Et Classroom Training Book 2012

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 Arlingate Lane ‘Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Copyright © 2006 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights reserved. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein, and published opinions or statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The NDT Technician and ‘ are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing. ISBN-10: 1-57117-122-3 ISBN-13; 978-1-57117-122-1 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sadek, Hussein. Electromagnetic testing classroom training book / written for ASNT by Hussein Sadek. p.cm.-- (Personnel training publications series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-10: 1-57117-122-3 ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-122-1 1. Electromagnetic testing. 2. Eddy current testing. I. American Society for Nondestructive ‘Testing. II. Title. TA417.3.S23 2006 620.1'127--de22 2006039336 First printing 12/06 Second printing 03/10 ‘Third printing 03/12Acknowledgments A special thank you goes to the following technical editor who helped with this publication: Dave Russell, Russell NDE Systems, Inc. {A special thank you goes to the following reviewers who helped with this publication: Rick Cahill, GE Inspection Technologies Jim Cox, Zetec Nat Faransso, Kellogg, Brown & Root, Inc. Darrell Harris, ASRC Energy Services Don Locke, Karta Technologies Michael McGloin, Hellier Mike Mester, Consultant ‘Alan Pardini, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Frank Satiler, Sattler Consultants, Ine. Roderick Stanley, NDE Information Consultants AM. Wenzig, Jr., Industrial Testing Laboratory Services, LLC ‘The Publications Review Committee includes: Chair, Sharon I. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute Mark A. Randig, Cooperheat-MQS, Inc. Joe Mackin, International Pipe Inspectors Association Ann E. Spence Educational Materials EditorForeword ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing; Inc. (ASNT) has prepared this series of Personnel Training Publications to present the major areas in each nondestructive testing method. Each classroom training book in the series is organized to follow the Recommended Training Course Outlines found in Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. The Level I and Level II candidates should use this classroom training book as a preparation tool for nondestructive testing certification. An ASNT NDT Level I or Level II may be expected to know additional information based on industry or employer requirements. ivTable of Contents Acknowledgments Foreword Table of Contents .. Level I Electromagnetic Testing . Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electromagnt Early Observations of Magnetic Attraction . . Development of Induced Currents . ersted’s Discovery Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction James Clerk Maxwell : Friedrich Forster . . . Basic Principles of Eddy Current Testing Principles of Flux Leakage Testing . Personnel Qualification . . Levels of Qualification . Qualification for Level I . Qualification for Level II Qualification for Level II Challenges ...... Personnel Certification Chapter 2 - Eddy Current Theory . Generation of Eddy Currents Electromotive Force - Resistance .....-++ ‘Alternating Current . Sine Wave Frequency Self Inductance Inductive Reactance . Impedance . Arctan, Resistance . Inductive Reactance . Chapter 3 - Eddy Current Instrumentation . Introduction ...........+0++ Eddy Current Instrument Circuits Impedance Bridge Circuit (Wheatstone Bridge) . Internal Functions of Eddy Current Instrumentation . Signal Excitation ........0sceeseeeneeeee eeeSignal Modulation . Signal Preparation - Signal Demodulation and Analysis Signal Display . . Signal-to-Noise ratio Improving Signal-to-1 vise Ratio Chapter 4 - Readout Mechanisms Introduction . . Analog Meters. Audio Alarms Strip-Chart Recorder Digital Displays .. Cathode Ray Tubes Digital Data Storage . 26 Digital Mixing ... 26 Liquid Crystal Display 27 Chapter 5 - Eddy Current Sensing Elements . Introduction . . : Surface Coil Applications . Encircling Coil | Applications . Internal Coil Application: Test Coil Arrangements Single Coil (Absolute Arrangement) . Double Coil (Absolute Arrangement) Differential Coil (Self-Comparison Technique) Differential Coil (External Comparison Technique) . Hybrid Coil Arrangements (Through Transmission) | Factors Affecting Choice of Sensing Elements . Frequency . Excitation . Gain Linearity : Horizontal and Vertical Deviation Quadrature Accuracy Digitization Rate . Sample Rate Bandwidth . Chapter 6 - Flux Leakage Theory Introduction . Band H Curve . Lines of Force ‘42 Law of Magnetism . 42 Flux Density ... 43 Right Hand Rule . vi Personnel Training PublicationsMagnetic Properties of Materials . Magnetic Domains . Magnetic Hysteresis ‘Magnetic Permeability Chapter 7 - Flux Leakage Sensing Elemen Inductive Coil Sensors : Hall Effect Sensors . Flux Gate Magnetometer . Magnetodiode ........ ‘Applications of Magnetodiodes . Other Methods of Magnetic Leakage Field Detection ‘Magnetic Tape System . Magnetic Particles ... Magnetic Resonance Sensors Level II El magnetic Te Chapter 8 - Coil Impedance . Test Object .. ‘Conductivity Factors Affecting Conductivity .. Alloy Composition . Hardness . . Temperature and Residual Stresses. Conductivity Coatings . 0) Edge Effects. 2) Skin Effect . : End Effect . Permeability Factors Dimensional Factors. Test Object Shape and Thickness Discontinuities 63 Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Test Systems and Analysis 65 Impedance Testing Systems . : 65 Phase Analysis Systems . . : 65 Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram 65 Effect of Frequency on Impedance-Plane Diagram . 68 Effect of Material Thickness 70 Effect of Frequency on Thickness Measurements Suppression of Nontelevant Variables . Suppression of the Lift-Off Variable Suppression of the Conductivity Variable . Conductivity and Permeability Cathode Ray Tube Methods ... Cathode Ray Tube Vector Point Method Cathode Ray Tube Ellipse Display Method Modulation Analysis .........-0e000+ Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing viiChapter 10 - Selection of Test Frequency . 