Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

First Edition

Author

Mr. Ananthakumar Paulraj

M.E, M.Sc, M.I.E

INSC International Publishers

Title of the Book: Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

Edition: First- 2021

Copyright 2021 © Author

Mr. Ananthakumar Paulraj, M.E, M.Sc, M.I.E

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any

form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the copyright
owners’.

Disclaimer
The author is solely responsible for the contents published in
this book. The publishers or editors don’t take any
responsibility for the same in any manner. Errors, if any, are
purely unintentional and readers are requested to
communicate such errors to the editors or publishers to avoid
discrepancies in future.

ISBN: 978-1-68576-134-9

MRP Rs. 700/-

PUBLISHERS & PRINTER: INSC International Publishers

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Housing Board, K.M. Road
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Tel.: +91-8861518868
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IMPRINT: I I P

ii
 Dedicate to

My Daughters

iii
 Preamble

The idea of writing this book was suggested by many students

and professors when I delivered lectures at few engineering
colleges.

There are very limited books covering the entire gamut of

tunnel engineering, right from the investigation stage to
design, construction and maintenance, especially with the
background of practices prevalent in India.

The book describing the modern tunnel construction

advancements by utilizing tunnel boring machines in India.
Apart from TBM tunnel technologies, New Austrian
Tunnelling Method (NATM) and its design concepts
including drill & blast engineering approaches has been
explained. Besides, short view about Lucknow metro
underground tunnel, Japan's Seikan tunnel and the English
Channel tunnel details included to enhance the value of this
small book. Any construction site requires designated safety
engineer who bounded by implementing a stringent regulation
of safe rules, monitoring and the swift actions to be obeyed by
the whole people. This book contains a unique chapter
‘Tunnel Safety Engineering’ for the readers.

Always, the ‘Safety first - work next’!

iv
 Foreword

Greetings from URC to Mr. AnanthaKumar Paulraj for his

efforts to come out with the book on Tunnel Engineering. As
he believes this field of engineering is to evolve in a very
strong way for India. Few years back, a friend of mine who is
in the helm of affairs in the Public Sector company was
mentioning that India has only 700 Km of Tunnels all put
together in Highway, Railway and other form of mobility.
Northeast of India which is bordering China where enormous
supplies has to be met with for the armed forces takes lot of
difficulties because of the logistic constraints. Similarly, in
one of the conferences during Shri. Atal Bihari Vajpayee term
as Prime Minister for the linking of river has happened at
Pollachi under the leadership of Thavathiru. Vethathiri
Maharishi and Mr. Suresh Prabhu then Member of Parliament
was the Chairman for the river linking project. In that
conference, an expert had given an opinion that close to 1500
TMC of water is being let in to the ocean from the rivers of
Kerala. Whereas, if a tunnel is bored in the western ghats at an
appropriate location that water can be easily diverted to
Tamilnadu where the water requirement is 500 TMC.

The Road transport between Delhi and Mumbai has got one of
the world’s widest tunnels which is opened to public recently.
Similarly, a recently opened tunnel in the national highway in
Kerala has also eased the constraints of the travellers. The
above-mentioned points are some of the examples which
emphasis that the importance of tunnelling for making India a
Better, Stronger, Comfortable Country to live. In this context,

v
Mr. AnanthaKumar’s attempt to explain this Engineering
Chapter for the use of practicing construction professionals
explaining different technologies, the countries from where
those technologies were evolved, the kind of challenges a
construction project will face during execution, with few
sample projects data will help the construction fraternity in a
better way.

I wish every practising Engineer in this field should read this

and become familiar with the Tunnel Engineering and
innovate new Methods, Ideas, Concepts and Techniques in
India for making India a great country.

URC Devarajan

vi
 Acknowledgement

This small book is intended to cover the recent tunnel

construction technologies especially, the underground metro
railways. It will be predominantly helpful to the fresh civil
and mining engineering graduates and young tunnel
engineers. It has been written based on my own experiences,
reference with the journals, books, standards & codes,
international guidelines, case studies, specifications and some
project reports.

I am grateful for a number of friends and colleagues for

encouraging me to start the work, preserve with it, and to
publish it.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge with gratitude, the

support and love of my family-my parents, Dr. Paulraj and
Parvathi; my wife Prajavani. They all kept me going, and this
book would not have been possible without them.

Mr. Ananthakumar Paulraj

vii
 Contents

Preamble iv
Foreword v-vi
Acknowledgements vii
1. Introduction 1-2
2. Factors to be considered prior to the 3-6
underground project
3. Classification of Tunnel Boring Machine 7-10
4. TBM based on geological conditions 11-14
5. Selection of TBM 15-19
6. TBM Testing & Commissioning 20-21
7. Face support pressure and its importance 22-25
8. Tunnel surveying 26-27
9. Working Methodology at the tunnel site 28-31
10. Tunnel Design 32-38
11. Precast Concrete Segment 39-44
12. Ring Type Selection 45-49
13. Importance of segment gasket 50-53
14. Grout selection criteria 54-58
15. Initial Drive of tunnel 59-60
16. NATM tunnel 61-72
17. The Lucknow Metro Tunnel-An Overview 73-82
18. The English Channel Tunnel-An Overview 83-91
19. The Seikan Tunnel-An Overview 92-99
20. Design of Cross Passages 100-115

viii
21. Repairing of precast concrete segment 116-120
22. Definitions 121-123
23. Tunnel Safety Engineering 124-135
24. Abbreviations 136-137
25. Some of the useful websites to enhance the 138
knowledge
26. Appendix 139-144
27. References 145-147

ix
 List of Figures
Sl.no Title Pages

1 Typical oldest shield concept in the year 1825 2

2 TBM assembly at site 8
3 A model of micro tunnel boring machine 10
4 Position of cutterhead after breakthrough in 20
the rocky geological strata
5 Slurry shield machine 24
6 Earth pressure balanced method 25
7 Display for operating system at the control 31
cabin
8 Inspection of EPDM gasket prior to fixing on 50
the joints of segments
9 Grout portals on the tail shield 56
10 Initial drive set-up 59
11 Various detailing of NATM concepts 63
12 Typical views of blasting at the tunnel face 65
13 Shows an example of a simplified non- 71
electric sector ignition design
14 Schematic diagram of underground layout 74
consisting tunnel, UG station, Cut & Cover
tunnels and ramps
15 Dimensional view of Channel tunnel 84
16 Map shows the tunnel path between the U.K 85
and France
17 Sectional view of main tunnels and service 87
tunnel
18 Map shows the tunnel path between the 93
Tsugaru Strait and Aomori Prefecture
19 Dimensional view of Seikan Tunnel 94
20 Typical cross passage layout general design 101
21 Fixing of temporary steel structures in tunnel 106

x
22 Removal of core cut parts of precast concrete 106
segment
23 Fore poling for strengthening the ground 107
24 Primary lining after excavation 107
25 Water proofing system 108
26 Reinforcements for final/permanent lining 108
27 Invert floor concrete 109

xi
 List of Tables

Sl. no Title Page

1 Rock class with RMR values 13

2 Global TBM manufacturers 16
3 Technical specification of typical TBM 18-19
4 Usage of consumable materials for TBM 25
Tunnel
5 TBM Tunnel extension service materials 30
6 Grout type features 54
7 Tunnel salient features/LMRC project 77
8 Major Equipment used in LMRC project 79-82
9 General features of Channel Tunnel 84
10 Cross-passage door design as per relevant 114
standards and norms
11 Repairing of precast concrete segments 116
12 Limitation level of gas monitoring 135

xii
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

1. Introduction
The phenomenal success of the Delhi Metro has today
sparked a metro revolution across the country. For a long
time, it was believed that executing a complicated
infrastructure project like the metro in India’s congested cities
was extremely difficult. However, the Delhi Metro changed
the perception. Rather than focusing on the implementation
that could come in planning and executing such projects, now
the urban planners could see the many benefits that the Metro
offered. The government aided policies that supported the
development of metro systems in cities with populations of
more than a million, today a total of 13 cities across the
country have operational Metro networks. Apart from the
major metropolitan cities, tier 2 cities such as Jaipur,
Lucknow, Nagpur, Ahmedabad and Kochi also have
developed Metro systems. Patna has also recently started the
construction of a Metro network.

The tunnelling project especially the TBM tunnel is

booming in South East Asian countries, in particular the
Indian infrastructure market to avoid densely populated urban
congestion and also to utilize the sub-surface. Ex: China,
Japan, Singapore has the unique technological system. The
first tunnel boring shield was developed by Sir
Mark Brunal to excavate the Rotherhithe tunnel under the
Thames in 1825. However, this was only the invention of the
shield concept and did not involve the construction of a
complete tunnel boring machine. We all know that tunnels are
essential to modern infrastructure, but what is the best way to
drill a tunnel? The three defining methods are the Tunnel
Boring Machine (TBM) method, the Cut and Cover approach,
and the New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM), which is

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

also referred to as the Sequential Excavation Method (SEM)

or simply conventional tunnelling. Each method holds a set of
strength and weakness that makes it better approach for
certain applications. This book describing the utilization of
TBM & NATM tunnelling.

Fig 1: Typical oldest shield concept in the year 1825

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

2. Factors to Be Considered
Prior to the Project
2.1 Influences of Geological Investigations

The stability of the foundation of a building, a bridge, an

embankment, or any other structure built on soil depends on
the strength and compressibility characteristics of the subsoil.
The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the
essential information on the subsoil is called soil exploration
or soil investigation.

Soil exploration involves broadly the following:

1. Planning of a program for soil exploration

2. Collection of disturbed and undisturbed soil or rock
samples from the holes drilled in the field. The number and
depth of holes depend upon the project.
3. Conducting all the necessary in-situ tests for obtaining the
strength and compressibility characteristics of the soil or
rock directly or indirectly
4. Study of ground water conditions and collection of water
samples for chemical analysis
5. Geophysical exploration, if required
6. Conducting all the necessary tests on the samples of
soil/rock and water collected
7. Preparation of drawings, charts, etc.
8. Analysis of the data collected.
9. Preparation of report.

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

2.2 Subsurface Utility Identification

Metro lines are mostly planned to run through the urban

area. The proposed alignment may cross many properties,
drains/nalas, large number of subsurface, surface and utility
services, viz. sewer, water mains, storm water drains,
telephone cables, electrical transmission lines, electric pipes,
roads etc. These utilities/services are essential and have to be
maintained in working order during different stages of
construction by temporary/permanent diversions or by
supporting in position. Since these affect construction and
project implementation time schedule/costs for which
necessary planning/action needs to be initiated in advance.

An effective investigation and accurate of these

underground utility networks are provided by GPR systems,
which are based on modern microwaves transmission and
reception technologies, on software for automatic data
acquisition and on specialized software for processing and
interpretation of this information

The possibility of correlating GPR data with data

provided by GNSS positioning systems or total stations can
lead to high-quality 3D modelling products of the studied
area, easily integrated into a thematic GIS (Geographic
Information System).

2.3 Tunnel Alignment

The design and completion of metro tunnel projects in

urban areas is a highly complex process. Many more aspects
have to be taken into consideration, such as safety, schedule,
funding, overall realization risks, environmental impact, right-

4
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

of-way/accessibility, impacts on the surface/utilities/adjacent

buildings, vehicular traffic, public/political support and
acceptance. Most of these issues influence and are dependent
upon each other. The role of the tunnelling experts in this
complex decision-making process should be to provide
objective technical and economic tunnelling facts.

Tunnel alignment is the position or layout of the tunnel

on the ground; the alignment can be either horizontal or
vertical. While a horizontal alignment runs along the tunnel
centre, a vertical alignment defines the changes in elevations
of the tunnel.

The selection of tunnel alignment is dependent on:

1. Topography of the area

2. Points of entrance and exit of the area
3. Alignment restraints
4. Environmental conditions.

2.4 Instrumentation & Monitoring

Instrumentation in tunnelling is significantly related to

design and construction problems. An instrumentation
program is most valuable for monitoring the project,
designing future tunnels, and advancing the state-of-art.
Instrumentation should be considered a tool for extending the
capabilities of the observer. Instrumentation is used to
measure the response (deformation, stress etc) of soil or rock
to changes in loading or support arrangements, and from the
measurement taken, the need for modification is to the loading
or support arrangements is determined. In some cases,
instrumentation may consist only of simple settlement survey

5
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

and other information normally available on the project. In

other cases, specialized instrumentation may be required to
obtain useful results. The following instrumentation can be
used in a TBM tunnelling metro project namely; piezometer,
Multi Point Borewell Extensometer (MPBX), 3D Optical
target, Pavement settlement marker, Ground settlement
marker, extensometer, strain gauge, crack meter on the
buildings, tilt meter, vibrometer etc. (See images in
Appendix)

2.4 Plant & Machineries

The requirement of machineries in TBM tunnel needs to

be resourced well in advance. Firstly, the casting yard set
up has to be constructed with the arrangement of boiler steam
curing, precast concrete moulds, batching plant, diesel storage
unit, automatic cutting and bending machine, rebar jigs,
compressor, electric welding machine, DG sets, Gantry crane,
segment lifting devices, segment stacking layout. Secondly,
Tunnel Boring Machines, Grout plant, Gantry crane, cooling
tower, muck pit area, segment stacking area, dewatering
system, sedimentation tank, DG sets, tally board, steel
walkway, water pipes etc. must be prepared.

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

3. Classification of Tunnel Boring

Machines
TBMs are available on the requirement of application
such as roads, railways, metros, immersed tube tunnel, water
supply, sewer line, power, telecom, gas/oil.

3.1 Earth Pressure Balance Machine

An Earth Pressure Balance machine evacuates excavated

material through a screw conveyor. The pressure at the front
of the machine is controlled by balancing the advance speed
of the TBM with the flow of excavated material through the
screw. The EPBM can work with or without pressure in
stable layers.

The EPB shield can be operated in three modes.

Open mode: The excavation chamber is almost empty during

excavation in open mode. Therefore, no support is provided to
the tunnel face. The excavation may be performed in the open
mode, if ground conditions assure a completely stable tunnel
face, and a possible groundwater flow towards the face or into
the excavation chamber does not cause any hydrogeological
or shield-operational problems.

Transition mode: The basic feature behind the transition

mode is that the EPB shield is operated with a closed but only
partially filled excavation chamber. The spoil in the
excavation chamber may be pressurized by compressed-air,
which helps reduce or avoid groundwater inflow into the
excavation chamber. This mode is applicable in cases with a

7
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

stable tunnel face and low risk of over-excavation at the

tunnel face. The main purpose of the transition mode is to
control water inflows through the tunnel face. A quick change
of this operation mode to the closed mode is possible.

Closed mode: The excavation chamber is completely filled

with the excavated soil and is pressurized. The applied
pressure balances the acting earth and groundwater pressures.
This operation mode is required in unstable soft soils below
the groundwater table. Moreover, uncontrolled water inflow
can be prevented during excavation when the support pressure
is sufficiently high. The support pressure calculation methods
introduced in this document are particularly designated to the
closed mode.

Fig 2: TBM assembly at the site Courtesy: UPMRC

3.2 Slurry TBM

The slurry shield TBM is suitable for excavating soils

with high water content. This TBM is equipped with a slurry
system that controls the pressure at the excavation face by
injecting pressurised slurry into the cutter chamber where the
slurry is mixed with the excavated material and the mixture is

8
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

pumped out of the tunnel to a separation and recirculation

plant.

3.3 Single-Shield TBM

When rock strength is weak and the tunnel walls cannot

support the action of the Gripper pads, excavation of the rock
is carried out with a single shield TBM.

The single shield TBM pushes against the concrete lining

rings to advance forwards, and due to this, installation of
segments and excavation is done in alternate stages.

3.4 Double-Shield TBM

For the rock formation containing unstable or faulty

zones, using a Double Shield TBM is the safest and most
efficient way to excavate tunnels. Double shield TBM
propulsion is also achieved using a Gripper Device, but in
contrast to an Open TBM, the front and rear parts of the TBM
are completely shielded and the TBM can install a concrete
lining formed by precast segments to perfectly protect the
tunnel from the surrounding ground, at the same time as the
cutterhead excavates, allowing excellent advance rates.

3.5 Micro TBM

Small tunnelling machines with less than 2.5m

diameter that do not require the presence of an operator inside
the tunnel, as the excavation is fully controlled from the
surface. These trenchless solutions are in demand in
large cities where conventional methods can cause
unacceptable disruption to the daily life of citizens.

9
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

Fig 3: A model of micro tunnel boring machine

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

4. TBM Based on Geological

Conditions at Site
4.1 Soft Ground TBM

Two main types of tunnel boring machine are used in

soft ground, a slurry TBM and an earth pressure balance
(EPB) TBM. Both types operate with a sealed front
compartment that is kept under sufficient pressure to stabilize
the face and minimize ground movement. EPB TBMs
have a range to diameters 1.7-16m due to the high torque
needed to drive the rotating cutter head, although other forms
of drive may overcome this limitation. Slurry TBMs have
been built up to 19m diameter, and larger sizes are planned.
Settlements at the surface in soft ground is directly related to
the percentage loss of material outside the tunnel. Typical loss
of material lies between 0.5% and 2.5%. Factors affecting the
loss include the properties of the material traversed, the face
pressure used, the design of the shield, and the rate of
advance. Tunnels exist where the loss has been zero. Soft
ground TBMs are generally launched from a relatively small
shaft, with subsequent parts of the machine being added as
progress is made.

The sealed front compartment of a slurry TBM is usually

filled with a bentonite slurry held in equilibrium with the soil
and groundwater pressures acting at the face. The equilibrium
is often balanced by a compressed air reservoir and flow
controls. The slurry also acts as a lubricant and holds loosened
soil in suspension. The main disadvantage of a slurry TBM is
that the slurry must be continuously circulated through a
separator, often located on the surface, to remove the

11
Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

excavated material before returning the reconditioned slurry to

the face. One main advantage is that the underground
operators never come into contact with the excavated material.
The slurry TBM also has better face control, especially in
mixed-face and boulder ground. Many slurry TBMs also
incorporate a boulder-crushing unit.

