> 14.6. Artificial/Terrestrial - Subtropical/Tropical - Marginal -

Use and Trade

End Use Local National International

1. Food - human Yes Yes No

13. Pets/display animals, horticulture Yes Yes No

14. Research Yes No Yes

17. Other (free text) Yes Yes No

Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion

Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

Conservation Actions in Place

Conservation Action in Place

Action Recovery Plan: No

Systematic monitoring scheme: No

In-place land/water protection

Conservation sites identified: No

Area based regional management plan: No

Occurs in at least one protected area: Yes

Invasive species control or prevention: Not Applicable

In-place species management

Harvest management plan: No

Successfully reintroduced or introduced benignly: No

Subject to ex-situ conservation: No

Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: Yes

Included in international legislation: Yes

Subject to any international management / trade controls: Yes