83 Test Frequency ... Depth of Penetration . Single Frequency Sys Multi-Frequency Systems . Chapter 11 - Coupling Lift-Off and Fill Factor Lift-Off .. Fill Factor Calculation of Chapter 12 - Electromagnetic Testing Applications Eddy Current Applications ‘Aerospace Applications . Measurement of Metal and Coating Thickness - Reference Standards for Thickness Testing . Metal Thickness .......... Conductive Coating Thickness Metal Spacing ....... Tests of Metal Conductivity Testing of Bolt Holes ... Testing of Aircraft Structures Testing of Jet Engines . Surface Tests : Chemical and Petroleum Applications’. Electric Power Applications Steam Generators ...... Balance-of-Plant Heat Exchangers Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers Applications Material Sorting Related to Conductivity ...... Electromagnetic Testing in Primary Metals Industries . Testing of Hot Rolled Bars . : Testing of Square Billets . Testing of Hot Steel Rods and Wires . Chapter 13 - Factors Affecting Flux Leakage Fields Defect Geometry, Location and Orientation ‘Subsurface Discontinuities . . . Degree of Initial Magnetization Chapter 14 ~ Selection of Magnetization Method . 5 ses 105 Introduction ....... : Permanent Magnets . Electromagnets .. . Magnetizing Co! Testing in Residual Fiel Magnetizing by Direct Current Magnitudes of Magnetic Flux Leakage Fields vil Personnel Training PublicationsChapter 15 - Flux Leakage Applications Introduction wee Heat Exchanger Tubing Applications Wire Rope Inspection . Round Bars and Tubes Petroleum and Gas Pipelines hie Installed Heat Exchanger and Boiler Tubes . ‘Above-Ground Storage Tank Floors Chapter 16 - Remote Field Testing History Instrumentation Probe Configuration . Effects of Probe Speed Frequency Selection .. Features of Remote Field Testing . ‘Applications . Sensitivity . Signal Analysis Reference Standards Chapter 17 - Alternating Current Field Measurement History .. Principle of Operation Probe Configuration . Advantages and Disadvantag ‘Advantages . . Disadvantages Alternating Current Fi Fatigue Cracks Stress Corrosion Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cracking . Fatigue Cracks in Rail Heads Corrosion Pitting .......- jeld Measurement Indications . Chapter 18 - Electromagnetic Testing Standards and Procedures Introduction ........ Calibration Standards. . Reference Standards ‘Conductivity Reference Standards Coating Thickness Reference Standards . Discontinuity Reference Standards . . . ‘Natural Discontinuity Reference Standards Artificial Discontinuity Reference Standards . Lift-Off Reference Standards . Sorting Reference Standards Standards and Specifications . Standards and Industry Speci Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing ixThe American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Military Standards (MIL-STD) Personnel Training PublicationsThe ASNT PERSONNEL TRAININGChapter 1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing EARLY OBSERVATIONS OF MAGNETIC ATTRACTION Electromagnetic testing is one of the oldest nondestructive testing method. Thales of Miletus (600 B.CE,) first recorded that rubbing amber induced a state in which the amber would attract other light objects. The Greek word for amber is electron. Thales also mentioned the remarkable powers of lodestone (iron oxide), also known as magnetite. Democritus (400 B.C.) provided concepts of an atomic structure of matter. Democritus’ fifth principle states that, “varieties of all things depend on the varieties of their atoms, in number, size and aggregation.” Many electromagnetic tests intend to identify the specific atoms in materials and the discontinuities that occur in these materials when needed atoms are missing or separated from their neighbors. By 1200 A.D. the use of the magnetic compass was reported in China. At about the same time, Englishman Alexander Neckam also reported the use of the compass in navigation. In the year 1600, the physician William Gilbert wrote a comprehensive description of his 18 years of experiments and his theory of magnetism in the book De Magnete. Development of Induced Currents Electromagnetic induction had not been observed nor explained before the nineteenth century. James Clerk Maxwell, shown in Figure 1.1, summarized the first 50 years of electromagnetism in the book, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.Oersted’s Discovery Maxwell explained that conjectures had been made as to the relationship between magnetism and electricity, but the laws of these relationships remained entirely unknown. Hans Christian Oersted (shown in Figure 1.2) observed that a wire connecting the ends of a voltaic battery affected a compass in its vicinity. In his published account in 1820, he explained that the current itself was the cause of the action, and that the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner; that is, a compass placed near a wire transmitting an electric current tends to set itself perpendicular to the wire, and always points toward the wire as the compass is moved around the wire. The space in which these forces act may therefore be considered a magnetic field (shown in Figure 1.2b). Oersted’s discovery meant that the lines of magnetic force are at right angles to the wire, and are therefore circles perpendicular to the wire. Figure 1.2: Hans Christian Oersted: (a) with student Oersted discovers electric current’s magnetic effect on compass when circuit is completed; and (b) Oersted’s observation that compass needle near electric current moves to position perpendicular to direction of current. Personnel Training PublicationsFaraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction Electromagnetic testing originated when Michael Faraday discovered the effect of electromagnetic induction while experimenting with coils of wire and a battery. He noticed that by connecting one coil to a battery, there was an instant electrical current through a second coil placed near the first coil when he switched the battery on and off. He also concluded that the second ‘current was in the opposite direction of the first current. Similarly, Faraday found that moving the secondary circuit toward the primary induced a current opposite to the primary current in the primary coil. Also, moving the secondary circuit away from the primary induced a current in the same direction as the primary current in the primary coil. Maxwell explained that, “the direction of the secondary current is such that the mechanical action between the two conductors is opposite to the direction of motion, being a repulsion when wires are approaching, and an attraction when they are receding.” This electromotive