Soil classification as per IS: 1498-1970

A. Boulders, particle size greater than 300mm

B. Cobble, particle size between 80mm and 300mm
C. Gravel, particle between 4.75mm and 80mm
D. Sand, particle size between 0.075mm and 4.75mm
E. Silt, particle size between 0.002mm and 0.075mm
F. Clay, particle size smaller than 0.002mm

Soil excavated by the rotating cutter head of an EPM

TBM falls behind the head and is removed by screw conveyor
that discharges either onto a conveyor belt or directly into
muck cars. The excavated material may be conditioned by the
addition of water, clay or by biodegradable additives to assist
in lubrication and to provide better pressure drop through the
screw conveyor, thus preventing the direct exit of
groundwater. The rate of advance must be closely coupled to
the rate of advance to avoid excessive ground movement.

4.2 Hard Rock TBM

Rock-boring machines consist of a rotating head, either

solid or with spokes, on which are mounted cutting tools
suitable for the type of rock. The machines are mounted on
large frames, which carry the driving machinery and
auxiliaries, including a series of hydraulic jacks to exert heavy

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

pressure against the face. Chisel cutters serve for soft rock,
disk cutters break harder rock by wedge action, and toothed
roller cutters with tungsten carbide inserts cut the hardest
rocks. A critical factor in evaluating production is the amount
of down time for maintenance and replacement of cutters and
their cost. Most long tunnels in rock use hard-rock TBMs.

Classification of Rock Mass type

There are various approaches to find rock mass type such

as RQD, RMR and Q factors.

Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

To estimate rock mass quality from drill core logs. RQD

defined as the percentage of intact core pieces longer than
100mm in the total length of core.

Rock Mass Rating Values (RMR)

RMR values depends on the following factors

1. Uniaxial compressive strength

2. RQD
3. Spacing of discontinuities
4. Condition of discontinuities
5. Groundwater condition
6. Orientation of discontinuities

RMR Value 100-81 80-61 60-41 40-21 <20

Rock Class I II III IV V
Description Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor
Table 1: Rock class with RMR values

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

Q-factors (depends on the following)

1. Block size
2. Inter block shear
3. Active stress
4. Reduction of joint water flow
5. Presence of weakness zones

Q factors varies from 0.01 to 1000

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

5. Selection of TBM

Careful and comprehensive analysis should be made to

select proper machine for soft ground tunneling taking into
considerations its reliability, safety, cost efficiency and the
working conditions. In particular, the following factors should
be analyzed:

i) Suitability to the anticipated geological conditions

ii) Applicability of supplementary supporting methods, if
necessary
iii) Tunnel alignment and length
iv) Availability of spaces necessary for auxiliary facilities
behind the machine and around the access tunnels
v) Safety of tunneling and other related works.

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

Some of the TBM Manufacturer

Herrenknecht STEC
Terratec Kawasaki
Robbins Komatsu
Seli Caterpiller
THI CRTG
Hitachi Zosen CRCHI
NFM Tianhe
Mitsubishi XugongKaigong and more...
Table 2: Global TBM manufacturers

Typical technical specification for 6.52 EPB-TBM

I. Design Condition

a. Tunnel Alignment
Min. Horizontal curve radius 250m
Min. Vertical curve radius >1000m
Gradient; Designed +/- 3.7%
b. Segment
Segment O.D 6350mm
Segment I.D 5800mm
Segment thickness 275mm
Segment width 1400mm
Number of segments 5+1
Segment weight Max 36KN/pc

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

II. Technical specification

a. Shield shell
Tail outer diameter 6520mm
Tail inner diameter 6400mm
Tail thickness 60mm
Tail clearance 25mm
Overall length 12265mm
Tail length 3690mm
Tail sealing Wire brush type, 3 rows
b. Thrust
Total thrust 40000KN
Stroke 2150mm
Extending speed 71mm/min
c. Cutterhead
Excavation Diameter 6560mm
Power 550KW
Torque (100%) 5416kNm
d. Screw conveyor
Casing I.D 850mm
Toque 94.3kNm
Capacity (when η=100%) 276.8 m3/h
Driving mode Hydraulic motor drive
e. Segment Erector
Push-in force 220 KN
Lifting force 150 KN
Speed 0.71/1.43 rpm
f. Injection Port
Cutter head 4x ⌀40mm
Grouting port 4x 2 x⌀40mm

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

g. Hydraulic cylinders

Description Thrust(KN) Stroke (mm) Qty

Thrust 2500 2150 16
Articulation 2500 200 14
Copy cutter 200 120 1
h. Electric motors

Description Power (KW) Qty

Thrust 55 1
Electric cylinder 7.5 1
Erector turning 45 1
Articulation 11 1
Copy cutter 11 1
Screw conveyor 90 2
Cutter head 55 10

III. Backup system

a. General
Type Gantry type
Number of Decks Bridge gantry + 7 Decks
Total length 81m
b. Equipment Arrangement
Bridge Segment Handling monorail
Segment monorail cable reels
Walkway to rear of shield
Backup conveyor tail
Segment feeder located below the bridge
Deck No.1 Grease pump, Operation cabin
Hydraulic system
Deck No.2 VFD pane
Back grouting system
Deck No.3 Electric cables

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

Additive and foam system

Deck No.4 Transformer
Reservoir
Water & Dewater system
Deck No.5 Material storage
Emergency Generator set
Compressed Air
Deck No.6 Material Storage
Backup conveyor discharge
Deck No.7 Cable storage
Hose storage

Table 3: Technical specification of typical TBM

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

6. TBM Testing & Commissioning

Initially Factory Acceptance Test to be done at the time
of purchasing a new TBM with respect to structural body of
TBM test by measuring dimension and thickness of
each part such as bottom and top parts of head, middle and tail
shields.

In addition, essential testing is required prior to operating

a TBM at the job site.

6.1 Cutterhead: The cutterhead shall be rotated in both

direction (clockwise and counter clockwise) and the
required time and the cutter torque to be measured.

Fig 4: Position of cutterhead after breakthrough in the rocky

geological strata Courtesy: BMRCL

6.2 Shield Jack: The shield jack shall be extended and

retracted to measure the required time and the working
pressure required.

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

6.3 Segment Erector:

Erector The working test of segment erector
shall bee carried out in no load condition. The erector shall
be rotated and the rotating speed per half turn and the
working pressure shall be measured.

6.4 Screw Conveyor:

Conveyor The screw auger shall be rotated in
both direction (normal and opposite) and the working
pressure
essure and rotating speed shall be measured
respectively.

6.5 Grout Injection Devices:

Devices: The working condition of the
extension and retraction of the device shall be checked.

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

7. Face Support Pressure and Its

Importance
During tunnel construction, soil is removed from the
face. The soil layer in front and above tunnel face exerts
active earth pressure. The presence of infrastructure or
surcharge also contributes as additional earth pressure. For the
tunnel alignment below the ground water table, water pressure
is another significant component of pressure acting at the
tunnel face.

For stability, the layers of soil at the tunnel face should

have sufficient strength to balance these forces. In many
projects, tunnels will encounter several layers of loose soil or
weathered rock. The face may not strong enough to bear such
pressure or may be unstable. Therefore, the soil mass in front
of the cutter head can collapse which would then result in
excessive settlement at the surface. So, support pressure needs
to be built up at the face of tunnel, to counterbalance the
pressure generated by the soil, water and overlying
infrastructures. This pressure is known as support pressure.

7.1 Tunnel Face Stability in Mechanized Tunnelling

7.1.1 Shield machines with no face support

The shield machines with “no face support” are

described as open shields. The excavation chamber of the
machine is at atmospheric pressure. The amount of the soil cut
is in balance with the soil discharged from the excavation
chamber. This shield can be used when the tunnel face is

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

stable and has no expected groundwater flow towards the

face.

7.1.2 Shield machines with mechanical face support

Shield machines with mechanical face support were

historically used in tunnelling. The usage of these machines is
no longer recommended.

7.1.3 Shield machines with compressed-air support

The excavation chamber of this shield is pressurized by

compressed air. This type of the face support can generally be
used only to counteract groundwater pressure, so the tunnel
face has to be stable in terms of effective stresses. In regular
excavation, compressed – air support has become uncommon
within soft soils in the last two decades. Slurry and EPB
shield machines are still equipped with additional
compressed-air face support systems to enable hyperbaric
interventions at the tunnel face during standstills.

7.1.4 Shield machines with slurry face support

The excavation chamber (front chamber) and working

chamber (back chamber) of the slurry shield machine are
filled with a slurry (Fig.5). The slurry is a suspension of water
and bentonite particles (bentonite consists mostly of
montmorillonite clay minerals) and it is also used in
diaphragm wall technology. The excavation chamber is
separated from the working chamber by a submerged wall.
The flow between the two chambers is ensured by an opening
at the bottom of the submerged wall. The excavation chamber
is completely filled with bentonite suspension while the

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suspension level in the working chamber is usually

usually adjusted to
be slightly above the machine axis. The support pressure in
the excavation chamber is controlled by regulating the
pressure of the compressed-air
compressed air reservoir (also called an air
cushion or air bubble) in the pressure chamber. Volume
fluctuations
ons in the chamber can easily be compensated
without significantly changing the support pressure. The
excavated soil is mixed with the suspension and pumped
through the suction inlet and slurry discharge pipe to a
separation plant at ground level. Fresh or regenerated slurry is
continuously supplied into the excavation chamber by a slurry
feed pipe. Additionally, the machine is equipped with a sieve
grill and stone crusher before the suction inlet in order to
reduce the size of cobbles for hydraulic transport
transport by the slurry
discharge pipe.

Fig 5: Slurry shield machine (Courtesy: Herrenknecht)

7.1.5 Shield machines with earth pressure face support

Earth Pressure Balanced (EPB) shields (Fig.6) make use

of the excavated ground to provide face support. The soil is
excavated by the cutting wheel and enters the excavation
chamber. The volume flow of entering soil can be regulated
through the excavation speed of the shield machine. The
support pressure is regulated by the extraction flow of the

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screw conveyor and nd in addition also by the injection of foam

for conditioning. The spoil within the excavation chamber
must have certain properties in order to provide efficient face
support. Spoil properties can be adjusted by mixing with
suitable additives, such as foam.
foam

Fig 6: Earth pressure balanced shield machine

(Courtesy: Herrenknecht)

TBM tunnel consumable Materials

Permanent Materials Temporary Materials

Pre-cast
cast tunnel segment Foam (soil conditioning agent)
Hydrophilic seal Polymer (stand-byby soil
conditioning agent)
EPDM gasket Hydraulic oil
Load distribution pad Grease
Adhesives Tail seal grease
Segment bolt Poly Aluminium Chloride for
water treatment
Cement/Bentonite/Sodium Polymer for discharge water
silicate/stabilizer treatment
Segment repair material
Table 4: Usage of consumable
cons materials for TBM Tunnel

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8. Tunnel Surveying
For the tunnel construction, the scope of tunnel survey is
to assure that the tunnel breakthrough is within its limits, and
to control the position of the TBM, as well as segmental lining
as per the designed tunnel alignment with the help of tunnel
engineers and TBM operators. To assure the consistency of
the control network for tunnelling, the surface control network
is also to be checked as per requirements. During tunnel
construction the control framework is open at the one end. For
this reason, stringent accuracy is required for measurements
during the control point survey that will be carried out. As the
TBM moves forward the survey brackets will be fixed (in
straight direction at 80m interval and on a curve at 25m
intervals or more) up to the last back up of the gantry cars.

8.1 Controlling the Navigation System for TBM Driving

TBM control is an integral part of the tunnel survey

procedures, hence the TBM guidance system requires updated
tunnel traverse value to be extended from last survey bracket
which is located behind of last backup car of the TBM.

The TBM guidance system ‘ENZAN’ to be used to

control the TBM which consists of various hardware
components, Robotec Operating PC, Shield Machine,
PLC, Robotec Interface Unit, SCU with Total Station. All
these components need to be checked in all respects and
connect to each other as per the related manuals for
functioning effectively. After hardware parts, the system
needs to be fed various tunnel alignment parameters, details of
key positions, roll, pitch, the parameters for the mechanical
prisms etc. to calibrate the guidance system on the comparison

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of the guidance system report and manual survey report of the

shield with all respect, before starting the tunnelling operation
at the job site.

In reference to the tunnel traverse up to the last bracket,

the guidance system reference control points will be updated.
In addition to that once in fortnight one manual check for the
TBM position need to be done and the result of the manual
check will be compared to the result of the guidance system.
If any discrepancies are found the navigation system should
be checked thoroughly. The traverse survey will be updated at
every 50 rings (up to the nearest part of the last backup
gantry, from where the control points of the guidance system
can be seen) and a joint measurement can be done at every
200 completed rings. The position of the TBM shield will be
checked manually at the completion of 200 rings or less to
make sure the accuracy of the position of the TBM shield at
guidance system. The position of back body will be checked
with respect to project chainage and coordinates. The
difference between the results of guidance system and manual
check should come with +/- 15mm. If it is more, the necessary
correction will be applied to the guidance system parameters
and the report can be prepared.

8.2 Wriggle Survey (As Built of Tunnel Lining)

After the breakthrough is achieved, the wriggle survey of

the ring lining has to be carried out to check the deviation of
constructed rings with respect to the design tunnel axis at
intervals of every 5 rings. The wriggle survey for the finished
ring is carried out in way by observing selected locations (8
No’s) at approximately equal intervals on the inner periphery
of the rings by a highly precise surveying instrument.

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9. Working Methodology at the

Tunnel Site
9.1 Works at Ground Surface

Segment unloading: Once pre-cast segment is delivered to

site, those segments must be inspected to check if the
segments meet the acceptable standards. Inspection will be
done on the trailer before unloading. Segments will be
unloaded only after the quality check upon delivery has been
done by an inspector.

Segment preparation: Prior to carrying pre-cast segments

into tunnels, hydrophilic seal and load distribution pad must
be installed on to the side faces of segments. EPDM gasket
will be placed at the segment casting yard.

Muck disposal: The belt conveyor system carries muck from

the tunnel to the muck pit on the ground surface. Muck will be
temporarily stockpiled in the muck pit and then loaded onto
dump trucks by a wheel loader for offset disposal.

Mixing and pumping grout: A liquid (mixture of cement,

bentonite, water and stabilizer) of backfill grout will be mixed
at the batching plant on the ground surface. Grout pump will
send A liquid (cement, bentonite, stabilizer, water) and B
liquid (sodium silicate) to the tunnel face to fill any void
between bore and segment lining.

9.2 Works at the Shaft

Tunnel segment lowering: After visual inspection, pre-cast

segments will be loaded on to segment cars at the shaft using

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the gantry crane and then sent to the tunnel face for
installation by the locomotive transport.

Service pipes/rails lowering: Service pipes, cables and rails

will be loaded onto segment cars and sent to the tunnel face
or backup area for extension work

Mucking: Muck conveyed from the tunnel inside will be

carried up to the ground surface by the vertical conveyor. The
vertical conveyor connects the next horizontal belt conveyor
which directs to the muck pit.

9.3 Works at the TBM & Backup Cars

Excavation: The TBM will excavate the tunnel with earth

pressure balance technique. The earth pressure applied to the
TBM face (face pressure) works to ensure the stability of
tunnel face.

Mucking: Excavated soil will be brought out the

cutterhead chamber through the screw conveyor and then
loaded onto conveyor belt to be sent out.

Segment erection: As the TBM advances for every 1.5m

metre, a ring (consisting of 6 pieces) will be built inside the
tail shield.

Rails/Services Extension: Rails and services lines are

extended as the TBM progress.

These materials will be carried from the launch shaft to

the necessary locations using a locomotive. The tunnel

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foreman at the shaft must ensure the rails/pipes are loaded

onto segment cars properly.

1 Rail 6m
2 Walkway 6m
3 Tunnel Lighting 5m
4 Water Linex2 6m
5 Discharge Line 6m
6 Grout Line 6m
7 Ventilation Duct 100m
8 High Voltage Cable 250m
Table 5: TBM Tunnel extension service materials

Segment repair: Pre-cast tunnel and invert segments must be

handled with great care. However, segments may suffer from
damage during construction. Damaged segment will be
inspected in accordance with the agreed procedure and
repaired as per the approved method.

Backfill grout: Backfill grout will be injected to the annular

void between the bore and segment lining in order to
minimize the ground loss and to make a water sealing layer.

Secondary grout: The primary backfill grout will fill any

void at the annuals of segmental lining and create a reasonable
water sealant layer. There might be, however, several
locations which are not fully filled and produce water leaks.
Secondary grout will be injected where water leakage is
observed.

Bolt removal: Both circumferential and radial bolts will be

removed except at the interfaces with stations/annexes after

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secondary grout completes. The work will be done on the

platform of the working gantry.

Data logging and Reporting: The data collection system

(ENZAN system) will record construction, safety and
environmental data. These include the various TBM data such
as face pressure, thrust force, hydraulic oil
temperature, automatic (Robotic) survey results, gas
monitoring, muck volume measurement. The data will be
recorded as CSV file which can be converted to excel file and
they might be extracted to analyse when required. The
ENZAN system will produce a shift report automatically at
the end of each shift, which shows typical construction data.

Fig 7: Display for operating system at the control cabin

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10. Tunnel Design

10.1 Outline of General Approaches

10.1.1 General procedure in designing a tunnel.

Planning a tunnelling project requires the interdependent

participation of the following disciplines, at a minimum.

• Geology
• Geotechnical engineering
• Excavation technology e.g. machine tunnelling
• Design of the supporting structural elements, including
long-term behaviour of materials.
• Contract principles and law

The basic documents for tunnel design should include

or cover:

• The geological report presenting the results of the

geological and geophysical survey.