force was observed by Faraday but was given more systematic treatment by Heinrich Lenz. Figure 1.3: Electromagnetic induction in a direct current circuit. Switch Secondary Battery cea dD ‘Ammeter David E. Hughes performed the first recorded eddy current test in 1879. He was able to distinguish between different metals by observing and noting a change in excitation frequency resulting from cffects of a test material's resistivity and magnetic permeability. James Clerk Maxwell James Clerk Maxwell conceived and published the ‘comprehensive group of relations to the electromagnetic field known as Maxwell’s equations, which mathematically represent the entire present knowledge of the principles of electromagnetic testing. ‘Maxwell’s remarkable achievement of integrating the available knowledge concerning electromagnetic circuits and fields provides the basis for analysis of all basic eddy current and electromagnetic induction problems and most of the modern electromagnetic theory. ‘Several ideas for electromagnetic methods of detection emerged in the 1930s, but most of these relied on inductive measurements of the leakage field. This required either a high frequency magnetizing current, which limited the technology to near-surface discontinuity detection, or coils moving at constant velocity over the surface, which was too cumbersome for the technology of that time. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestingIn 1946, the first practical system for the automatic, electromagnetic measurement of flux leakage fields was designed by Hastings. Hastings demonstrated that he could detect both surface and subsurface discontinuities near the bore surfaces of steel tubes. He also noted an empirical correlation between the amplitude of leakage signals and the depths of surface cracks. Friedrich Forster The first eddy current instrument was developed in 1926, In 1950, Forster developed the first instruments with impedance-plane signal displays, which were used to discriminate between different parameters. The introduction by Forster of sophisticated, stable Quantitative test equipment, and of practical techniques for analysis Of quantitative test signals on the impedance-plane, were important factors contributing to the rapid development and acceptance of electromagnetic induction and eddy current tests from 1950 to 1965. Since 1965, electromagnetic testing and eddy current testing applications have developed and are in use daily in nearly every technical industry. Basic PRINCIPLES OF EDDy CURRENT TESTING Eddy current testing is a nondestructive testing method that is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic simply means that electricity and magnetism are used. Flow of electricity, under certain circumstances, can cause magnetism. Magnetism, under certain circumstances, causes the flow of electricity. When an alternating current (AC) is passed through a coil, a changing magnetic field is generated. As the coil is placed near a conductive test object, the magnetic field induces current (eddy currents) as illustrated in Figure 14. Figure 1.4: Basic eddy current test system. Indicating instrument oA reton of cits fata Direction of eddy currents field ‘Conductive material 2 L = // Eddy currents 6 Personnel Training Publications‘The flow of eddy currents depends on the physical and electrical characteristics of the test object. As an eddy current flows in the test object, it causes a fluctuating magnetic field of its own. The magnetic field from the eddy currents is always in opposition to the coil’s magnetic field, as illustrated in Figure 1.4. Thus, when the test coil is placed on a conductive material, the strength of the coil’s magnetic field is lessened. This change in the magnetic field causes ‘a change in the current flowing through the coil that, in turn, causes ‘a change in the impedance of the coil. This change in impedance is detected by the readout display placed in the test circuit. Eddy current instruments measure and display these impedance coil changes and allow the technician to evaluate valuable information regarding the properties and condition of the test object. Eddy current testing, like other nondestructive test methods, involves the application of electromagnetic energy to evaluate the condition of test objects. The energy interacts with the material and the interaction process is analyzed to ascertain the condition of the ‘material. In principle, electromagnetic methods cover a wide range of techniques, including eddy current testing and magnetic flux leakage testing. Although all electromagnetic methods are governed by Maxwell's equations, the distinctive nature of each method stems from differences in excitation frequencies, the nature of sensors used and the signal analysis techniques for characterizing the state of the test object. For example, eddy current techniques use excitation frequencies from about 100 Hz to about 1 Hz, while magnetic flux leakage uses excitation frequencies near 0 Hz. 'AS the excitation frequency increases from zero, the underlying physical process gradually changes. Below about 1 Hz, the magnetic field is said to be quasistatic, which means that the displacement current is negligible. As the frequency increases beyond quasistatic values, the energy propagates in the form of waves into the test material. Differences in the underlying processes associated with each frequency make it possible for electromagnetic techniques to test a wide range of materials. PRINCIPLES OF FLUX LEAKAGE TESTING ‘Magnetic flux leakage testing is an electromagnetic technique that can provide a quick assessment of the integrity of ferromagnetic material. This technique involves magnetization of the test object by ‘a permanent magnet or by passing a direct current directly through a coil, creating an electromagnet. The presence of a discontinuity on or near the surface of the sample disturbs the magnetic flux lines and results in a local leakage field around the discontinuity. The magnetic flux leakage field can be detected using a variety of techniques. In magnetic particle testing, the leakage field is indicated by dusting the surface of the test object with magnetic Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testingparticles. These particles can be either dry or wet. Forces exerted by the magnetic leakage field around a crack attracts the particles to line up along surface cracks. The magnetic flux leakage can also be detected using noncontact sensors, such as a Hall effect probe or a simple induction coil. A Hall effect probe using an element oriented parallel to the sample surface is sensitive to the normal component of the magnetic flux leakage field and generates a typical signal, as shown in Figure 1.5 for a rectangular notch. Figure 1.5: Typical leakage field signal. Signal voltage from Hall sensor (relative scale) ‘Scan position or time (relative scale) PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION It is imperative that personnel responsible for electromagnetic testing are trained and qualified with a technical understanding of the equipment and materials, the test object and the test procedures. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) has published guidelines for training and qualifying nondestructive testing personnel since 1966. These are known as Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testinig: Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. The Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A describes the knowledge and capabilities of nondestructive testing personne! in terms of certification levels. ASNT CP-189 was approved by the ASNT Board of Directors in 1989 as a standard for the qualification and certification of nondestructive testing personnel. The intent was to produce a new document that provided strict requirements rather than simply guidelines. ASNT obtained ANSI accreditation to process this document through a consensus balloting process that would recognize ASNT CP-189 as a national standard. The first successful consensus document became ANSI/ASNT CP-189-1991. Personnel Training PublicationsANSUASNT CP-189 is similar to SNT-TC-IA in terms of training, experience and examinations. Several significant differences were introduced to strengthen the NDT personnel qualification and certification program, which include the following. 1, Employer certification requirements and ASNT NDT Level Ill certification in the method. 2, Instructor for training must meet qualifications of the standard. a. ASNT Level Ill certificate. b. Bachelor of Science in engineering, physical science or technology with knowledge of nondestructive testing method. c. NDT Level II with at least ten years of experience. Levels of Qualification ‘There are three basic levels of qualification applied to nondestructive testing personnel and used by companies that follow Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A and ASNT CP-189: Level I, Level Il and Level Il. ‘An individual in the process of becoming qualified or certified to Level I is considered a trainee. A trainee does not independently conduct tests, interpret, evaluate or report test results of any nondestructive testing method. A trainee works under the direct, guidance of certified individuals. Qualification for Level I Level I personnel are qualified to perform the following tasks: 1. Perform specific calibrations and nondestructive tests in accordance with specific written instructions. 2. Record test results. Normally, the Level I does not have the authority to sign off on the acceptance and completion of the nondestructive test unless specifically trained to do so with clearly written instructions. 3. Perform nondestructive testing job activities in accordance with written instructions or direct supervision from Level II or Level III personnel. Qualification for Level IT Level II personnel are qualified to perform the following tasks: 1, Set up and calibrate equipment. 2. Interpret and evaluate results with respect to applicable codes, standards and specifications. 3. Organize and report the results of nondestructive tests. 4. Exercise assigned responsibility for on the job training and guidance of Level I and trainee personnel. 5. Be thoroughly familiar with the scope and limitations of each method for which the individual is certified. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestingQualification for Level III A Level II is responsible for nondestructive testing operations to which assigned and for which certified. A Level III must also be generally familiar with appropriate nondestructive testing methods other than those for which specifically certified, as demonstrated by passing a Level II Basic examination. Level III personnel are qualified to perform the following tasks: 1. Develop, qualify and approve procedures; establish and approve nondestructive testing methods and techniques to be used by Level I and Level II personnel. 2, Interpret and evaluate test results in terms of applicable codes, standards, specifications and procedures. 3. Assist in establishing acceptance criteria where none are available, based on a practical background in applicable materials, fabrication and product technology. 4, In the methods for which certified, be responsible for, and capable of, training and examination of Level I and Level II personnel for certification in those methods, Challenges ‘The major challenge facing nondestructive testing personnel is to Jeam all that can possibly be learned during the qualification processes. Another challenge involves developing the mindset that there is something else to learn each time the nondestructive testing method is used. There is no substitute for knowledge, and nondestructive testing personnel must be demanding of themselves. ‘The work performed in the nondestructive testing field deserves the very best because of the direct effect of protecting life or endangering life. PERSONNEL CERTIFICATION Itis important to understand the difference between two terms that are often confused within the field of nondestructive testing: qualification and certification. Qualification is a process that should take place before a person is certified. According to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, the qualification process for any nondestructive testing method should involve the following. 1. Training in the fundamental principles and applications of the method. 2. Experience in the application of the method under the guidance of a certified individual (on the job training). 10 Personnel Training Publications3, Demonstrated ability to pass written and practical (hands on) tests that prove a comprehensive understanding of the method and an ability to perform actual tests using the specific nondestructive testing method. 