• The hydrogeological report

• The geotechnical report on site investigations, including

the interpretation of the results of site and
laboratory tests with respect to the tunnelling process,
soil and rock classification, etc.,

• Information online, cross-section, drainage, and

structural elements affecting later use of the tunnel

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

• Plans for and a description of the projected excavation or

driving procedure, including the different cross-sections
related to different ground conditions.

• Design documents for the types of excavation methods

and tunnel supports likely to be applied,
considering, e.g., excavation advance and face support
(types and number of anchors, shotcrete strength, closure
length, etc.,)

• The program for the in-situ monitoring of the tunnel by

field measurement

• The analysis of stresses, deformations and the

dimensioning of the tunnel support for intermediate
phases and final linings

• The design for waterproofing or drainage

• Structural documents for the final design of the tunnel

project, including the detailing.

• During and after the excavation, reports on the field

measurement and interpretation of their results with
respect to response of the ground and the structural
safety of the tunnel

• Documentation of the problems encountered during the

excavation and measures applied, e.g., strengthening the
ground or changing the projected type of support, based
on monitoring results.

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10.1.2 Elements of the structural design model of tunnel

In planning, designing, analysing and detailing a

structure, engineers promise that the structure will neither
suffer structurally nor collapse during its projected lifetime.
Thus, models of the reality are necessary for analysis in or der
to predict the behaviour of a tunnel during the excavation and
during its lifetime. Models are also needed for bidding on
projects.

The following main elements involved in the design

procedure.

a. Geology and site investigations must confirm the line,

orientation, depth, etc.,

b. Ground probing and soil or rock mechanics must be

applied to determine the ground characteristics, e.g.,
Primary stresses, soil or rock strength, faults, water
conditions.

c. Calculations or preliminary estimates are used to

determine the cross-section required and the choice of
the excavation method to be used, as well as the
methods of dewatering the ground and the selection of
the supporting structural elements.

d. The tunnelling engineer must derive, or even invent, a

structural model. Different models may be used for each
excavation phase, for the ground behaviour. e.g., in
discontinuous rock or homogeneous soft soil.

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e. A safety concept drawn from failure hypotheses may be

based on criteria such as strains, stresses, deformation, or
failure models.

10.2 Tunnels in Rock

The following aspect should be considered for the

geological description of each zone:

• Name of geological formation in accordance with a

genetic classification
• Geological structure and fracturing of the rock mass with
strike and dip orientation.
• Colour, texture and mineral composition
• Degree of weathering

Parameters of the rock mass e.g., in five classes of

intervals including.

• Thickness of the layers

• Fracture intercept
• Rock classification
• Core recovery
• Uniaxial compressive strength of the rock derived from
laboratory tests.
• Angle of friction of the fractures (derived from
laboratory direct shear tests)
• Strength of the ground in on-site situations
• Deformation properties (modulus)
• Effect of water on the rock quality
• Seismic velocity

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

10.3 Tunnels in Soil

The geotechnical description should primarily follow the

recommendations given above for rock. Additional features
for soil include:

10.3.1 Soil identification (laboratory testing)

• Particle size distribution

• Atterberg limits
• Unit weights
• Water content
• Permeability
• Core recovery

10.3.2 Mechanical properties determined by laboratory

testing

• Friction angle
• Cohesion
• Compressibility

10.3.3 Mechanical properties determined by field testing

• Shear strength (Vane-test)

• Penetration N (Standard Penetration Test)
• Deformability E (Plate bearing, Dilatometer)

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10.3.4 Ground water condition

a) Ground Improvement Technique

Grouting and injection: Intensive grouting or injections of

the ground may improve the ground characteristics considered
in the design models. Although in most cases grouting is
applied only for closing discontinuities in rock or for
strengthening soft ground, in both cases the goal is to achieve
better homogeneity.

Drainage and compressed air: Usually, the ground is

stabilized by dewatering it and by avoiding inflows of water.
Ground failure may be avoided if the pore water pressure
is minimized. The assumed ground characteristics may be
valid only if successful drainage is possible or if water inflow
is prevented, as in tunnelling under compressed air.

Ground freezing: Improving the ground by freezing changes

the ground properties. The time-dependent stress-strain
behaviour of frozen ground can be significant. Freezing draws
water toward the lining, causing an increase in water volume
and heave at the surface. Concreting on frozen ground delays
the strength development of the concrete.

b) Unusual ground behaviour

Swelling ground: Stress release due to tunnelling and/or

ground water influx may cause swelling and a corresponding
increase in pressure on the lining. In these cases, a
circular cross-section or at least an invert arch is
recommended. The swelling resulting from a chemical

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reaction, as in anhydride, generally is much more pronounced

than that due to the physical absorption of water, as in clay.

Underground erosion, mining subsidence, and sinkholes.

Tunnelling in ground that is subject to settlements, as in

the case of gypsum erosion or mining subsidence, requires
special design considerations. A flexible lining that follows
the ground movements by utilizing its plastic deformation
capacity is more suitable in these cases than is a too- rigid or
brittle, failure-prone lining. If the ground has sinkhole
potentials, a tunnel structure that can be repaired easily may
be more economical than a structure designed to allow
the bridging of the sinkhole.

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11. Precast Concrete Segment

Precast segments are essential to increasing the speed of
machine tunnelling. A compromise must be reached between
the segment size and the number of segments to be installed,
directly affecting the weight of the segments, the size of the
equipment needed to handle the segments, and the number of
operations to be carried out. The width of the segments is
governed by the stroke of the jacks pushing the head of the
shield. Tapered rings, narrower on one side, are used on
bends. At least three segments per ring are required, with five
to eight being more common. The closing segment in a ring is
usually smaller and wedge shaped to facilitate insertion. Joints
in adjacent rings are usually staggered so that all joints are
discontinuous, helping to stiffen the rings.

Connection details to adjacent segments vary widely and

can be flanged. Straight bolts with nuts, washers and
grommets are the most common, but the use of curved
recessed bolts result in smaller pockets. Gaining popularity
are straight bolts placed at an angle to minimize recesses; the
bolts couple into sockets cast into the adjacent section.
Dowels may also be used between adjacent rings. The bolts
ensure that the rubber or neoprene seals between segments are
compressed. The addition of a hydrophilic seal near the
outside face may reduce leakage even further. Due to the very
close tolerances needed to ensure seals remain watertight and
that the diameter remains constant, a high degree of
mechanization with steel forms is used. The segments must be
installed within the shield tail and the space behind them (the
tail void) grouted at a pressure at least equal to the external
pressure, making lateral alignment modifications very

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difficult. It is not uncommon for most bolts to be retrieved

once the grout is set.

Segment production process

• Rebar cage fabrication

• Moulds preparation
• Rebar placement and embedded component
• Concrete batching and placing
• Water/steam curing of concrete
• Demoulding and segment marking
• Handling and storage
• Delivery and transportation

Rebar cage fabrication

Rebar received in coil shall be straightened prior to

cutting. Main bars shall not be received in coil. Rebar cutting
shall be done by rebar cutting machine. Afterwards, marking
of rebars shall be done. Rebars shall be bent to required
shapes using rebar bending machine.

When assembling rebar frame, main and secondary

rebars are placed at the fixed positions on the assembly
platform (jig) and to be assembled in order. When making
assembly platforms, the spacing of main and secondary rebars
of frames shall continuously be kept accurate. Main
intersection joints shall be tack welded.

After assembly is done, rebar cages must be marked by

paint spraying in a clear position. Cage ID shall be marked
clearly to avoid misuse.

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

Mould preparation

Mould shall be cleaned using compressed air to remove

any dust. Mould shall be spray applied with form oil. Any
excess accumulation of oil shall be used and attached to the
steel cages in order to control and maintain concrete cover.

Insert of all types of embedded components in the steel

mould i.e., grout hole, lifting socket, bi-cone socket and bolt
socket etc shall be installed carefully.

Concrete batching & placing

Concrete of workability range (75mm+/-25mm) shall be

used. Concrete shall be batched in batching plant and brought
to the mould by transit mixtures. Concrete shall be poured to
each side of the mould while avoiding over filling it in the
central part of the mould. As soon as sufficient volume of
concrete has been poured, external vibration shall be started.
Incomplete pouring or over vibration should be avoided. After
compaction of concrete, concrete shall be filled up to the over
limit. Aluminium square section shall be used to scrape the
concrete along the radius of the steel mould, and then
wooden/steel trowels shall be used to polish the external
surface.

Demoulding strength

The segment shall be de-moulded when the cube test

results show a minimum concrete strength of 12 MPa. Two
different type of curing has been envisaged for the period till
demoulding.

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Water curing

After placing concrete in the segment moulds, concrete

shall be left to harden under ambient condition. Once the
surface is little stiff (say after 2-3 hours) the moist curing
using wet hessian cloth shall be started. Water shall then be
frequently sprinkled over the hessian cloth to kept it in wet
condition.

Additional 150mm cubes shall be cast for determining

strength of segment till demoulding. Cubes shall be tested till
the demoulding strength of 12 N/mm2 is reached.

Steam Curing

Precast concrete segment shall be steam cured for the

purpose of obtaining early demoulding strength. Immediately
after the concrete has been finished, the concrete surface shall
be covered with PVC sheet. Afterwards steam curing shall be
started. Plastic membrane is to protect concrete surface which
has been finished. However, it does not completely keep the
concrete from contacting outside, so it does not affect the
hydration and quality of concrete.

Steam curing system consists of steam inlets from the

main steam line of boiler will be placed along the floor below
the enclosing segments. The segment shall be covered with
canvas sheet. Total time for steam curing shall be 3 hours.

Steam will be released into the steam chamber after the

elapse of approximate 2 hours after casting. Temperature of
pre-curing shall be approximately 30° while the rate of
increasing temperature of steam curing per 60 minutes shall

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not exceed 20° and the highest should be between 55+/- 5

°C. Steam curing shall continue until pre-determined
maximum temperature under the steam covers is reached. The
steam supply shall than be reduced so that the temperature is
not exceed and the steam curing shall be continued
approximately 4 hours until the required concrete properties
have been achieved. Then supply of steam shall be stopped.
The cooling speed (rate of reduction of temperature) of
concrete shall not exceed the heating speed (curing
temperature and time should be tested and confirmed to meet
the standard of demoulding strength).

The heating speed, time and temperature increase and

decrease in the plant can be controlled by programmable
electric devices. A report of curing process is provided to
read, judge and regularly check curing temperature recorder if
its temperature and curve records are normal. If any
abnormality (power interruption, equipment malfunction)
occurs during curing, program will be restarted when the
abnormality is eliminated to ensure that the demoulding
strength meets the standard. Temperature monitoring of the
steam chamber shall be done to check the temperature
variation.

Additional 150mm cubes shall be cast for determining

strength of segment till demoulding. Cubes shall be
maintained inside the steam chamber to be tested till the
demoulding strength of 12N/mm2 is reached.

De-moulding and segment marking

Once the demoulding strength is achieved, side forms

will be opened and the segment will be lifted from the mould

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Handbook of Tunnel Engineering

by using E.O.T crane with vacuum lifting device and then sent
to touch up area for application of curing compound on the
segment by spraying procedure.

All segment shall be immediately, after demoulding, be

bear the indelible marks its mould number, followed by
segment running number, date of casting and etc. All
markings shall be made on the centre edge of extrados, which
can be observed easily at the area. Any segment which is
delivered to site and upon which the markings cannot be read
for whatever reason, will not be used in the works.

Handling and storage

After completing touch up work, segments shall be

turned using segment turning device. Segment shall be
stencilled with permanent identification number. The E.O.T
crane will shift segment from production area to interface
stock yard area, the gantry crane shall then be transferred to
storage yard. The segments shall be stored “intrados face up”.
The segment shall be stacked on two parallel support stacking
beams set at 1.5 m c/c apart. The segment shall be stacked
horizontally and stacked up to 6 layers high with separated by
stacking timber or equivalent.

Delivery and transportation

All segments ready for delivery shall be inspected by

yard supervisor before loading onto the truck. The segments
shall be transported and stacked horizontally on the truck.
Each truck shall carry one and half ring in each delivery.
Upon completing loading works, delivery order for the
segments shall be signed by the truck driver and yard
supervisor.

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12. Ring Type Selection

In order to select a correct ring, information such as the
shape of the TBM tail-skin, TBM tail-skin position, last ring
position and centre line of tunnel, is vital. The robotic survey
system will be used to controlling TBM-EPBM. The system
complies with the auto survey and the data monitoring system
in real mode. The guidance system can calculate the leading
segment position based on the observation of shield position,
the manual check of the jack strokes, and tail clearance.

A series of site measurement need to be done by the

TBM operator and rechecked by the tunnel engineer when the
TBM advancement is finished and after ring building all the
results should be recorded into the ‘Ring Build Report’.

Many measurements described below assume the tail-

skin is perfectly circular. This will be depending on an as-
built survey of the TBM tail-skin. An adjustment could be
made to these readings within the guidance system’s software
to incorporate any tail-skin deformation that has arisen.

Square Check

The plane of the segment relative to the TBM direction

will be checked to determine the ring selection as the ring is
built relative to the tail-skin. Measurement from the leading
edge of the ring built is to be pre-determined by marks on the
RAM housing structure at the quadrants that will be taken and
recorded on the ‘Ring Checking Form’ before and after the
advancement of TBM. Therefore, the plane, lead (left/right),
and plumb (looking/overhang) can be assessed.

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Diameter checks and Tail-skin clearance

The diameter checks are gathered from the clearances

from the intrados of the ring to the tail-skin. For example, the
internal diameter of the ring is 5800mm. The segment
thickness is 275mm. As a result, the theoretical clearance
between the extrados of the segment and the tail-skin is
25mm. Therefore, the measurement should be close to 300mm
for tail-skin clearance (275+25mm).

Tunnel services roll checking

The roll of the segments can be checked by simply laying

a spirit level on the invert or crown of the segment. The
bubble on the spirit level always tallies with reference, and
checks the difference with the theoretical value, the difference
should not more than 40mm.

12.1 Ring Type Selection

The segment planning should be done at the finish of

each excavation interval so that the next excavation
advancement of the TBM can begin further. The tunnel
engineer should recheck and ensure that the selected ring type
and key position are correct prior to the next excavation.
There are certain criteria for the choosing of the ring selection.

Tail-skin clearances

Theoretically, the gap between the tail-skin and the

segment extrados is 25mm. After the erection of the ring, the
ring should be kept concentric with the tail-skin as much as
possible to avoid breakage and cracking of the segments,
damage to the tail brushes, and deformation to the tail-skin.

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Before advancement, the tunnel engineer must have full

knowledge of any corrections necessary for gaps that may
need correcting after the advancement or erection of a new
ring. This is important especially during tunnel curve
alignment. Firstly, an insufficient tail-skin clearance may
cause the segment to crack at the last second ring when it
comes into contact with the tail-skin during the advancement.
Secondly, irregular tail-skin clearance will restrict the key
type and the position to be used for the erection of the next
ring, especially when there is a risk that the alignment for
TBM is out and segment lining is imminent.

Last leading segment position with respect to the tunnel

centre line

The last leading segment position, together with the tail-

skin clearances, will affect the advancement direction and the
ring selection greatly. It may be the case that although the
TBM bulkhead is out of alignment, the tunnel segment lining
at the tail-skin can still be adjusted back. This can be done
with a combination of a correct ring selection, and the TBM
advancement control later. However, this situation should be
minimized, as sudden changes of the TBM direction or ring
position may cause the tail-skin clearance to vanish, which in
turn will cause cracking or breakage to the segments.

Segment type and key positioning

The guidance is capable of predicting the next several

rings at the end of the TBM drive. Therefore, the advance
control system software gives information about the spatial
position and the direction of TBM at all times, allowing them
to plot a path to reform to the design tunnel alignment without
overstressing the tunnel lining.

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However, at the start of each TBM drive, the tunnel

engineer will determine the position of segment key after
taking into consideration the segment type, and also based on
information gathered from the in-situ tunnel ring checking.
The decision should be confirmed again after the
advancement.

12.2 Transportation of Ring Segment

Sufficient ring segment must be stored on the shaft

surface to ensure continuous TBM advancement, Therefore, it
is very important for the surface engineer to monitor and
estimate the usage of ring segments closely and to inform the
tunnel engineer on a daily basis as per the availability of the
segments. The surface engineer must take into account the
segment delivery time requirements so as to prevent a
situation where there would be an excess or shortage of
segments.

Ring segments will be prepared by installing the

hydraulic gasket and the plywood packers on the surface.
They will be inspected for any defects before sending them
down to the TBM. The segment will be hoisted down from the
surface into the segment car at the shaft bottom by use of
gantry crane. Two segment cars can take one full ring’s
segment, which consist of five segments plus one key
segment. The 30-ton locomotive will send the segment cars
through the tunnel to the TBM for erection after the loading.

12.3 Erection of Ring

The segment erector handles the segment from the invert

position by locating the lifting pin, the pin will then be located

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into position to prevent it from vibrating freely, particularly

when the erector is at the crown position. The erector will
place the segment into the exact position. The thrust ramp will
apply sufficient pressure to the segment to hold and prevent
the possibility of the falling down of the segment from the
position. The remaining four segments will be installed in the
same manner. The key segment is the last segment to be
placed. The segment bolts have to be tightened by using an air
impact wrench. The tunnel engineer must check for the lip,
step and gap that occur during the ring erection.

Post erection ring

On completion of the ring erection, the ring is checked

for circularity by measuring the tail clearances, roll, and the
general erection quality. It is important to know that rings
built within the tail-skin must be perfect as possible, but also
taking into account the fact that the ring may deform when it
exists the tail-skin.