4. The ability to pass a vision test for visual acuity and color perception or shades of gray, as needed for the method. ‘The actual certification of a person in nondestructive testing to a Level I, Level Il or Level III is written testimony that the individual has been properly qualified. It should contain the name of the individual being certified, identification of the method and level of certification, the date and the name of the person issuing the certification, Certification is meant to document the actual qualification of the individual. Proper qualification and certification is extremely important because the process of testing performed by certified nondestructive testing personnel can have a direct impact on the health and safety of every person who will work on, in, or in proximity to the equipment or assemblies being tested. Poor work performed by unqualified personnel can cost lives. Modern fabrication and manufacturing projects challenge the strength and endurance of the materials of construction. Preventive maintenance activities also present a challenge to nondestructive testing personnel. ‘The industries that depend on nondestructive testing cannot tolerate nondestructive testing personnel who are not adequately qualified and dedicated to good performance. Too much depends on the judgments of nondestructive testing personnel made in the work performed every day. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 1Chapter 2 Eddy Current Theory GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS ‘The principles of eddy current testing depend on the process of electromagnetic induction. This process includes a test coil through which varying or alternating current is passed. A varying current flowing in a test coil produces a varying electromagnetic field around the coil. This field is known as the primary field. Figure 2.1 presents a schematic view of an excited test coil. The electromagnetic field produced around the unloaded test coil can be described as decreasing in intensity with distance from the coil and also varying across the coil’s cross-section. The electromagnetic field is most intense near the coil’s surface. Figure 2.1: Electromagnetic field produced by altemating current. The field produced around this coil is directly proportional to the magnitude of applied current, rate of change of current or frequency and the coil parameters. Coil parameters include inductance, diameter, length, thickness, number of turns of wire and core material. Electrical current is defined as the movement of electrons through a conductor. The unit of current is the ampere. Its quantitative value is established as the flow of 6.25 x 10!8 electrons per second past a given point in the circuit. Electrons are negatively charged particles that are part of the basic building blocks of any material (the atom). A conductor is anymaterial that is capable of carrying electrical current. Some materials are conductors, others are not. Whether a material can conduct electricity or not depends on the structure of the individual atoms in the material. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE Faraday's major contribution was the discovery of electromagnetic induction. His work can be summarized by the example shown in Figure 2.2. Coil A is connected to a battery through a switch S. A second coil B connected to a galvanometer G is nearby. When switch S is closed producing a current in coil A in the direction shown, a momentary current is induced in coil B in a direction (> a) opposite to that in A. If S is now opened, a ‘momentary current will appear in coil B having the direction of (<5). In each case, current flows in coil B only while the current in coil A is changing. [ = current flowing in coil. he HI Figure 2.2: Induced current. Electromagnetic force is the electrical energy derived from mechanical, chemical or other form of energy that must be applied across the material to force the electrons to move. The unit of measurement of the Electromagnetic force is called the volt. ‘Some materials, due to their molecular structure, require more energy than others to cause electrons to move. These are said to have more resistance to the flow of electrical current. The amount of resistance in a material is the factor that limits the amount of current that flows through the material for a given applied electromotive force. The electromagnetic force (voltage) induced in coil B of Figure 2.2 can be expressed as follows: NA® 21 p=NA® BoM where E is average induced voltage, N is number of turns of wire in coil B, At/ Ar is rate of change of magnetic lines of force affecting coil B, and K is 108, 14 Personnel Training PublicationsSISTANCE In an alternating current circuit containing only resistance, the resistance simply limits the amount of current that flows through the circuit. It does not change the phase relationship between the voltage and the current. The current is exactly in phase with the voltage. Resistance is present in all circuits. The total resistance in a circuit includes the resistance of the wiring as well as the resistance of the coil. The unit of resistance is called the ohm. Its value is defined as the resistance through which an electromotive force of 1 V will produce a current of 1 amp. In a direct current (DC) circuit, the voltage, current and resistance are related to each other through the mathematical expression known as Ohm's law. Eq.22 E=IxR- or where E is voltage (volt), / is current (ampere) and R is resistance (ohm). Example Problem: What is the value of the current flowing in a 5 ohm resistor connected across a 10 V battery? Solution: E = 1x R Given: E = 10 V and R= 5 ohm 10=1x5 = 10/5 =2 amp The resistance of a coil is determined by the length of wire used to wind the coil. The specific resistance is determined by the wire type and the cross-sectional area of the wire. Eq.23. Resi __ Specific resistance e Length Area where resistance is in ohms, specific resistance is in ohms/circular mil-foot, area is in circular mils, and length is in feet. Example Problem: The resistance of a 10 ft length of 40 gage wire (area of 40 gage wire = 9.888 circular mils) with a specific resistance of 10.4 circular mil-foot at 20° C would be found as, follows: Eq.24 p= 104210 =10.518 ohm Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 15Alternating Current When a coil of wire is placed in the open end of a magnet between the north and south poles and given a spin, electricity is induced in the coil. The current produced does not travel in the same direction through the coil at all times, nor is it of a constant value. Instead the current starts out at zero, rises to a maximum value, decreases to zero, rises to a maximum value in the opposite direction and then returns to zero. This cycle repeats itself as long as the coil keeps spinning. Note that one revolution of the coil produces one cycle of current (Figure 2.3). Figure 2.3: Induction by movement of a coil through a magnetic field. Coil Axis of rotation > Magnetic field ne ines of force) Sine Wave A sino wave is the form commonly produced by alternating current generators. Since one turn (360° rotation) of the generator coil produces one cycle of the sine wave, the sine wave can be marked into corresponding degrees of rotation, as shown below in Figure 2.4. This method of designating positions on the sine wave serves as an excellent way of showing the timing between specific occurrences. Figure 2.4: Generator coil position versus current produced. 