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13. Importance of Segment Gasket

Fig 8: Inspection of EPDM gasket prior to fixing on the

joints of segments

A tunnel has to be waterproof to ensure minimum

maintenance and operating safety as well as to protect the
expensive electro-mechanical installations housed in the
tubes. Already in planning stage, designer and client have to
formulate the necessary requirements for their specific tunnel
project. The technical solutions to achieve these
watertightness requirements vary depending on project
specific circumstances. The most important parameter is the
water pressure. Depending on the expected height of the water
pressure in the tunnel, the specifications have to define the
watertightness performance of a sealing gasket and thereby
include a safety factor that takes rubber relaxation effects into
account. To get a long-term post construction performance,
the rubber compound needs to uphold a certain load deflection
force to withstand the applied water pressure even years after
its application. This can only be achieved with a specific
rubber mixture that further may also need to be resistant
against aggressive water, oil affected soil or even fire-
retardant.

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It is the task of a specialized gasket manufacturer to

prove that the proposed gasket meets all these requirements.
On the other hand, designer and contractor have to ensure that
the segmental lining is properly designed so that a precise
erection of the segmental lining can be achieved throughout
the tunnel. Focusing on the segmental lining, the most
important parameters to achieve watertightness are:

• to define the maximum allowed gap and off-set between

two segments,
• to limit the distortion in the radial joints (ring build
tolerances) and
• To limit segment tolerances for profile and groove.

A service life of 100-120 years is standard for most of

the newly built tunnels and the gasket performance shall be
proven by respective aging tests.

Water Tightness Test

To test the efficiency of the gasket profile against

leakage in a comprehensive way, it is necessary to run the
watertightness test with different gaps and off-sets. For every
off-set setting (0 – 20 mm) the test has to run through a range
of different gaps. For every gap, the water pressure is built up
in steps of 1 bar and is hold there for 5 minutes. In that
manner, every setting has to be tested until the profile shows
leakage. The recording of all “failure points” leads to the
required ‘Watertightness-Gap’ diagram.

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Graph: Typical water tightness curve

The tests are normally carried out at room temperature

(23 ± 2 °C). For project specific tests it has again to be
highlighted that:

• The maximum gap between the faces of the test rig

pieces has to be greater than the theoretical value
calculated from the joint surfaces plus the maximum
thickness of any packing.

• The test pressure has to be twice the hydrostatic pressure

(safety factor: 2) to consider relaxation effects and to
guarantee the long-term
long term performance of the gasket.

Tests with co-extruded

extruded gaskets do not influence the test
results in a short term, as the hydro swelling top layer of a co-
co
extruded gasket takes longer thanthan 24 hours to react. About
50% of the swelling occur within 7 days, nearly 100% of
swelling occurs within 30 days. To measure the positive
influence of hydro--swelling layers long-term
term watertightness
tests have to be carried out.

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In reality, a proper application on site is even more

important than test results because only a careful and
professionally applied gasket can guarantee the tested gasket
performance.

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14. Grout Selection Criteria

(Single Vs Two-Component)
The properties and characteristics of each grout mix
depend on the ingredients added and the method of grouting.
Changes to the composition of the mixture will create effects
and property changes in the grout. The mix design will
determine the exact properties and behaviours of the grout to
be used. Typically, single component grout consists of
cement, fly ash, sand, and bentonite. Grout material is mixed
and transported into the tunnel, then pressurized with an
injection pump and injected into the annular gap. Two-
component grout consists of an A Liquid and B Liquid. The A
liquid is typically cement and Bentonite, while the B liquid is
an accelerator derived from sodium silicate. In two-liquid
grouting, the A and B liquid are kept in separate lines and
mixed at the injection point into the annular gap.

Grout type Advantages & Disadvantages

Grout Type Advantages Chart
Consideration Single Component Two-Component
strength X
Cost X
Transportation X
Groundwater X
Early Set Time X
Early Support X
Fluidity X
Batching X
Maintenance X

Table 6: Grout type features

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Strength: The strength of grout depends on the mix design

and the time that the grout is allowed to set up. Single
component grouts have the ability to be designed with high
strength due to the mixture properties. Two-component grouts
do not form as strongly as single component grouts in part due
to the lack of aggregates in the mixture. Both single and two
component grout types must be mixed and tested for the
specific ground at the tunnel location in order to ensure the
optimal mixture. The guiding principle for contractors should
be that the grout strength is sufficient to support the tunnel
lining as it exits from the support of the tail skin. In addition,
the strength should be sufficient to support imposed loads
from the TBM back-up.

Cost: The contractor has the choice of single component

grout or two-component grout. Single component grout is
much lower in initial cost in many markets, though its overall
cost can be more expensive than two component grouts when
the volume of grout mix and the amount of the mix thrown
out are taken into account. The choice of grouting method can
also greatly affect the cost of the bore, as the bigger the void
the more cost for grout. Grouting through the segments does
not increase the bore diameter, making the method more cost
effective. However, this method increases the risk of
settlement in pressurized face tunnelling operations, mainly
because grouting cannot start until the grout hole in the
segment has cleared the tail shield, leaving the void exposed.
This can be minimized by having multiple grout ports in each
segment. Conversely, providing tail tubes for tail tube
grouting will increase the bore diameter, resulting in a larger
bore, but the method’s settlement minimization is superior.
The increased cost of a larger bore diameter (and therefore

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larger backfill volume) must be weighed against the increased

risk for segment grouting.

Transportation: The transport of the mixture plays a large

role in the construction and timing consideration. Single
component grout is most commonly brought into the tunnel in
grout cars, while two-component grout can be pumped in
from the batch plant through the tunnel. There are benefits and
draw backs to each, depending on the construction methods.
The recommended transport method requires a full study of
the tunnel depth, length, size and other factors.

Fig 9: Grout portals on the tail shield

Groundwater Effects: In tunnels under the groundwater

table the groundwater will interact with the grout in a variety
of ways. A problem that is associated with grouting under the
groundwater table is the dilution of the grout as the
groundwater mixes with the grout. This is only an issue in
single component grout as two-component type grout is less
influenced by outside water. Anti-washout agents can be
added to single component grouts in an extra step.

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Early Support & Lining: The early support of the lining can
play a significant role in the early strength capabilities of the
grout. The ability for the grout-in-place material to resist loads
is important, and this comes not only from the loads of the
ground. It is important to resist forces acting from the lining
and the stresses incurred from thrusting the machine forward
or moving the trailing gear (back-up) over the newly set rings.
The stresses placed on the lining will try to move the ring and
reduce stress loads throughout the lining, creating the
possibility of movement in all directions. A good supporting
pressure and ability to lock the ring in place as soon as
possible is desirable. This setup can help to reduce
maintenance costs and repair work over the whole tunnel
drive. The two-component grout and quick setting time also
allows for minimizing of ground settlement, and in high stress
conditions, it will reduce the ground convergence. The early
set strength plays an important role in the ability of the
segments to avoid movement and stepping between joints.
The faster the set time the better the chances ring deformation
will not occur. One-component grout has a slow set time
associated with the ability of the cement to hydrate. Two-
component grout has a high early strength due to the
acceleration of the gelling by the B-Liquid

Fluidity/Pumpability: The fluidity of the grout will play a

role in the transport and final placement of the grout around
the segments. The greater the fluidity of the grout, the easier it
is to transport and inject around the ring structure. Single
component grout, being more paste-like, is much harder to
transport and pump than two-component grout. Two-
component grout has a very high fluidity of both the A and B
liquids.

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Batching: The logistics and properties of the grout can be

influenced by the batching process. The ability to quickly
batch uniform grout mixtures is essential for large projects
and rapid construction. Good mixture ratios can be achieved
with one-component grout, but this is dependent on the
experience of the contractor and implementation of an
effective batching system. Both types of grouts are fairly easy
to mix and can be done by automated grout plants with small
equipment.

Maintenance: Two-component grout remains fluid and

pump-able till the components mix at the nozzle. This is in
contrast with single component grout, which can set in the
lines if the mixture remains there for an extended time and can
require replacement of the lines in the machine.

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15. Initial Drive of Tunnel

Fig 10:
10 Initial drive set-up

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Flow Chart-Initia to Main Drive Process

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16. NATM Tunnel

For shorter tunnel sections (generally less than 2 Km),
tunnels with variable geometry and tunnels in mixed ground
conditions, New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM)
provides more cost effective, flexible and safe tunnelling
without the long and costly mobilization process associated
with TBM tunnelling. When compared to the Cut & Cover
construction method, it minimises the impact on the
environment by avoiding surface disruption.

Today, NATM works in any ground with minimal

overburden and is therefore well for tunnelling in urban
environments. Because of its flexibility and highly reliable
construction schedule, NATM has become widely accepted by
clients and contractors alike.

The NATM was developed between 1957 and 1965 in

Austria. The main contributors to the development of NATM
were Ladislaus Von Rabcewicz, Leopold Muller and Franz
Pacher. The main idea is to use the geological stress of the
surrounding rock mass to stabilize the tunnel.

The NATM integrates the principles of the behaviour of

rock masses under load and monitoring the performance of
underground construction during construction. The NATM is
not a set of specific excavation and support techniques and
has often been referred to as a ‘design as you go’ approach to
tunnelling providing an optimized support based on observed
on ground conditions but more correctly it is a ‘design as you
monitor’ approach based on observed convergence and
divergence in the lining as well as prevailing rock conditions.

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Primary features on which NATM is based.

i) Mobilization of the strength of rock mass-The method

relies on the inherent strength of the surrounding rock
mass being conserved as the main component of tunnel
support. Primary support is directed to enable the rock to
support itself.

ii) Shotcrete Protection-Loosening and excessive rock

deformation must be minimized. This is achieved by
applying a thin layer of shotcrete immediately after face
advance.

iii) Measurement- Every deformation of the excavation must

be measured. NATM requires installation of
sophisticated measurement instrumentation. It is
embedded in lining, ground, and boreholes.

iv) Flexible support-The primary lining is thin and reflects

recent strata conditions. Active rather than passive
support is used, and the tunnel is strengthened not by a
thicker concrete lining but by a flexible combination of
rock bolts, wire mesh and steel ribs.

v) Closing of invert-Quickly closing the invert and creating

a load-bearing ring is important. It is crucial in soft
ground tunnels where no section of the tunnel should be
left open even temporarily.

vi) Contractual arrangements-Since the NATM is based on

monitoring measurements, changes in support and
construction method are possible. This is possible only if
the contractual system enables those changes.

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vii) Rock mass classification determines support

suppo measures-
There are several main rock classes for tunnels and
corresponding support systems for each. These serve as
the guidelines for tunnel reinforcement.

viii)
ii) Based on the computation of the optimal cross section,
just a thin shotcrete protection is
is necessary. It is applied
immediately behind the tunnel face, to create a natural
load bearing ring and therefore to minimize the rock’s
deformation. Additionally, geotechnical instruments are
installed to measure the later deformation of excavation.
Therefore,
efore, a monitoring of the stress distribution within
the rock is possible.

Fig 11: Various detailing of NATM concept

Blast design parameters

a. Hole diameter,
r, mm
b. Burden, m
c. Spacing, m
d. Hole depth, m
e. Total number of holes

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f. Total drill depth, m

g. Type of explosive
h. Charge per hole, kg
i. Charge length, m
j. Stemming length, m
k. Max. charge per delay, kg
l. Blasted volume, m3

16.1 Basic Sequences of Drill & Blast Method

i. Drilling of blast holes

Before blasting it is necessary to drill holes in the rock to

insert explosives. These holes are drilled in a pattern by drill
rigs. The three types are:

a. Parallel cuts. They are usually used in hard and intact

rocks. The direction should be precisely controlled.

b. V cuts. They are applicable to all kinds of rock and no

large-diameter drilling machine is needed. The drilling
angle is hard to control.

c. Fan cuts. They are not as common as the two previous

cuts due to the asymmetry of blast holes and delicately
designed position and depth. This cut is suitable for rocks
with fractures.

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Fig 12: Typical views of blasting in the tunnel face

ii. Charging

Once the pattern has been drilled, the depth of its holes is
verified and the presence of water for efficiency and safety
checked. The holes are then charged with a detonator and a
primer is lowered to the bottom of the hole. Explosives are
then pumped down the hole around the detonator and primer,
before the end of the holes are filled with stemming. This acts
as a plug and forces the explosive energy to go into the
surrounding rock rather than along and out of the hole. Once
all the holes have been charged, they are connected to explode
in a certain order.

Regarding the choice of explosives, several variations exist:

• Ammonium nitrate/fuel oil. Cheap and bulk dosed but

sensitive to water.
• Emulsions. Pumpable, resistant to water, and thus
growing in use.
• Explosive gelatines that are mainly used for smooth
blasting.
• Explosive powders that are less and less commonly used.

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It is also possible to use expansive cements, which are

soundless chemical demolition agents that do not produce an
explosion. But they take more than 10 hours to work.

iii. Ignition

• Electric detonators used to initiate explosives such as

blasting works in noncoal mines, open pits, and
demolition and other engineering projects.

• Nonelectric detonators. They have the advantage of

enabling fast and easy connection of all detonators at one
ignition point (compared to the time-consuming and
complicated process of connecting electric detonators)

• Detonating cords. They are used to reliably and cheaply

chain together multiple explosive charges. Typical uses
include mining, drilling, demolitions, and warfare.

iv. Ventilation

Ventilation is necessary to secure a safe and healthy

working environment in the tunnel to exhaust smoke,
poisonous gas, and dust that are produced while drilling and
blasting.

v. Scaling

Scaling is the removal of insecure blocks of rock from

the back, the sidewalls, and the face. It is also regarded as
preparation for shotcrete and/or rock bolts. Due to its danger,
the safety of workers must be carefully considered.

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Procedures vary throughout the world, from manual to

completely mechanized.

vi. Mucking: loading and hauling

To make enough room to operate and ensure a good

environment for workers in the tunnel, muck should be
removed. Thus, after scaling muck is loaded. While hauling,
niches or bays are needed for trucks to turn around when the
tunnel is small. The number and distance between them are
decided such that no delay in construction is caused.

vii. Temporary support

After excavation, temporary support must be provided to

prevent rock fall or collapse.

Rock bolts generally consists of deformed steel with an

end anchorage and a face plate and at the rock surface. Rock
in which corrosive groundwater is present, the space between
the bolt and the rock can be filled with cement or resin
grout/pressure grout.

Types of rock bolt

a. SN type -32mm ⌀ steel bars with cement grout

b. SDR-Self drilling type of rock bolts suitable for rapidly
collapsing soils
c. Expansion rock bolts-Swelled type

Rock bolt test: Pull out test shall be performed on the rock
bolts after 7-10 days of grouting randomly at 1% of total rock

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dowel in the project. These tests will be performed to verify

the load carrying capacity of installed rock bolts.

viii. Surveying

A geologist maps the excavation face, to be able to adapt

the excavation process according to the geology that is
encountered. Rock behaviour and water infiltration are also
noted.

16.2 Vibration Control during Blasting

Blasting is an integral part of the excavation process in

underground construction. Due to the high energy content of
explosives, it is an inexpensive and highly effective method of
rock breaking. As explosives have continually been
developing due to a high level of research, they have also
become remarkably safer. However, it would be careless to
ignore the negative side-effect of blasting operations. Due to
urbanization, blasting operations are executed more often in
populous areas. For this reason, it is important to perform the
blasting works so that the possible effects on the environment
with blasting is blasting-induced vibrations.

Firstly, by improving the delay design with usage of non-

electric detonators, it can be achieved a large number of delay
times. Secondly, the vibration isolation of sensitive
equipment. It is easy to implement and very useful in urban
drill and blast tunnelling.

Blasting-induced vibrations depend on many factors.

Some of these factors can be influenced, some are given. One
of the factors that can be influenced is the charge per ignition

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time. The most obvious way to perform this is to decrease the

number of explosives in holes or to shorten the hole, i.e., the
round length when the number of explosives is reduced, it is
important to avoid under-loading situations, i.e., the drilling
pattern design and placement of the holes play an important
role in such cases.

In addition, there are factors which cannot be influenced,

such as the distance from the blast area to the sensitive objects
e.g., Infrastructures, buildings, foundations etc.

Effects of vibration

In some cases, blast vibrations can cause damage to

structures. These can be divided into minor or significant
damage. There are various studies which investigate blasting
vibrations and the tolerance that structures and people have
for it. An international survey shows that particle velocity
(mm/s) is the best and must practical description for defining
potential damage to structures. But also, the effects of the
frequency of the vibrations are not negligible, especially if the
frequency of the vibrations is equal to the natural frequency of
the structure, which could cause resonance and, in further
consequence, damage. In most cases, when tunnelling in an
urban environment, a risk analysis is conducted in order to
avoid damage, to the existing structures so that the contractor
has limits and can define the maximum instantaneous charge
in different places.

Measurement methods

When designing a tunnel project, the environment and

the existing structures have to be thoroughly examined. If the

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tunnelling is done in an urban environment, the existing

structures have to be inspected and documented before
blasting. The inspection is usually conducted by structure
and/or vibration specialists and they map, for instance, the
existing cracks on the walls and the types of foundation of the
building. This process is called a pre-blast inspection.
Afterwards specialists calculate and set the maximum values
for the particle velocity so that the structures are safe. The
specialist can create a schematic presentation of the house and
an analysis of zones which are likely to be stresses, so the
possible cracking can be acknowledged. These analyses are a
vital proof if the property owner begins to suspect cracking in
the walls. If these cracks are observed in the pre-blast
inspection, the contractor can calculate the project. As the
PPV (Peak Particle Velocity) allowed is set for each structure,
the contractor can calculate the maximum charge per delay.

Delay Design

An important factor for reducing blast vibrations, which

is also considered in many standards, is the charge per
ignition time. When setting up a high number of ignition
delays, it is possible to optimize the number of explosives
initiating at the same time. One alternate is to use electronic
detonators, which can be programmed and fire is millisecond
steps. The main disadvantage of these detonators is the high
cost.

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Fig 13: shows an example of a simplified non-electric

non electric sector
ignition design.

More commonly non-electric

non electric detonators are used. Due to
restricted variation of delay times, in many cases the face has
to be divided
ed further into sectors. In each sectors every charge
or hole has an extra delay provided by the surface delay
detonator used for each sector. The surface delays are used as
a “group detonator” to give an additional delay time for each
individual non-elect
electric
ric detonator. The challenge is to design
the sequence of initiation carefully and to charge the whole
face.

The surface delay should be 42ms, 100ms or 200ms and

the delay of the detonator itself 9000ms. In case of 100ms
surface and 900ms detonator delay, there are 90 ignition steps
available.

Explosive Types

When a tunnelling is located in an urban area, the effects

of vibration, storage of explosives, and blast timing are often
strictly limited. The most common explosives used in
tunnelling in urban areas
areas are cartridge products (pipe charges)
and emulsion. These explosives are suitable for sensitive
environments because of their precise degree of charging.

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Use of cartridge products ensures a precise degree of

charging and they are easy to use. The charger fills blasting
holes with different explosives, depending on the quality of
rock, tunnel conditions and the blasting plan.

Emulsion explosives are becoming more common at

tunnelling sites. Emulsion consists of an emulsion matrix and
sensitizing additives. The emulsion matrix and additives are
mixed at the tunnelling site with appropriate a charging
vehicle and approximately 15 minutes after it has been
pumped into blast holes.

The explosive type can also influence the occurring

vibrations. One reason is the under loading of blast holes. A
space between the borehole wall and the explosive has a
negative effect.

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17. The Lucknow Metro-An Overview

17.1 Need for MRTS in Lucknow

The exponential growth in the city’s population coupled

with faster growth in the number of motorized vehicles in the
city, poses a formidable problem to the city’s planner for
providing a transport system for providing quicker, safer,
more economical and pollution free transport
system. Thus, implementation of robust mass urban public
transport system explore has become essential to cope up with
the increasing demand. This has led to the possibility of the
Rail based MRTS for Lucknow city. The rail based MRT
system shall also be in line with Lucknow image of being a
modern city with rich heritage.

Against this background, Government of Uttar Pradesh

has commissioned Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) for
undertaking Detailed Project Report for MRT system in
Lucknow. Numbers of metro alignments were chosen, and
traffic was estimated. DMRC has finally identified 2 corridors
based on the existing & projected travel demand,
demographic features, existing and proposed land use pattern
in the city. The corridor identified includes influence
areas North South Corridor and East West Corridor.

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Fig 14: Schematic diagram of underground layout consisting

tunnel, UG station, Cut & Covet tunnels and ramps.

The 3.67 km Lucknow Metro’sMetro’s underground stretch

comprises of the Sachivalaya, Hazratganj and Hussainganj
metro stations including 6 numbers of cross passages for
emergency evacuation and maintenance work. This twin
tunnel named as Gomti (upline) and Ganga (downline). In
addition to, 2 numbers of ramp and cut & cover tunnel located
on both ends. The chainage starts from 9400 to 13070 where
wh
the TBM drive has been associated namely Drive 1, Drive 2
and Drive 3. Geological mapping and evaluation are the first
task that should be undertaken. The key requirement is the
identification of faults along the tunnel alignment and then
field proofing
ng of suspected features. The performance of
TBM, and hence the cost scheduling and time of project
completion, is greatly affected by the geological conditions
and discontinuous properties of rock mass. Unexpected high-
high
water ingress and poor rock mass conditions
conditions may dramatically
reduce the average progress rates and practical consequences.
An attempt is also made for selecting a proper TBM
parameter factor, as Boring Energy has been chosen based on
the relationships existing between TBM performance,
hydrogeology
eology and rock mass. The soil profile throughout the

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underground stretch found sandy silt/silty clay. Piezometers

installed during ground investigations to measure current and
seasonal fluctuations in groundwater levels.

17.2 General Salient Features

a. Gauge (Nominal) 1435mm

b. Route length (between dead ends)

Corridor Elevated Underground Total length

(Km) (Km) (Km)
North-South Corridor 19.438 3.67 22.878
(CCS Airport-Munsipulia)

c. Number of Stations

Description Elevated Underground Total length

(Km) (Km) (Km)
North-South Corridor (CCS 19 3 22
Airport-Munsipulia)

d. Traffic features

Year Corridor PHPDT Daily Daily Avg Trip

Length Passenger Ridership Length Km
(Km) Km
North-South Corridor: CCS Airport to Munsi Pulia
2015 13190 3227960 429250 7.52
2020 20976 4886515 644659 7.58
2025 22.878 25890 6132646 833240 7.36
2030 34955 7664688 1054290 7.27
2041 44408 9501868 1343970 7.07

e. Speed
Designed Speed 80 kmph

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Scheduled Speed 34 kmph

f. Total estimated cost (at May 2013 prices) without Taxes

& Duties
North-South Corridor Rs.4992 Crores

g. Total completion cost (at March 2018 prices) including

escalation and Central Taxes only
North-South Corridor Rs. 6880 Crores

h. Ventilation & Airconditioning

Need for Ventilation & Air conditioning

The underground stations of the Metro Corridor are built

in a confined space. A large number of passengers occupy
concourse halls and the platforms, especially at the peak
hours. The platform and concourse areas have a limited access
from outside and do not have natural ventilation. It is
therefore, essential to provide forced ventilation in the stations
and inside the tunnel for the purpose of:

• Supplying fresh air for the physiological needs of

passengers and the authority’s staff

• Removing body heat, obnoxious odours and harmful

gases like carbon dioxide exhaled during breathing.

• Preventing concentration of moisture generated by body

sweat and seepage of water in the sub-way.

• Removing large quantity of heat dissipated by the train

equipment like traction motors, braking units,

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compressors mounted below the under-frame, lights and

fans inside the coaches, airconditioned units etc.

• Removing vapour and fumes from the battery and heat

emitted by light fittings, water coolers, escalators, fare
gates etc. working in the stations.

• Removing heat from air conditioning plant and sub-

station and other equipment, if provided inside the
underground station.

This large quantity of heat generated in M.R.T.

underground stations cannot be extracted by simple
ventilation. It is therefore, essential to provide mechanical
cooling in order to remove the heat to the maximum possible
extent. As the passengers stay in the stations only for short
periods, a fair degree of comfort conditions, just short of
discomfort are considered appropriate. In winter months it
may not be necessary to cool the ventilating air as the heat
generated within the station premises would be sufficient to
maintain the comfort requirement.

17.3 Tunnel Salient Features

Total length of tunnel 3.67 Km

Tunnel internal and external diameter 5.8m and 6.35m
Excavated volume of soil. 125503 m³
Average excavated volume per day 302 m³
Total number of rings installed. 5+1
Average rings installed per day. 6 rings
Cutterhead interventions 22 times
Mining and ring completed duration. 16 months (Dec’ 2016-April 2018)

Table 7: Tunnel salient features/LMRC project

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17.4 Challenges Faced during Execution of Projects

1. Minor occurrences of cracks in the precast concrete

segment during mining.

Remedy: Cracks with more than 0.002mm wide were found

on the leading edges of the segments at the curves. Primary
cause for the crack development was due to the unequal
distribution of force by the hydraulic jacks on to the segments.
Those identified cracks were repaired as per the approved
methodology. The mining speed and thrust force were also
adjusted accordingly as per design.

2. One number wrong KEY position during ring erection

installed, thus may cause water ingress and minor change in
the tunnel axis.

Remedy: Secondary grouting was done as precautionary to

stop the water ingress. The deviation in tunnel axis was taken
care in the subsequent mining and in ring erection.

3. In Drive-3, near Hussainganj location, an existing drainage

line was crossing in the tunnel alignment.

Remedy Step1: The existing drainage was divided into two

parts for the purpose of casting a slab with the support of pile
foundation in one part of drainage. Later, drainage was
diverted on the slab. On the other section, slab was casted
then entire drainage allowed to flow on the slab.

Remedy Step 2: Corrosion resistance chemical (truncated

inhibitor cement slurry) used on the reinforcement as a
coating for precast concrete segment.

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Remedy Step 3: The location was heavily populated, having

residential buildings and huts on either side of canal bank
which were in the influence zone. Hence, ground stabilization
had been done, by pumping cement grout to the ground at a
pressure of max 2.5 bar.

Remedy Step 4: Real time online instrumentation monitoring,

pavement and building settlement marker had been installed
and monitored.

4. Three rings were settled down of 10-15mm during

the breakthrough. The base slab was casted at a lower level
than the required level; as a result, the cradle beam was placed
at a lower level (10-15mm), thus was causing the last 3 rings
to settle down.

Remedy: The settled rings were monitored continuously by

instrumentational survey, later as per the designer’s
recommendations, TAM (Tube a Manchette) grouting was
done, layer by layer at the ground.

5. There was a near miss incident during the removal of

temporary segment due to failure of lifting pin. Fortunately,
no dangerous incident occurred because of crane operator’s
agile performance.

17.5 Major Machineries/Equipment Utilized (TBM &

Casting Yard at LMRC Project).

Sl.No Description Qty Remarks

A. TBM Tunnel
1 TBM 2
2 Secondary Grouting Pump 2
3 Crimping, small tools, for hydraulic 1

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hose
4 Grout Plant 1
5 Diesel Generators, 500kVA 8
6 Gantry Cranes (40T), Double Girder, 2
10m
7 Synchronisation panel for 8 No's 1
500kVA and 2 No's of 200kVA
8 Transformers, 2
1600kVA,415V/6600V
9 Survey- Total Station- Leica TS 11- 2
R500
10 Digital Ground level Meter 2
11 Locomotives 5
12 Ventilation system 2
13 Rolling Stock from Muhlhauser 1
14 Cooling Tower 2
15 Y Switch (14m long) 2
16 5HP Dewatering pump with 8
necessary accessories
17 2HP Dewatering pump with 8
necessary accessories
18 35 HP dewatering pump 3
19 Dewatering Sludge pump 10HP 5
20 Control Panel for 35 HP dewatering 3
pump
21 Control Panel for 5 HP dewatering 8
pump
22 Control Panel for 10 HP dewatering 5
pump
23 Control Panel for 2 HP dewatering 8
pump
24 Sodium Silicate pump 2
25 Wheel washing pump 1
26 High Pressure Pump 3
27 Welding Machines/ Transformer 10
28 VCB 2
29 NGR Panel 2

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30 Cross conveyor 1
31 Electrical Winch (5 Ton) 1
32 Mono block pump (10HP) 4
33 Mono block pump (7.5HP) 2
34 Screw Conveyor for cement feeding 1
(9mtr)
35 Gauging Machine 1
36 Power pack (700 bar) setup 1
37 Hydraulic Jack (125T) 2
38 Hydraulic Jack (100T & 0.5m stroke) 2
39 Hydraulic Jack (150T & 0.5m stroke) 4
40 Hydra, ACE make, F160 model 12 14 T
41 Truck Mounted Crane, ACE make 12 4.9T
42 Diesel Bowser 12
43 Crawler crane, KOBELCO CKL 4 100T
1000i
44 Crawler crane, KOBELCO CKL 12 260T
2600i
45 Rolling Stock (Muck & Segment 3
Cars)
46 Flat Bed Truck 12
47 Low bed trailer 2 40T
48 Semi low Bed trailer 3 40T
49 Crawler crane KOBELCO CKL 6 100T
1000i
50 Mobile crane 2 55T
51 Camper 12 Utility
B. Casting Yard
52 Single Girder gantry crane, 20m 3 15T
53 Double Girder gantry Crane, 20m 1 10T
54 Electric Air Compressor (450cfm) 1
55 Air Receiver 1 3cum
56 RO Plant 1
57 Weigh Bridge 1
58 Boiler System 4
59 Steel Segment Mould 6 Incl.vibrators
60 Segment tilting device 1

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61 Vacuum Lift type demoulding device 2

62 Diesel Generators, 200kVA 3
63 Synchronisation panel for 3 No's 1
200kVA
64 Transformer control 1
750kVA,11kV/415V
65 Lathe Machine 1
66 Drilling Machine 1
67 Bench Grinder 1
68 Lighting Mast- 20m high 4
69 MIG Welding Machine (400A) 9
70 Mobile crane 2 55T
71 Stirrup Bending Machine 12
72 Hydra (Escorts make, F15) 12 14T
73 JCB 12

Table 8: Major Equipment used in LMRC project

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18. The English Channel Tunnel-

An Overview
Introduction

The channel tunnel also called as chunnel tunnel project,

connected between England and France through an
underground tunnel, represents one of the largest privately
funded construction projects.

The primary focus on channel project would spur

economic development, improve European trade, and provide
an alternative high-speed transportation method to the existing
modes.

The implementation phase of the Chunnel project started

th
in 4 quarter of 1987, in response to the Channel Tunnel
Group/France Manche (CTG/FM) bid for US$ 5.5 billion, and
ended on December 15, 1994, with the project being handed
over fully operational.

The winning proposal was made under a ‘BOOT’

arrangement, granting CTG/FM the concession to run the
project for a period of 55 years, after which ownership would
revert back to the French and British governments.

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General Features of Channel Tunnel

Origin Folkestone (Kent, England, U.K

End Hauts-de-France, France
Opened for Public 14th November 1994
Client Getlink
Operator DB Cargo UK, Eurostar, Getlink
Character Through-rail passenger and freight
Tracks 2 single track tunnel & 1 service tunnel
Stretch 50.45 Km
Standard Gauge 1435mm
Operating Speed 160 kmph

Table 9: General features of Channel Tunnel

It is the only fixed link between the island of Great

Britain and the European mainland. At its lowest point, it is
75m (250ft) deep below the sea bed and 115m (380ft) below
sea level. At 37.9 km, the tunnel has the largest underwater
section of any tunnel in the world.

Fig 15: Dimensional view of Channel tunnel

Eurotunnel sublet the construction to a 10-company

consortium, Transmanche-Line (TML), including five UK
contractors and five French contractors, when TML was

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closed in 1986, design was not complete. Moreover, changes

were still required, to comply with the instructions issued by
the Intergovernmental Commission (IGC) on safety grounds.
Therefore, this project from the outset was overshadowed by
external uncertainty that proved to be the main site of disputes
afterwards.

Construction

Working from both the English side and the French side
of the channel, a 11 TBMs were utilized. Tunnelling
commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating in 1994.
Ten workers, eight of them British, were killed during
construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few
months of boring.

Fig 16: Map shows the tunnel path between the U.K and
France
Tunnelling Activities
Tunnelling was a major engineering challenge, with the
only precedent being the undersea Seikan Tunnel in Japan,
which opened in 1988. A serious health and safety risk with
building tunnels underwater is major water inflow due to the

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high hydrostatic pressure from the sea above, under weak

ground conditions.

The objective was to construct two 7.6m diameter rail

tunnels, 50km in length; a 4.8m diameter service tunnels
between the two main ones; Pairs of 3.3m diameter cross-
passages linking the rail tunnels to the service one at 375m
intervals.

Pre-cast segmental linings in the main TBM drives were

used with eight linings segments plus a key segment were
used at UK rail tunnels, on the other side at French 5
segments plus a key segment were used.

The eleven TBM were designed and manufactured

through a joint venture between the Robbins, United States;
Markham, England; and Kawasaki, Japan. At the French side,
5TBMs were utilized, 2 for marine machine, 1 for land
machine and 2 for service tunnel machine. At the British side,
6 TBMs were utilized, 3 for marine machine and 3 for land
machines.

Ventilation, Cooling and Drainage

The ventilation system maintains the air pressure in the

service tunnel higher than the rail tunnels, so that in the event
of fire, smoke does not enter the service tunnel from the rail
tunnels. Two cooling water pipes in each rail tunnel circulate
chilled water to remote heat generated by the tunnels from
rain, seepage, and so on.

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Fig 17: Sectional view of main tunnels and service tunnel

Few facts of Chunnel tunnel

The channel was the most expensive construction project

when it was built. It took $21billion to complete the tunnel. In
the first five years of operation,
operation, train carried 28 million
passengers and 12 million tons of freight through the tunnel.

The Chunnel incorporates advanced safety features, including:

1. Flood prevention systems are installed in and outside the

tunnel quick water drainage ensures uninterrupted
uni
transportation.
2. Remotely controlled pressurized butterfly valves link the
two running tunnels with each other ensuring safe passage
and avoid risks of closing down.
3. The service tunnel supports normal ventilation system,
which ensures normal air pressure in the running tunnel.
4. The traction system is divided into
int sections of 1500 meters
in length, which can be remotely switched to isolate failed
sections and ensure uninterrupted services.
5. Fire Equipment Management Centres (FEMC) are managed
by bothh the countries on both sides of the tunnel to keep a
check on fire hazards.

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A timeline of channel tunnel

1802-French engineer Albert Mathieu Favier created a plan to

dig a tunnel under the English Channel for horse-drawn
carriages.

1856-Frenchman AiméThomé de Gamond created a plan to

dig two tunnels, one from Great Britain and one from France,
that meet in the middle on an artificial island.

1880-Sir Edward Watkin began drilling two underwater

tunnels, one from the British side and the other from the
French. However, after two years, the British public's fears of
an invasion won out and Watkins was forced to stop drilling.

1973-Britain and France agreed on an underwater railway that

would link their two countries. Geological investigations
began and digging started. However, two years later, Britain
pulled out because of an economic recession.

November 1984-British and French leaders once again agreed

that a Channel link would be mutually beneficial. Since they
realized that their own governments could not fund such a
monumental project, they held a contest.

April 2, 1985-A contest to find a company that could plan,

fund, and operate a Channel link was announced.

January 20, 1986-The winner of the contest was announced.

The design for a Channel Tunnel (or Chunnel), an underwater
railway, was chosen.

February 12, 1986-Representatives from both the United

Kingdom and France signed a treaty approving the Channel
Tunnel.

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December 15, 1987-Digging began on the British side,

starting with the middle, service tunnel.

February 28, 1988-Digging began on the French side,

starting with the middle, service tunnel.

December 1, 1990-The linking of the first tunnel was

celebrated. It was the first time in history that Great Britain
and France were connected.

May 22, 1991-The British and French met in the middle of

the northern running tunnel.