16 Personnel Training PublicationsFrequency ‘The frequency of an alternating current is defined as the number of cycles of current that occur in one second. One complete cycle is shown in Figure 2.4. Its unit is the hertz, 1 Hz being one cycle per second. Current at 60 cycles per second has a frequency of 60 Hz. Self Inductance ‘When working with the induction of current in a secondary coil, Henry went even further than Faraday in that he discovered that the changing magnetic field also induced a current in the primary coil that opposed the original current. This opposing current was the result of the magnetic field cutting across windings in the primary coil. The magnetic field created by each tum of wire in the coil affected all of the other tums in the same coil. This is known as the principle of self induction. Figure 2.5 shows an altemating current source connected to a coil. A voltmeter is provided to measure the voltage applied to the coil, and an ammeter is provided to measure the current through the coil. If the instantaneous values of voltage and current are plotted on a graph, the current is found to lag behind the voltage in time as shown in the lower portion of the figure. The angle between the two curves is called the phase angle or phase lag. Figure 2.5: Alternating current voltage and current pilot. Coil ‘Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestingINDUCTIVE REACTANCE The opposition to changes in alternating current flow through a coil is called inductive reactance and is designated by the letters X.- The inductive reactance of any coil is also a function of the frequency of the alternating current. Since the higher frequencies cause the magnetic field to change more rapidly, the inductive reactance increases as the frequency increases (assuming a constant alternating current voltage). The increase in the inductive reactance due to the increase in frequency causes the current through the coil to be reduced, thereby reducing the strength of the magnetic field of the coil and is explained in Eq. 2.5. Eq.25 X, mfL or =X, =WL where X, is inductive reactance (ohm), f is frequency (hertz), L is inductance (henries) and W equals 2ry. Ithas been determined that in an alternating current circuit containing only inductive reactance (no resistance) that the current will lag behind the voltage by exactly 90°. Example Problem: What is the inductive reactance of a coil with an inductance of 5 micro-henries at 60 kHz? Solution:X;, = 2afL or X= WL L=5 micro-henries f= 60 kHz (2.x 3.14) x (60 x 1000) x (5 x 1/1000 000) chm 1.884 ohm W=2nt IMPEDANCE In an altemating current circuit, impedance (symbolized by the letter Z) is the name given to the combination of resistance, capacitive reactance and inductive reactance. For most testing applications, the capacitive reactance can be dropped from the equation since most eddy current probes have little or no capacitive reactance. Impedance in an alternating current circuit is the total opposition to the current flow through the circuit. The impedance unit is the ohm. Since the resistance and the inductive reactance cause results that occur 90° out of phase with each other, they cannot be simply added together to determine the impedance. The simplest way to combine the resistance and the inductive reactance values to obtain the impedance value is through a vector diagram. ‘A vector is a line whose length represents its value and the direction represents its phase relationship. Figure 2.6 shows Personnel Training Publicationsresistance and inductive reactance vectors 90° apart in direction. By adding these two vectors together, a rectangle can be constructed and the diagonal from corner to comer represents the impedance (Z) and phase angle, as shown in Figure 2.6b. Figure 2.6: (a) Voltage-plane diagram; and (b) impedance- plane diagram. @ vy, 1xX, ie MO A Greek philosopher named Pythagoras developed what is known today as the pythagorean theorem, which states that in a right angle triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. Using Figure 2.66, it is determined that: Eq.26 Z'=R+X,’ or, Z=\(R'+X,) The concept that must be understood is what is meant by phase angle. Refer back to Figure 2.6. The phase angle between the resistance ‘vector and the inductive reactance vector has been 90°. The Greek letter alpha (A) is used to denote the phase angle of the impedance vector. Phase angle (A) = arctan X)/R Example Problem: An eddy current test is carried out at a test frequency of 60 kHz. The coil resistance is 10 ohm and its inductance is 5 micro-henries. Calculate the following: 1, The inductive reactance of the test coil. 2. The impedance of the test coil. 3. The phase angle between the total impedance vector and the resistance vector. Solution 1: X; = 2 af Xz = 2m x (60 x 1000) x (5 x 1)/1 000 000 ohm. Xp = 6.28 x (60 x 5)/1000 ohm X_ = 1.884 ohm ‘Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 19Solution 2: z = [(R* + X,") Zz oe 84) ohm Z=V1035 ohm Z= approximately 10 ohm Solution 3: Phase angle (A) = arctan (X;/R) Phase angle (A) = arctan (1.884/10) Phase angle (A) = 10.5° Arctan ‘Tangent is defined as the ratio of the opposite side of a right angle triangle to the adjacent side. This is called the tangent of 6. tan @=length of opposite side/length of adjacent side. ‘The angle whose tangent is known is written tan"! or arctan. Resistance With all other factors held constant, changes in resistance will affect the impedance of the circuit. As the resistance increases, the impedance increases and the phase angle decreases. Inductive Reactance ‘With all other factors held constant, changes in inductive reactance will affect the impedance of the circuit. As the inductive reactance increases, the phase angle and the impedance increases. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7. Figure 2.7: Current vector diagrams. i Current 90° 90° R: Resistance Personnel Training PublicationsChapter 3 Eddy Current Instrumentation INTRODUCTION This chapter presents a general description of the principle types of test circuits that are applicable to eddy current testing, a general description of the types and arrangements of the coils used, and a general description of the types of indicating instruments (readout apparatus) that might be encountered. Eppy CurRENT INSTRUMENT CIRCUITS ‘There are many different types of eddy current instruments on the market today. They are similar in principle, but vary in function and accessories. All eddy current instruments have some method of detecting the impedance or change of impedance in the test coil. It is the electronic circuitry that is the greatest variation between instruments. A basic test circuit consists of an alternating current source supplying power to the testing coil. A voltmeter is connected across the testing coil to measure the voltage across the coil. When the coil is placed on or near a test sample, the impedance of the coil changes. This change in impedance is reflected by the change in the reading of the meter (Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1: Basic test circuit. Impedance Bridge Circuit (Wheatstone Bridge) ‘The alternating current source supplies power across the bridge that consists of two balanced resistors (R, and Ry), the testing coil, a balancing coil and an ammeter. These units are connected in a bridge format: the resistor and the testing coil in one leg of the bridge, a resistor and a balancing coil in the other leg and the ammeter across 2the two legs. When the bridge is in balance (the impedance on both sides of the bridge are equal), the meter will read 0 amps. When the testing coil is placed on or near a test sample, there is a change in impedance in that leg of the bridge. The bridge becomes unbalanced and the ammeter will indicate a current that is proportional to the imbalance (Figure 3.2). A differential amplifier can replace the bridge circuit. Figure 3.2: Basic bridge circuit. Alternating current Another bridge circuit consists of two identical coils, one in each leg of the bridge (if the coils are identical, the bridge will be in balance). One of the coils is called a testing coil and the other is called a reference coil. If the reference coil is placed on one sample of the material and the testing coil is placed on another sample of the material, the meter will show an imbalance only if there is some difference in the two samples (Figure 3:3). Figure 3.3: Bridge utilizing an inspection coil and a reference standard. 2 Personnel Training PublicationsINTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF Eppy CURRENT INSTRUMENTATION For an eddy system to provide information to a technician, five functional steps have to be performed, as shown in Figure 3.4. Signal excitation. Signal modulation. Signal preparation. Signal demodulation. Signal display. Figure 3.4: Internal functions of eddy current test instrument. Signal Signal Signal Signal excitation modulation i eee Signal Excitation “The excitation portion of an eddy current instrument consists of a signal generator and amplifiers to drive the test coils. The signal generator (or oscillator) provides sine wave excitation for the test coil. Single frequency systems have one fixed frequency, whereas multi-frequency systems can apply several frequencies to provide ‘multiple parameter options. The application determines the required frequency and the number of frequencies to be used. Signal Modulation ‘Signal modulation occurs in the electromagnetic field of the coils assembly. It is the magnetic field created by the primary coil that provides the energy transfer into the test object. This magnetic energy is modulated by the test object, and the resultant magnetic field from the eddy currents opposes the primary field and is sensed by the instrument for processing, Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 2BSignal Preparation After modulation, the signal is processed for demodulation and analysis. The purpose of this step is to amplify the probe signal and reject extraneous noise. This part of the instrument may consist of a single-ended amplifier in an absolute or simple driver pickup system, or differential amplifiers for a differential bridge or a more sophisticated system of driver and pickup. The bandpass filter is selected to detect discontinuities at the inspection speed and could be called a speed filter. Signal Demodulation and Analysis In this step and after the signal has been demodulated, the signal can be analyzed by many means. The signal may be directed to an analog metet or bar graph for display or it may be digitized for further manipulation and analysis. Signal Display ‘The signal display section is the key link between the test. equipment and its intended purpose. The signal can be displayed many different ways. Common displays include meters, cathode ray tubes (CRTS), liquid crystal display (LCD) or computer screens. SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO Signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of signals of interest to unwanted signals. Common noise sources are test object variations of surface roughness, geometry and homogeneity. Other electrical noises can be caused by external sources, such as welding machines, electric motors afid generators. Mechanical vibrations can increase test system noise by physical movement of the test coil or test object. In other words, anything that interferes with a test system’s ability to define a measurement is considered noise. Improving Signal-to-Noise Ratio Signal-to-noise ratios can be improved by several methods. Ifa test object is dirty or scaly, the signal-to-noise ratio can be improved by cleaning the test object via shot blasting, pickling in acid, wire brushing or light abrasive belts. Electrical interference can be shielded or isolated. Phase discrimination and filtering can improve the signal-to-noise ratio. Itis common practice in nondestructive testing to require a minimum signal-to-noise ratio of 3:1. This means that a signal of