June 28, 1991-The British and French met in the middle of

the southern running tunnel.

December 10, 1993-The first test-run of the entire Channel

Tunnel was conducted.

May 6, 1994-The Channel Tunnel officially opened. French

President Francois Mitterrand and British Queen Elizabeth II
were on hand to celebrate.

November 18, 1996-A fire broke out on one of the trains in

the southern running tunnel (taking passengers from France to
Great Britain). Although all the people on board were rescued,
the fire did a lot of damage to the train and to the tunnel.

Challenges

Constructing a tunnel to connect the United Kingdom to

France presented huge engineering challenge. Not only would
the project cost, the sheer size of the project was also

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challenging. At the time it was being built, the channel was

the most expensive project.

Before any tunnelling could be done, extensive amounts

of research had to be carried out to find out what type of soils
and rock they would encounter tunnelling underneath the
English Channel, and where would be the best place to tunnel
through. More than 3000 bore holes were drilled in the
channel to acquire core samples of the rock beneath the ocean.
Engineers found that a chalk stratum approximately 45 meters
below the seabed would provide the best medium to tunnel
through due to it being reasonably strong, easy to tunnel
through, and impermeable to the water above.

After a suitable location was found and the type of

medium that would be tunnelled through was known,
engineers had to design new tunnel boring machines to drill
through the rock. When conducting the research to find out
where the best location was to drill, six fault lines were found
crisscrossing the first few miles of the tunnel’s path off the
French coast. If they were to tunnel through this, the drilling
would be inundated with water. To account for this, they
designed special TBMs that were completely water proof and
could withstand the tremendous amounts of pressure that
would be encountered while drilling. Britain on the other hand
was able to use regular open faced TBMs that are designed for
dry environments. This decision however was brought to the
test when drilling one mile off of Britain’s coast unanticipated
fine fissures leaked water into the tunnel which slowed work
down to 1/10 the normal speed.

Once the section was tunnelled, the spoils had to be

immediately removed and concrete lining was installed on the

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tunnel walls. The concrete lining had to be strong enough 150

feet of seabed above it, as well as another 150 feet of water
above that. Close to one million concrete lining sections were
made to line the walls of the tunnels, the strength of them
being greater than the concrete lining in nuclear reactors.
While tunnelling the challenge of what to do with all of the
spoils from the drilling came up. On Britain’s side
approximately 5 million cubic meters of spoils had to be
disposed of. They decided to simply dump the material back
into the channel near the mouth of the tunnel, adding 73 acres
of land to the island once the tunnel was completed. On the
French side, they expected most of their spoils to be wet, with
this in mind the mixed more water with it and pumped it away
to fill in a landfill nearby.

Once the tunnelling was completed, several other factors

had to be addressed such as cooling, ventilation, and pumping.
Due to friction between the train and the track, an immense
amount of heat is generated. If left unchecked the temperature
in the tunnel would quickly rise to over 140 degrees
Fahrenheit. To cool the tunnel, massive air handlers and
chillers are placed at both ends of the tunnel as well as some
inside to constantly blow cool air through the tunnel seeping it
ventilated.

Power for the train and tunnel system as a whole is

provided by two power stations, one on each side. The system
requires 160Mw of power, which is enough to power a city of
about 2,50,000. The power needs are split between the French
and Britain, but that is to be expected when constructing one
of the world’s longest tunnels.

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19. The Seikan Tunnel-An Overview

Introduction

In 1954, a typhoon sank five ferry boats in Japan's

Tsugaru Strait and killed 1,430 people.

In response to public outrage, the Japanese government

searched for a safer way to cross the dangerous strait. With
such unpredictable weather conditions, engineers agreed that a
bridge would be too risky to build. A tunnel seemed a perfect
solution. Ten years later, work began on what would be the
longest and hardest underwater dig ever attempted. Engineers
couldn't use a tunnel boring machine to carve the Seikan
Tunnel because the rock and soil beneath the Tsugaru Strait
was random and unpredictable. Instead, tunnel workers
painstakingly drilled and blasted 53 km through a major
earthquake zone to link the main Japanese island of Honshu
with the northern island of Hokkaido.

Today, the Seikan Tunnel is the longest railroad tunnel in

the world at 53.7 km in length, 23 km of which lie under the
Tsugaru Strait. Three stories high and 800 feet below the sea,
the main tunnel was designed to serve the Shinkansen, Japan's
high-speed bullet train. Unfortunately, the cost of extending
the Shinkansen service through the new tunnel proved to be
too expensive. In fact, air travel today between Honshu and
Hokkaido is quicker and almost as cheap as rail travel through
the tunnel. Despite its limited use, the Seikan Tunnel remains
one of the greatest engineering feats of the 20th century.
There are two passenger stations inside the tunnel (Yoshioka-
Kaitei Station and Tappi-Kaitei Station), both of which are
museums detailing the history and function of the tunnel.

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Fig 18: Map shows the tunnel path between the Tsugaru
Strait and Aomori Prefecture

With its track located 140m below the seabed, the Seikan
tunnel is the world’s deepest and longest railway tunnel.
Approximately 23.3km of the tunnel lies under the seabed.
Conceptual planning of the Seikan tunnel was completed
during 1939-40.
40. The tunnel construction
construction began in 1971 and
was completed in 1988. The $3.6bn project was developed by
the Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology
Agency, and is operated by JR Hokkaido. Approximately 50
trains travel through the tunnel per day. ED79 and EH500
class locomotives carry freight and offer overnight sleeping
car services through the tunnel. The freight and passenger
services were started in March 1988. The Tunnel completed
32 years of its opening in March 2020.

Seikan tunnel project details

The trackk at the Seikan tunnel is a triple slab track

capable of running shinkansen bullet trains. The tunnel

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comprises two railway stations: Tappi Kaitei on Honshu

Island and Yoshioka Kaitei on Hokkaido Island, which are the
first railway stations built under the sea and also act as
emergency escape points in the event of a disaster. The
stations are equipped with exhaust fans to deplete smoke,
infrared fire alarm systems and water spray nozzles to
enhance passenger safety.

Fig 19: Dimensional view of Seikan Tunnel

The seabed of the tunnel comprises a pilot shaft, a

service shaft and a main shaft. The service shaft is connected
to the main tunnel, while the pilot shaft serves as the service
tunnel for the central 5km portion. At 16m wide and 91m
long, the set-off base is the world’s largest maintenance base
inside a tunnel. Underground temperature of 20°C and
humidity of 80% to 90% is maintained throughout the year. A
two-passenger diereses engine patrol car runs in the aisle
between the tracks to monitor the tunnel within the main
shaft.

Seikan tunnel construction

Construction began in September 1971. The tunnel cross

section is designed to facilitate Shinkansen trains. First

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contact between the two sides was made in 1983. Tunnel

construction included drilling and blasting through an
earthquake-prone zone. Approximately 2,900 T of explosives
and 168,000 T of steel were used for the tunnel construction.
Construction of the main tunnel’s entrance section started in
August 1982. Excavation of the underwater section began in
1983 with the 5m pilot tunnel starting from both ends. The
construction of the submarine section was completed in
March 1985. An electrified rail system was installed in
September 1986. The tunnel initially consisted of a single
gauge track but later converted into a double gauge and
connected to the Shinkansen network, as part of the Hokkaido
Shinkansen project in 2005. The traditional mountain
tunnelling method was applied for tunnelling the dry land
portions. Three bores, including an initial pilot tunnel, a
service tunnel and the main tunnel, were dug for creating the
undersea portion of the tunnel.

Future developments for the Seikan rail tunnel

Toshiba’s EH800 Bo-Bo+Bo-Bo Series electric

locomotives ran through the tunnel from 2014 replacing the
existing ED79 and EH500 classes. The new 25m long electric
locomotives will have a power rating of 4MW and run at a
speed of 110km/h. The tunnel will also facilitate the passing
of the Shinkansen bullet train from 2016. The current electric
system of the tunnel will be upgraded from 20kV to 25kV to
facilitate the Shinkansen trains. Train speed will be limited to
140km/h during the first two years of operation in order to
avoid the risk of derailing narrow gauge freight trains,
travelling in the opposite direction, by shockwaves of air.

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Maintenance in the Seikan Undersea Tunnel

Tunnel maintenance consists of various monitoring,

measurement and inspection systems: for instance, an
earthquake disaster prevention system to ensure safe train
operation in the event of earthquakes, measurement of
displacements in tunnel cross sections, measurement of
ground behaviour, and chemical analysis. The earthquake
disaster prevention system aims to gauge the scale of
earthquakes as well as control train operations; UrEDAS
(Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System) is installed
at four locations, and Modified NEWS (a modified-for-tunnel-
use version of the New Earthquake Warning System used on
Bullet Train Lines) is installed at six locations both inside and
outside the tunnel. In the event of an earthquake, accelerations
detected with these systems are displayed on monitors and at
the same time an alarm is activated. Further, to monitor tunnel
behaviour during earthquakes, variations in strains on tunnel
lining concrete and the amount of seepage water are
automatically measured.

At each of four locations, selected from among tunnel

sections which proved difficult during construction or where
bad geological conditions were noted, strains at seven points
in the longitudinal direction and at 14 points in the
circumferential direction are measured automatically using
high sensitivity strain gauges. Along the main tunnel, pilot
tunnels and maintenance shafts, flow meters in drain gutters
measure the seepage water flow rate. Information detected
with these varied sensors such as earthquake accelerations,
strains on the tunnel lining concrete and seepage water flow
rate, is displayed real time on the system's monitoring screens.
The system allows the monitoring of tunnel functions at all

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times, and offers a quick grasp of tunnel conditions when

abnormal measurements are encountered so that appropriate
decisions can be made.

To measure displacements in tunnel cross sections,

variations in tunnel cross sectional dimensions are measured
periodically to an accuracy of 1 mm or less with the aid of
measuring lines established at 77 cross sections in the main
tunnel and at 67 cross sections in the pilot tunnels and
maintenance shafts. Since the tunnel's opening, these
measurements have been made two to three times a year by
inspectors using measuring equipment during the short
(approx. 10 min.) intervals when no trains pass. Initially, these
measurements were made optically using two transits.
However, as trains are running at higher speeds and with
denser schedules than before, plus the factor that bullet trains
are scheduled to run through the tunnel in the future, a three-
dimensional instrumentation system using an electro-optical
distance meter was developed and is now used for the
measurements. This system shortens measuring time as well
as improves safety during measurement without the risk of
accidental shorting of track circuits.

In addition to the flow meters installed in drain gutters,

seepage water flowing out of tunnel walls is measured at 28
measuring points and analysed chemically to grasp variations
in water quality. Further, in-situ strain meters and measuring
lock bolts are installed in maintenance shafts and pilot tunnels
to determine bedrock behaviour. Since this tunnel exists in
conditions under which the structure is always subject to high
water pressure, various chemical analyses and tests are made
on samples taken from lining concrete, spray concrete and

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concrete in grouted cut-off areas to measure the deterioration

of materials.

Measurement during Maintenance

Measurements indicate that the tunnel is functioning

well. Some interesting facts were obtained from the measured
data.

i) Effects of earthquakes

Large earthquakes have occurred four times around the

tunnel during the past few years. Of the quakes, the largest
earthquake ground motion, with a maximum acceleration of
56 gals, was detected during the Hokkaido Nansei Oki
Earthquake of July 12, 1993. In contrast, acceleration
measured on the surface, in Kikonai, was 214 gals. This
proves that earthquake ground motion under the seabed was
appreciably smaller than that on the surface. The results of
inspections made inside the tunnel immediately after the four
earthquakes showed no effect of the quakes on the tunnel
structure.

ii) Seepage water

The flow rate of seepage water, a matter of primary

concern with undersea tunnels, shows a trend of gradual
decrease: from 32 m3/min. at the time of opening to 24
m3/min. at present, although it increased once immediately
after an earthquake. It is to be noted that a decrease in flow
rate is a plus in terms of a decreased need in pumping power,
but will have an adverse effect on tunnel stability if this leads
to an increase in water pressure at the back of the tunnel

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lining. Since chemical compositions in seepage water have

shown little significant variation and now appear in a stable
state, there seems to be no degradation of lining and grouting
materials due to contact with sea water.

iii) Strains in lining concrete

Results of analyses on data about strains in lining

concrete measured by the system indicate that the strains
change periodically, showing a strong correlation between the
ebb and flow of the tide on a daily basis, the waxing and
waning of the moon on a monthly basis, and the mean tide
level on a yearly basis.

iv) Displacement of the Tunnel

Measured displacements of the tunnel are on the whole

small with no sharp changes observed at present. The soil
characteristics and tunnel support patterns may have some
bearing on displacements. The results of analyses on
measured data, such as classifying tunnel sectional
deformation patterns and pinpointing locations of large
deformations, provide information necessary to perform
efficient tunnel maintenance in the future.

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20. Design of Cross Passages

Cross-passages are important elements of twin-tube rail
or metro tunnels. During construction and operation, the
cross-passages serve different functions. For the operation
phase of a tunnel, major requirements result from the different
needs of normal, maintenance and emergency mode of tunnel
operation.

The approach to design and construction of cross

passages is largely dependent on the subsurface conditions
through which the cross passage must be excavated. Creating
a cross-passage opening in a larger tunnel that is already built
represents one of the greatest challenges to a tunnel designer.

Generally, in tunnelling, geology has a major impact to

developing the design of a cross-passage. In rock, while a
relatively greater exposure of the face in rock may be
permissible, considerations such as: the need for advanced
ground stabilization measures like spiling or canopy tubes;
advanced ground treatment through different grouting
techniques to control groundwater ingress; and providing
appropriate ground support as the excavation advances, are all
important challenges in determining the configuration of
the cross-passage design.

In soft ground, selection of the most appropriate ground

stabilization and treatment methods usually takes the greatest
consideration during design. There are often opposing
dynamics of minimizing construction costs versus mitigating
potential risks associated with a selected excavation method to
be used in the identified ground conditions. Mixed face
conditions are usually the most challenging of all geology to

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handle, where the approach is often a combination of both

rock and soft ground measures.

20.1 Loading and Load Combinations

The cross-passage design must consider the loading from

the overlying ground, usually divided into horizontal and
vertical components. Load combinations and load factors or
allowable stresses for both temporary and permanent
conditions will depend on code requirements. Hydrostatic
loading must also be evaluated for both temporary and
permanent cases. Seismic design of cross passages is covered
in the applicable structural code and analysis methods are
provided in several references developed for underground
structures.

Fig 20: Typical cross passage layout general design

It is desirable as an aim in developing the geometry for a

cross-passage to attempt to keep the running tunnel/cross-
passage/junction structure as simple as possible while still
achieving all of the project goals.

One of the greatest drivers in sizing the cross-passage is

determining operational use of each cross passage. Often at
the planning stage, where the focus is on addressing

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functional and operational requirements of the cross-passage,

little regard is made to construction difficulties that may be
imposed by requiring the design of overly large cross-
passages.

Commonly, the greatest controls in both spacing and

number of cross-passages are driven by emergency evacuation
needs; the space needed to house systems and associated
equipment; or storage of emergency response equipment in a
strategic way. In transit tunnels there is often very little space
present in the main running tunnels, so electrical and
mechanical equipment is placed in cross passages.

There is a temptation, and it is becoming common

practice, to address the various needs by accommodating all
within the same cross-passage. In many cases therefore, the
NFPA required spacing usually defines the total number of
cross-passages. The space requirements needed to house both
systems equipment and provide clear evacuation routes
through the cross-passage serves to increase the diameter of
the cross passage.

If the project design allows, consideration should be

given to reducing the relative size of the cross- passages
through the introduction of further cross-passages for specific
needs, e.g., separating equipment from emergency evacuation
requirements. It may prove cost effective to construct two
smaller cross passages with a relatively simpler junction
configuration and associated lining support and ground
treatment than to contemplate large scale structural alteration
of the running tunnel lining to accommodate a significant
junction structure.

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20.2 Analysis Methods

There are different approaches to the analysis of the

structural support elements required for the construction of
cross passages. The selection of an appropriate design method
must consider: (i) the geometry of the main tunnel and of the
cross passage; (ii) elevation differences between the main
tunnel and cross passage; (iii) the angle of connection;
(iv) proximity of the tunnels being connected; (v) ground and
groundwater conditions; and (vi) the methods of
construction.

Empirical and analytical methods are generally

developed for a single tunnel opening and do not account for
the complexities associated with cross passages. With
experience and some engineering judgement, simplifying
assumptions can be made that enable the use of these types of
design methods to give an indication of the likely ground
loads and structural support required. Similarly, the use of two
dimensional (2D) models in conjunction with some careful
assumptions can provide useful design data. However, it is
increasingly common to develop a three-dimensional (3D)
model to inform the design of the cross-passage lining, the
connection, and temporary and permanent support
requirements within the main tunnel.

Types of 3D model can generally be classified for

continua (e.g., soft ground) or discontinued (e.g., jointed rock)
and there are numerous software programs available to do this
(e.g., Bentley Products; Plaxis 2D, Plaxis 3D, Open Ground,
gINT etc.,). The level of effort required to develop highly
accurate 3D models is not usually warranted and some
sensible assumptions should be made to ensure model

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development and run times are not unwieldy. The results of

these models can be used to design all of the structural
support elements required to enable construction of the cross
passage.

20.3 Ground Conditions

Geologic conditions do of course have an impact on the

design and approach to constructing cross-
passages. Typically, subsurface conditions are divided into
three distinct classifications: rock, soft ground (soil); or mixed
face conditions of both rock and soft ground. The presence of
groundwater, the maximum hydrostatic pressure, and the
ability of the groundwater to sustain the pressure through
recharge, imposes the greater challenge for excavation of the
cross-passage.

The ground conditions have a major impact on the most

appropriate ground support for excavation, the configuration
and type of ground treatment and the sequence of work.

Tunnelling under a large water body such as rivers,

lakes, seas or oceans represents the most difficult form of
cross-passage construction. Under such circumstances,
determining the optimum ground treatment method is vital for
a successful outcome. Key to this is identifying the actual
ground conditions sufficiently during the design phase.

Site characterization under a large water body is usually

very demanding and a potentially costly undertaking. Cost for
exploration can be very high as borings are performed from a
barge or marine rig. A balance must be struck between the
need to minimize exploration costs versus obtaining sufficient

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information to characterize the prevailing conditions to enable

selection of the most appropriate ground treatment method.

Where combination ground treatment methods are

necessary, this should be established early in the design as
often additional sampling and testing may be required to
confirm the application of the combinations considered.

20.4 Ground Treatment

The selection of the ground treatment method is one of

the most important decisions in the design of a cross passage.
The goal of the ground treatment is to provide stable
conditions during excavation by controlling groundwater and
any loose zones of soil or rock. In soft ground, the type of
ground treatment is entirely dependent on the particle size
distribution of the ground, with dewatering and permeation
grouting appropriate for coarser granular soils, and chemical
grouting for fine grained soils.

The most common type of ground treatment is probably

grouting, which can take many forms. Jet grouting can
substantially reinforce unstable soil, but access is generally
needed from the ground surface. While it is technically
feasible to perform horizontal jet grouting from inside a
running tunnel, in practice it is seldom used, with ground
freezing being a more cost effective and constructible
solution.

For subaqueous conditions in soft ground, due to the

potentially catastrophic consequences of inundation from a
hydraulic connection to the overlying water body, ground
freezing is generally the default method of ground

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improvement, since although relatively expensive, it provides

greater certainty and reliability.

For cross passages in rock, ground treatment most

commonly consists of cement grouting of the fractures to
minimize the amount of groundwater that will need to be
managed during excavation. The locations of the cross
passages can be pre-grouted from the TBM while the running
tunnels are being driven. If the rock is in extremely poor
condition, then ground treatment methods more commonly
associated with soft ground may be necessary.

Some of the images for soft ground of cross passages:

Fig 21: Fixing of temporary steel structure in the tunnel

Fig 22: Removal of core cut parts of precast concrete segment

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Fig 23: Fore poling for strengthening ground

Fig 24: Primary lining after excavation

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• Water Proofing System (Figure 25. A, B and C)

Fig 26: Reinforcements for final/ permanent lining

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Fig 27: Invert floor concrete

Approximate material consumption of Cross Passages in

soft ground for metro projects (final decision upon designers)

1. Wire mesh: 6mm thickness of 150 mm c/c mesh utilized

by fixing proper to the shotcrete
2. Lattice girder: Act as a primary support (4 pieces to form
a ring)
3. Shotcrete: Act as shoring for immediate excavation
4. Water proofing: 2 mm thickness along with 500 micro
geotextile membranes
5. Lintel jamb: ISMB 150 for collar junction structures
6. Concrete: Invert concrete M35, Collar junction-SCC M50,
Lining concrete SCC M50 grade
7. Admixture: Cebex 100 (250 gram) per bag of cement for
grouting
8. GI pipes for drainage arrangement in sump: 300mm
diameter and 200 mm PVC for collect the water from main
tunnel to the sump.

Utilization of machineries & equipment

1. Core cutting machine: 100mm Diameter for fore polling

& segment removal, 150mm Diameter for dewatering
pipes, 200 mm Diameter for fire hydrant

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2. ROC or jack hammer: Rock overhead crawler/jack

hammer for fore polling
3. Mai pump: Mai pump for grouting activities
4. Hydra: For lifting and lowering the objects
5. Mini excavator: Possible excavator inside the cross
passages the maximum digging depth is around 8.5 feet
6. Air compressor/receiver tank: To facilitate by supplying
air with pneumatic pump for shotcrete
7. Dumper: The excavated material which will be carried out
for disposal
8. Transit Mixer: Mini transit mixer utilized in the confined
tunnel with 4 cum capacity
9. Needle/plate vibrator: 40 & 80mm diameter of different
vibrator used for compaction.

20.5 Purpose and Functional Requirements of Cross-

Passages

Overview

Cross-passages connect two tunnel tubes. The

functionality and use of cross-passages are different during
construction and operation, resulting in different requirements
related to the different operating conditions. The following
sections list possible functions of cross-passages during
construction, normal operation and emergency operation.
Functions and requirements have to be considered carefully
during the design phase, in order to find the best solution for
the specific project.

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Purpose during construction

During construction with the parallel construction of the

2 tubes, cross-passages are used mainly for logistic purposes.
Examples include:

• Housing of technical equipment/logistic for construction

purposes
• Material storage
• Support of ventilation and cooling of construction-sites
in tunnel
• Self-rescue and protection in the event of fire incidents
during construction

They also represent singular points of the regular tunnel

excavation process and can significantly influence aero-
thermal conditions and air quality in tunnel. They need
therefore a proper planning and require a complex logistic
concept.

Purpose during normal operation

During normal operation, cross-connections are generally

not accessible. Their role is mainly as follows:

• Housing of technical equipment (electrical installations

for power supply, data/communication, signalling, fire
detection, drainage, light, water supply, water storage)
• Protection of technical equipment requiring a well-
controlled environment in terms of temperature, air
quality (in particular dust concentration) and pressure
fluctuations
• Cable transit

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• Support of tunnel ventilation

During normal operation, cross-connection can influence

aero-thermal conditions in tunnels.
Purpose during maintenance

Maintenance can be carried out while one or both tunnel

tubes are closed to traffic or, in particular cases, with trains
circulating in both tunnel tubes. The requirements are as
follows:

• Appropriate working-place conditions

• Protection of the staff during train transit
• Appropriate rest area during breaks
• Protection in case of relevant incidents

The requirements on the quality of the working

environment concern primarily temperature, humidity,
pollutants concentration, air velocity and pressure fluctuation.
In case of maintenance works within cross-connections,
specific requirements on occupational safety apply. In case of
incident in the tunnel, the requirements on cross connections
are similar as in case of relevant incidents in normal operating
conditions.

Purpose during incidents

The main requirements are related to self-rescue,

protection of escaping persons and support to emergency
services:

• Means of escape providing an egress passage for

escaping persons during self-rescue

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• Shelter / waiting area for escaping persons

• Access provision, logistic support and protection for
emergency services
• Protection for the persons in the safe tunnel tube until
full evacuation to the exterior is completed
• Protection of safety-relevant equipment, which must
operate during the whole emergency

20.6 Typical Design Solutions for Cross-Passages

Commonly referenced international norms and

recommendations for the cross-passage design and their scope
are as follows:

• TSI-SRT [1]: Specifications regarding safety in rail

tunnels
• TSI-LOC-PAS [3]: Specifications regarding locomotives
and passenger rolling stock’ subsystem
• NFPA 130 [15]: Specifications regarding passenger rail
systems
• UIC [5]: Specifications regarding safety in railway
tunnels

In rules and standards minimum requirements of cross-

passage are defined by features such as:

• Dimensions of egress routes in the tunnel tubes

(walkways)
• Location and distance between egress routes
• Dimensions of cross-passage
• Doors in egress routes (cross-passage doors)
• Lighting

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• Signing
• Fixed communication means
• Accessibility for disabled people and, more generally,
persons with reduced mobility

Other important aspects are generally not covered by

regulations.

Typical examples are:

• Layout
• Ventilation
• Space provisions for further systems (e.g., space for
cabinets of rail communication, signalling, etc.)
• Door type and characteristics

Standard/norm Min.door Min.door Door Fire

width height type resistance
TSI-SRT 2014 1.4m 2.0m - -
NFPA-130, 2014 0.81 m 2.1m Swing/ Min.9m
Sliding min
UIC Code 779-9, 2003 - - - -

Table10: Cross-passage door design as per relevant standards

and norms

Further Equipment / Infrastructure in Cross-Passage

• Communication/information board
• Monitoring/Video system
• Power supply
• Safety- and radio equipment (emergency telephone)
• Fixed or mobile fire extinguisher

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• Fire, smoke and gas detection system

• Rescue equipment
• First aid kits
• Maintenance /emergency lighting
• Door access control
• Data transfer infrastructure
• Loudspeaker

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21. Rerairing of Pre-Cast

Pre Cast Concrete
Segment

Type Standard Remarks

A. Bug hole Intrados (<2mm wide) Repairing not
required
Intrados (>2mm wide) Procedure
Gasket surface (all) Procedure
B. Edge damage Sharp edge, 5-40mm Procedure
(rebar unexposed)
Chamfered edge, Procedure
5-40mm (rebar
unexposed)
At corners, 5-40mm Procedure
(rebar unexposed)
Rebar exposed (>40mm) Reject

C. Surface damage L<100, W<100, Procedure

Thk<40mm
L>100, Reject
W>100, Thk>40mm
D. Crack <0.2mm in width Procedure
Segments having crack, Reject
W>0.2mm
E. Recesses damage A<(2mm), B<(5mm) Procedure
A (2-10mm), B (5- Procedure
30mm), C (0-10mm)
A >(10mm), B>(30mm), Procedure
C (10-20mm)

Table 11: Repairing of precast concrete segment

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21.1 Bug Holes Repair

21.1.1 Objective

Voids left in concrete due to failure of the mortar to

effectively fill the space among coarse aggregate particles.
Repairing should be carried out before releasing the segment
to the stockyard.

Depth of defective concrete more than 15mm and less

than 30mm and visible reinforcement steel bars appearing
after removal of non-adherent concrete segments with deeper
greater than 30mm, i.e minimum cover to reinforcement, that
particular segment should not be allow to build for permanent
works.

21.1.2 Preparation

All area of involved concrete shall be identified,

delimited and clearly marked out prior to commencement of
the work. Loose skin around the hole should be removed and
repaired. All area where the concrete surface has become
friable or where aggregate have become exposed shall be
brushed using metallic brush in order to remove all loose
particles. All debris and residue from this preparatory work
shall be cleaned away prior to continuing. Clean the surface
and remove any dust by brush.

21.1.3 Method of repair

Repair Paste: A fully homogeneous paste with OPC cement:

(Cement 5 kg & liquid polymer based latex bonding agent 2
kg). The paste shall be mixed thoroughly as per
supplier/manufacturer specification.

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Surface priming: The surface shall be thoroughly soaked

with clean water and any excess removed prior to applying
repair paste.

Application: Mixed paste shall be applied and thoroughly

compact/pressed with trowel the paste on the primed
substrate. It shall be carried out immediately after demoulding
of segment.

Working temperature: At ambient temperature above 35’C,

all the materials shall be stored in the shade and cool water to
be used for mixing.

Curing: After repairing the segments, curing compound shall

be applied on the surface of finishing repair in continuous
film, must be done at finishing time.

21.2 Edge, Surface Damage

21.2.1 Object

Broken edges during demoulding time or during

handling, lifting and stocking (Approx size): length
100mmxwidth 100mmxThk 40mm and rebar exposed. If the
segment found having damage more than the maximum
specified limit shall be rejected or removed from the plant.

21.2.2 Preparation

All area of involved concrete shall be identified,

delimited and clearly marked out prior to commencement of
the works. All area where the concrete surface has become
friable or where aggregates have become exposed shall be
brushed using steel brush in order to remove all loose

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particles. All debris and residue from this preparatory work

shall be cleaned away prior to continuing. The surface shall be
cleaned and loose particle/dust shall be removed by brush.
The prepared surface shall be saturated with clean water for at
least one or two hours before applying latex bonding agent
and approved patching compound/mix.

21.2.3 Method of repair

The replacement micro mortar shall be cement based,

polymer modified, one compound repair mortar (plugging
mortar) with added polyamide fibres.

Application: With a concrete cover of 40mm will make sure

that during repair works, all emerging steel reinforcing bars
must be firmly embedded to avoid movement during the
application process as this affect mortar compaction. Apply
mixed mortar by trowel. Thoroughly compact the concrete on
substrate with a trowel up to 40mm (in a layer of 10mm
approx.) Mortar application must be carried out whilst the
substrate is still wet.

Working temperature: At ambient temperature above 35’C,

all the materials shall be stored in the shade and cool water to
be used for mixing.

Curing: Repair must be cured immediately after finishing

work in accordance with good concrete practice. The curing
compound sprayed on to surface of finishing repair in
continuous film, must be done at finishing times.

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21.3 Recesses Repair

All recesses repair will be carried out using a high

strength epoxy mortar. This material can rapidly match the in-
situ concrete strength to enable TBM loading to be applied, it
can be applied overhead such as to recesses damaged
segments during stacking in stockyard and in 40mm layers
due to thixotropic characteristic and it as a high im-
permeability.

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22. Definitions
Clay: An aggregate of microscopic and sub-microscopic
particles derived from the chemical decomposition and
disintegration of rock constituents. It is plastic within a
moderate to wide range of water content.

Silt: A fine-grained soil with little or no plasticity. If shaken

in the palm of the hand, a part of saturated inorganic silt
expels enough water to make its surface appear glossy. If the
pat is pressed or squeezed between the fingers, its surface
again becomes dull.

Sand and Gravel: Cohesionless aggregates of angular,

subangular, sub-rounded, rounded, flaky or flat fragments of
more or less unaltered rocks or minerals.

Stand-up time: Almost all ground properties are time-

dependent, and strain controlled, both in short and long
term. In the short term, the concept of stand-up time is used as
a practical means of indicating the sensitivity of the ground to
imposed stress changes. This influences both the support
requirements and geometry of tunnel linings. Consolidation,
swelling and squeezing may be significant in the longer term.

Risk: Is the likelihood of a particular hazard being realised

together with the consequences for persons should that occur.

Risk management: Is the process of identifying, analysing,

assessing and controlling risks on a project. Also known by
the acronym ‘RAM’ from Risk Analysis and Management.

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Shaft: Is taken to mean a vertical or subvertical excavation of

limited cross-section in relation to its depth in which ground
support is provided as excavation proceeds, (rather than
installed in advance from the surface such as the case of piling
or diaphragm walls).

Volume Loss: Or ‘ground loss’ into the tunnel is usually

equated to the volume of the surface settlement trough per
linear metre expressed as a percentage of the theoretical
excavated volume per linear metre.

TBM & Segment survey: By regular survey checks, the

position and posture of the TBM although the tunnel guidance
system provides such information. Segments will also be
surveyed against the design alignment on a regular basis.

Pre-cast invert segment: Pes-cast invert segments to be

installed progressively as the TBM advances. Inverts
segments will be transported by the locomotive and installed
onto the tunnel invert using the hoist.

Extension of services/rails/belt conveyor/tunnel lighting:

As the TBM advances, service pipes, cables, rails and belt
conveyor must be extended. The duct cassette needs to be
changed at every 100 m.

Communication: Emergency telephones must be placed

along the tunnel side walls for communication with an
operator in the control room. An aerial in the tunnel will
permit the operator to transmit messages to safety, tunnel
manager, foreman at the surface and in the shaft.

Power supply: Power should be supplied from two

independent sources, for example, from two different utilities

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or independent substations of one utility. An alternative is a

standby diesel generating plant capable of supplying power at
least for ventilation and emergency lighting to keep the tunnel
in operation. This equipment should be supplemented by
storage batteries to supply instant power for the emergency
lighting. In addition, minimum 4000KVA power supply
through DG sets is required to run twin TBM for metro
projects in India.

Annulus grouting: The annulus between the lining and the

excavated ground was cavity grouted, together with proof-
grouting as necessary to minimise water inflows

Ventilation: Tunnels will be required to be ventilated to

dilute or remove contaminants, control temperature, improve
visibility and to control smoke and heated gases in the event
of a fire in the tunnel

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23. Tunnel Safety Engineering

Tunnelling has its own peculiar risks as well as some that
are common to other types of construction. In some instances,
the safety aspects of tunnelling are not recognized as being
unique but are thought to be similar to those of mining. Most
states, through their bureau of mines, have long-established
safety regulations and assume that safety regulations pertinent
to mining can be readily applied to tunnelling. To do so,
however, is not always appropriate. Tunnelling must be
recognized as a specialized underground construction effort.
But national and state mine bureau personnel, because they
are familiar with underground construction, do represent a
highly qualified group available to monitor tunnel safety.

The general public becomes aware of safety problems in

tunnelling through the news media, frequently from dramatic
reports that do not contain facts or findings by qualified
personnel. The public may not differentiate among specialized
types of underground work and will conclude that any
underground work is dangerous

The multiplicity of safety agencies and regulations tends

to cloud the issues and create confusion in industries such as
tunnelling. Some of the problems are,

A. Cross jurisdiction or unknown jurisdiction among federal,

state, and local agencies, all claiming responsibility for
inspection and enforcement of project safety.

B. Safety inspection personnel who lack training and

experience necessary to evaluate and interpret safety
situations; and

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C. Complex and repetitive reporting requirements by multiple

agencies.

Because tunnel safety is so multifaceted, it cannot be the

sole responsibility of the owner or contractor. Safety must be
equally pursued by owner, contractor, and labour. Labour can
contribute by providing competent workers trained to
accomplish the work in a safe manner. Employees and
supervisors that have poor safety records should be
mandatorily retrained. Contractors and owners can materially
contribute by providing additional project supervision on all
work shifts.

Safety Records and Reporting

Requirements for safety records and reporting should be

reviewed in an effort to reduce the number of reporting
documents and to eliminate needless repetition. Coordination
and standardization of reporting procedure could be more
readily achieved if uniform safety rules and regulations were
adopted.

National Statistical Tunnelling Norms

National statistical tunnelling norms should be developed

from job safety statistics by using data processing techniques
This information would be readily available and would serve
as a means of evaluating project safety. Such data would be
useful for reporting to the public the safety achievements on
tunnelling projects.

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Safety Input into Design

Safety should be incorporated during the design stages of

a tunnel project. Safety reviews of preliminary designs could
be obtained from safety and construction personnel before the
design is completed

Safety Training

Qualified tunnel safety personnel must be provided by

owners, contractors, and enforcement agencies, and stringent
requirements should be established to ensure that this is done.
Mandatory training programs should be set up and used to
further the safety education of all those concerned with
tunnelling (designers, engineers, supervision, and trade
personnel). Training education must be associated with
incentives that ensure results. Safety personnel must have the
necessary support of labour and management to adequately
execute their duties

Personal Protective Equipment

All personnel entering the tunnel during construction

Should wear all applicable Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE). The PPE Should comprise, at minimum, Safety
Helmet, safety (hard) shoes, tight clothing with no loose ends
and jackets/clothing with reflective stripes. Additional PPE
such as goggles, gloves, dust masks, helmet lamps, etc Should
also be adopted wherever conditions so warrant

Access Control Systems: A proper access control system

should be in place to have a clear idea at all times on the
identity of all personnel who are inside the underground

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installations in case any accident takes place and rescue

operations are to be launched. It is also essential to keep track
of all equipment inside the tunnel. It is common to issue token
to all concerned personnel and make them deposit the tokens
while entering the tunnel and retrieving the same on exiting

Signage: sign boards should be placed at required locations to

inform people of safety hazards inside the tunnel and the
precautions to be taken. Some of them would include warning
regarding blasting, rock falls, requirement for wearing
helmets, prohibition of unauthorized entry, etc

Safety Systems: The contractor’s personnel should practice

all standard safety systems. These would include at minimum,
safety induction (initial training in basics of safety) and
training (routine training) exercises, medical screening of
personnel for working inside tunnels, system of permits for
simultaneous operations in various locations, pep talks
(regular talks to workmen before they commence work on
importance of safety and how necessary it is for them to
observe safety regulations for their own welfare) and tool box
talks (specific safety instructions at the site in the specific area
of work for the workmen), talks on specific operations to be
carried out on the day, safety walk about (general safety
observance checks carried out by safety officers by going
around the site and checking observance of the various safety
regulations, etc), safety audits, safety reviews and mock drills.

Ventilation and Noise Protection: Ventilation shall be

carried out in tunnels to make the working space safe for
working by keeping the air fresh and by eliminating harmful
and obnoxious dust, explosive fumes, exhaust from the plant
& equipment, particularly diesel operated and other gases.

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Mechanical ventilation shall be adopted, wherever necessary

to force the air in or exhaust the air out from the working face
to the portal through ducts. Externally located fans operate in
forced ventilation and induced ventilation modes to supply air
through rigid or flexible ducts. Intermediate booster fans shall
also be provided to improve the supply of fresh air the
minimum fresh air requirement considered in tunnelling shall,
for plant and equipment. However, it may be modified as per
size and shape of the tunnel

Lighting: Night lighting should be designed to avoid flicker

and glare and the same illumination level be maintained
throughout the entire length

CCTV systems: Closed Circuit TVs are often deployed to

keep a continuous watch on underground installations from
the Control Room on top

Protection against Fire: All combustible materials like

rubbish should be continuously removed from such areas
where flammable liquids are stored, handled and processed.
All spills of flammable liquids should be cleared up
immediately. Containers of flammable liquid should be tightly
capped. All waste and combustible rubbish should be
removed at least daily from the tunnel.

Electrical installations: The electrical installations should be

carefully designed and executed and regular tests should be
carried out to ensure safe conditions and emergency cut-off
procedures. Electricity leakage monitoring systems should be
in place.

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Emergency Management System: An Emergency

management Plan Should be part of the approved Project
Safety Plan and Should be well communicated to all working
personnel and well displayed at the site. Emergency Rescue
Measures should be drawn up to take care of various possible
contingencies. It would also be advisable to provide safe
rooms in deep installations where people can take shelter for a
few hours in case of an emergency. Buried large diameter pipe
lines leading to outside can be provided to offer a medium for
communication and feeding in air supply in case of any
collapses and blockages of the entrance to underground
installations.

Safety Requirements: Tunnel maintenance activities both

planned and unplanned should be carried out by proper traffic
management. The tunnel should be: equipped in such a way
that as many maintenance operations as possible can be
carried out off-site in work shop or other places where it is not
necessary to interference with traffic flow in any way. To plan
maintenance and operation that affect vehicle traffic, as these
may be cause of accidents involving user of the tunnel or the
workers operating the maintenance equipment’s, certain
precautions as enumerated below. should be taken for safety
of traffic as well as maintenance staff.

In twin tube tunnel one tube can be closed for

maintenance while temporarily bi-directional traffic flow
allowed in other tube

• CCTV
• Supervision and alarm equipment's:
• IDS (incident detection system)
• emergency lighting

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• variable message signs

• Lane signals
• Blinking red light
• Variable text signs
• Barriers
• hand-operated fire extinguishers
• fire hydrants
• sprinkler (if used)
• emergency telephones
• fire alarms
• instruments for measuring gas concentrations
• radio transmission
• public address system
• escape route signs

There are various necessary procedures given below in

the safety aspect of view.

1. Excavation and subsidence

Prior to commencing excavation or trenching, the

location of all underground installations shall be located and
identified. As-built drawing, records and metal detectors
should be required to locate underground utilities. Overhead
hazards are to be assessed and either mitigated or guarded.
When underground utilities are identified, they shall be clearly
marked with spray point or any other highly visible method.

Underground utilities shall be exposed only by hand

digging and should continue up to 3 meters away from the
exposed utilities. Mechanical digging may commence at
3meter away. Excavation, trenching and adjacent areas shall

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be inspected by a competent person after every rainfall, as soil

condition change and as needed throughout the shift. Shoring
or bracing will be provided if the stability of buildings or
walls is endangered by an excavation or trench and engineer
approved.

2. Permit to work

This procedure sets the standard for a permit to work

(PTW) and how the system shall be applied for the metro
projects. A PTW is only a part of safe work system and
therefore the issuance of a PTW does not, by itself, make
work safe. This process is also dependent for its effectiveness
on the persons carrying out the required checks thoroughly.

3. First Aid

First aid kits should be located close to all work areas

where there is a likely risk of injuries or illness occurring. No
workstation should be more than 100m from or one floor
above or below a kit. First aid kits should be.

• Easily accessible during the normal working hours of the

area.
• Located in supervised area.
• Located if possible close to the running water, toilet and
a private area.
• Clearly visible and signposted with a standard safety sign
consisting of a white cross on a green background.

4. Confined space entry

Working inside the confined space: All work in the

confined space and access to it must be coordinated by the

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designated personnel to ensure that the work activities of

different groups do not conflict. If the space is divided into
sections to allow different work to precede simultaneously,
great care must be taken to ensure the sections are effectively
isolated, only one confined space permit to work/entry permit
is required for each confined space. This is applied even when
more than one group is working inside the space.

5. Crane and lifting

Contractor shall inspect all type of cranes prior to

mobilization to site and issue the appropriate sticker for
verification. Each tower and mobile crane need to be
inspected by a competent person for mechanical defects upon
its arrival, before its use on the project and monthly thereafter.
The monthly safety inspection checklist will be completed and
retained in the maintenance records. An inspection sticker will
be affixed to the crane indicating the inspector’s name,
contractor name and date of inspection and serial number of
cranes. In addition, insurance documents and third-party
inspection certificate.

6. Noise control

The purpose of this policy is to establish the requirement

for contractors to follow for preventing potential noise
induces hearing loss and to meet the requirement of the
OSHA Occupational Noise Exposure Standard, 29CFR
1910.95 and MPP/project specific requirements. This policy
applied to all projects that employees are exposed to sound
levels of 80 dBA and greater on an 8-hour time weighted
average basis.

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7. Dust control

It is essential to have effective dust and emission control

measures in place for every dust generating activity carried
out on site, not only to protect the health and safety of the on-
site work force but also to protect the health of the wider
public and to prevent to unnecessary environmental pollution.
The site evaluation process therefore applies to all proposed
construction activities, including site clearing, demolition and
construction phases. The site evaluation must be conducted
prior to the commencement of any works.

8. Environmental management

An environmental Impact Assessment is a process

through which the environmental impacts potentially resulting
from a proposed project are identified and assessed early in
the design/planning process. EIA identified steps that can be
taken to avoid negative environmental impacts or reduce them
to acceptable levels before they occur. EIA, therefore,
represents a proactive, preventative approach to
environmental management to protection.

The environmental impact may include (but not limited)

to the following.

• Air quality (dust, exhaust emissions or odour)

• Noise and vibration
• Light pollution
• Terrestrial ecology
• Valley ecology
• Resource, conservation & housekeeping
• Solid waste management

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• Hazardous waste management

• Wastewater management
• Soil and groundwater management
• Surface water management
• Earthworks
• Management of vehicles (including maintenance and
washing)
• Spillage control
• Archaeology
• Soil erosion
• Construction waste
• Material reuse

9. Power tools and equipment

The project team shall ensure that supply partners select,

supply and use plant, tools and equipment manufactured in
accordance with international standards (BS/EN or equivalent
international standards) Typical equipment within the scope
of this standard will include diesels, air and electrically
powered static or hand-held plant, tools and equipment. A
monthly inspection and maintenance regime for all plant,
tools and equipment on site that has moving parts.
Competency training may be provided in house by a
competent person.

10. Site electricity

All electrical equipment used on the worksite will be

manufactured in accordance with internationally recognized
standards and installed in accordance with BS 7671 or
equivalent international standards. Cables, sockets, connectors
and splitters will be of an industrial type. Domestic type

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cabling connectors and sockets are prohibited in construction

area. Jointing of all electrical cables and wires shall be by
means of proprietary or connectors/splitters.

11. Air Quality and Gas Monitoring

In the safety view, for all who working in the tunnel, air
quality and the concentration of detrimental gases will be
monitored. When a reading deviates from the safe range, the
system will sound the alarm. O2, CH4, CO, SO2 and NO will
be monitored at the TBM and O2 and CO will be monitored at
the shaft by the gas monitoring system. The limit levels
of these gases are shown in the table below.

Gas Hazard Limit

O2 Asphyxiant 19-23 Vol%
CH4 Explosive Asphyxiant 4.4 Vol %
CO Toxic To be confirmed
SO2 Toxic 2ppm for long-term
5ppm for short-term
NO Toxic 25ppm for long-term
35ppm for short-term
Table 12: Limitation level of gas monitoring

In addition, routine check using a manual gas

monitoring/detection device will be carried out at the
beginning of each shift. The hand-held instrument can
measure the concentration of O2, CO2, CH4 and H2S.

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24. Abbreviations
AFTES - French Association Tunnels and
Underground Space
BTS - British Tunnelling Society
BMRCL - Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd
BOOT - Build-Own-Operate-Transfer
BS - British Standards
CIRIA - Construction Industry Research and
Information Association (UK)
CH - Chainage
CSV - Comma-Separated Values
DMRC - Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
DTA - Design Tunnel Axis
EPB - Earth Pressure Balance
EPDM - Ethylene Polythene Diene Monomer
FEMC - Fire Equipment Management Centres
GIS - Geographic Information Systems
GI - Galvanised Iron
GIR - Geotechnical Interpretation Report
GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System
GPR - Ground Penetrating Radar
IS - Indian Standard
IGC - Intergovernmental Commission
ISRM - International Society for Rock Mechanics
ITA - International Tunnelling Association
Kmph - kilometre per hour
kVA - kilovolt-ampere
LMRC - Lucknow Metro Rail Corporation
MPBX - Multi Point Borewell Extensometer
MRTS - Mass Rapid Transit System
NATM - New Austrian Tunnelling Method
NFPA - National Fire Protection Agency

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P&M Plant and Machinery

-
ppm parts per million
-
PVC Polyvinylchloride
-
RMR Rock Mass Rating
-
ROC Rock Overhead Crawler
-
RQD Rock Quality Designation
-
SCC Self Compacting Concrete
-
SEM Sequential Excavation Method
-
SPT Standard Penetration Test
-
TAM Tube a Manchette
-
TBM Tunnel Boring Machine
-
TML Transmanche-Line
-
TSI-SRT technical specification for interoperability
-
relating to ‘safety in railway tunnels’
TSI-LOC- - technical specification for interoperability-
PAS locomotives and passenger rolling stock
UIC - Union International des Chemin
UPMRCL - Uttarpradesh Metro Rail Corporation Ltd

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25. Some of the Useful Websites to

Enhance the Knowledge
1. www.rites.com
2. www.geodata.it
3. www.encardio.com
4. www.lmrcl.com
5. www.herrenknecht.com
6. www.terratec.co
7. www.wikipedia.org
8. www.ita-aites.org
9. www.indianjournals.com
10. www.railinfrasys.com
11. www.eurotunnel.com
12. www.robbinstbm.com
13. www.fidic.org
14. www.nfpa.org
15. www.aftes.fr
16. www.britishtunnelling.com
17. www.ciria.org
18. www.isrm.net
19. www.nirm.in
20. www.railway-technology.com
21. www.sciencedirect.com
22. www.urcindia.com
23. www.konkanrailway.com
24. www.bmrc.co.in
25. www.ieindia.org

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26. Appendix
Photographs of instrumentations for underground
structures

1. Building settlement point

2. a Ground settlement point
2. b Ground settlement point
3. Pavement settlement point
4. a Bi reflex point
4. b Bi reflex point
4. c Bi reflex point
5. a Crack meter
5. b Crack meter
6. a Inclinometer system
6. b Inclinometer system
7. Tilt meter
8. Piezometer
9. Strain gauge
10. Vibrometer

1. Buiding Settlement Point

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2. a: Ground Settlement Point

2. b: Ground Settlement Point

3: Pavement Settlement Point

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4. a: BI Reflex Point

4. b: BI Reflex Point

4. c: BI Reflex Point

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5. a: Crack Meter

5. b: Crack Meter

6. a: Inclinometer System

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6. b: Inclinometer System

7: TILT Meter

8: Piezometers

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9. a: Strain Gauge

10: Vibrometer

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27. References
[1] ITA Guideline for the design of shield tunnel lining, published in
Tunnelling and Underground space technology Volume 15, No.3 pp 303-
331, Elsevier Science, 2000.

[2] Attewell, P.B., Yeates, I. and Selby, A.R. (1986). Soil movements induced
by tunnelling and their effects on pipelines and structures. Blackie,
Glasgow.

[3] Barton, N.R., Grimstad, E. and Palmstrom.A. Design of tunnel support:

Sprayed concrete properties, design and application. (Austin, S. and
Robins.)

[4] BTS closed face tunnelling machines and ground stability, A guidance of
best practice, The Institution of Engineers, Thomas Thelford publishing,
London, 2005.

[5] Code of practice for construction of Tunnels, Part II Underground

Excavation in Rock. IS:5878 Part2, Section II (1971).

[6] Bouvard, A., Colombet, G., Panet, M. and others (2000). Tunnel support
and lining AFTES, France.

[7] Copperthwaite, W.C. (1906). Tunnel shields and the use of Compressed
Air in subaqueous works. Archibald constable, London.

[8] Final DPR of Lucknow Metro Rail Project (Phase-1), October 2013.

[9] Davis, E.H., M.I.,Mair, R.J. and Senevitatte, H.N. (1980). The stability of
shallow tunnels and underground openings in cohesive soils. Geotechnique
30, No.4, 397-416.

[10] Golder Associates and Mac Laren Ltd (1976). Tunnelling Technology.
Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Toronto.

[11] Health and Safety in tunnelling in the construction industry code of

practice, BS:6164-2019.

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[12] Jacobson, S. (1974). Buckling of circular rings and cylindrical tubes under
external pressure. Waterpower, December, 400-407.

[13] Leca, E. (1996) Modelling and prediction for bored tunnels in Geotechnical
Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground. Balkema,
Rotterdam.

[14] Parreno.J (2016) TERRATEC technical specification of 6.56 Diameter

EPB-TBM (THK-CS-16011)

[15] Watson, P. (1997) NATM design for soft ground, World Tunnelling.
November.

[16] Monsees, I.E. and Lorig, (1993). Design of shotcrete support in the United
States in Shotcrete for Underground Support VI

[17] Moore, E.I. (1989). Tunnels and shafts, Chapter 3. In Civil Engineering
Guidelines for Planning and Designing Hydroelectric Development,
VOL.2, waterways. ASCE, New York.

[18] Bamforth P.B. Early-age thermal crack control in concrete, CIRIA-C660,

2007.

[19] Peila, D. (1994). A theoretical study of reinforcement influence on the

stability of a tunnel face. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 12.

[20] Ananthakumar.P.,Shyam.S (2020). Modern Trends in Pre-cast Segmental

Tunnel by TBM Excavation Method. The Institution of Engineering, Civil
Engineering Division Board, Annual Technical Volume.

[21] Powderham, A.J (1994). An overview of the observational method:

Development in Cut and Cover & Bored tunnelling projects. Geotechnique
44, No.4, 619-636. Thomas Telford, London.

[22] Bilotta.E, Lanzano.G, Russo.G, Santucci.F, Silvestri.F., An Early-Stage

Design Procedure for circular Tunnel lining under Seismic Actions. 14th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, October 12-17, 2008,
Beijing, China.

[23] Sauer,G. Further insight into the NATM. 23rd Sir Julius Wernter memorial
lecture. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London.

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[24] Swoboda, G. and Moussa, A. (1994). Numerical modelling of shotcrete and

concrete tunnel linings in Tunnelling and Ground conditions. Balkema,
Rotterdam.
[25] Anderson.G, Roskrow B. The channel Tunnel story. London U.K: E & FN
Spon; 1994.

[26] Fitchie A, Barker A. Eurotunnel, research report 51039, S.G, Werburg

Securities, 30th April 1993.

[27] Rastogi V.K (2008) Instrumentation and monitoring of underground

structures and metro railway tunnels. World tunnel congress.

[28] Basler &Hotmann. (2006) Gasket for segments. International symposium

on underground excavation and tunnelling. Thailand.

[29] Velmurugan.P Knowledge shared on Tunnel Safety Engineering, Chief

Safety Expert-Tata Projects Ltd.

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