interest must have a response at least three times that of the noise at that point. ‘The absolute noise level and the absolute strength of a signal from a discontinuity depends on several factors, such as the search coil type and size, the frequency, the inspection path and distance, object surface condition and microstructure, in addition to the discontinuity size, location and orientation. Personnel Training PublicationsChapter 4 Readout Mechanisms INTRODUCTION ‘An important part of the eddy current test system is the part of the instrument that quantifies the change in impedance. There are several different types of devices used. The device may be an integral part of the test set; it may be a module that is plugged into the test set; or it may be a separate unit connected to the test set with a cable, The indicating device used should be of adequate speed, accuracy and range to meet the requirements of the test system. Test records may require storage on large inservice components so that corrosion or discontinuity rates of change can be monitored and projected. ‘The displays of analog instruments are relatively simple, enabling the user to view and perform simple manipulations of raw data. Generally, controls for phase, gain, alarm levels and some filtering are available. Analog recording of data via magnetic tape and strip chart recorders was common in the 20th century, but has largely been replaced by digital data storage. Analog instruments are used in a few niche applications. ANALOG METERS ‘An analog meter is an indicating device whose visual output varies as a continuous function of the input to the meter. A meter has a needle that moves in response to the input. The response is immediate, and scales can usually be calibrated to read specific values directly. Audio Alarms ‘Audio alarms only indicate an abnormal condition. Alarm lights and audio alarms are commonly incorporated in eddy current test equipment. The indicator light and audio alarm give only qualitative information about the item, whether a condition is present or not. Strip-Chart Recorders Strip-chart recorders provide an analog recording of values at reasonably high speeds. The strip-chart recorder is one method that produces a permanent, fairly accurate record. Several channels can be recorded at the same time. Strip chart recordings are common in testing tubing where the discontinuity’s location down the tube iscritical. The strip chart length is indexed to time or distance and indicates normal or abnormal conditions. Although useful, strip charts can quickly accumulate and create storage problems. Computer memory is replacing strip charts. Diarrat Dispiays A digital meter is one whose visual output is shown in discrete steps in time. The meter measures the input at a given moment, and the value of the measurement is displayed in numerical form. Since the readout is in numbers, the chance of technician error is less than when analog meters are used, but the output is relatively slow. Digital meters provide greater accuracy and range than analog meters. Cathode Ray Tubes Cathode ray tubes (CRTS) can be used to display the output of a test circuit. They give instantaneous, continuous presentation; are highly accurate; provide calibration capabilities so that values may be read directly; have a broad range; and presentation is adjustable and stored so that parameters of particular interest may be studied more closely. Digital Data Storage Digital data are generally displayed in a complex plane Presentation with supporting strip chart and C-scan displays, as Tequired by the application. The point described by the in-phase and out-of-phase components of the signal is displayed as a flying dot, and the digital capabilities of the instrument allow variable persistence, centering of the dot, rotation of the signal and scaling of the display. Digital systems allow setup of calibration curves. constructed from stored data and automated analysis of signals as compared to these curves. Digital conductivity meters, calibrated from conductivity reference standards, feed subsequently acquired data into algorithms that calculate conductivity and then display in a numerical format. Digital Mixing ‘The combination of components from different test frequencies allows the suppression of unwanted parameters or signals from structures, such as support plates in tubing applications, while retaining the signature of discontinuities beneath those structures. Alarms can be constructed digitally in any way, for example as amplitude levels, boxes or ellipses, for rejection or acceptance of test. objects. Alarms from various frequencies or coils can be tagged to allow discrimination of different test object conditions, Personnel Training PublicationsLiquid Crystal Display A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It uses very small amounts of electric power, and is suitable for battery-powered electronic devices. Important factors to consider when evaluating a LCD monitor include resolution, viewable size, response time, matrix type, viewing angle, color support luminosity, contrast ratio and input ports (for example, DVI or VGA). A computer screen is a typical LCD that is widely used in state of the art eddy current instruments. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 27Chapter 5 Eddy Current Sensing Elements INTRODUCTION Inspection coils are available in a variety of forms and can be arranged in a variety of ways. The choice of the arrangement of the inspection coil depends on the test situation. There are three types of inspection coils related to their physical structure, arrangement and testing they perform. 1. Surface coil (probe). 2. Encircling coil (through). 3. Bobbin coil (internal). Surface Coil Surface coil, probe coil, flat coil or pancake coil are all common terms used to describe the same type of test coil. Probe coils provide a convenient method of examining the surface of a test object. Figure 5.1 is an illustration of a typical surface probe. View A shows the coil mounted in a probe, while view B shows the coil mounted in a spring loaded housing. The spring loading ensures that ‘a constant pressure is applied at all times to prevent separation (lift- off) of the coil from the surface of the test object. The surface probe may be hand-held or may be mounted in automated scanning equipment. The coil, mounted in the end of the probe, is provided with a protective coating of epoxy to serve as a wear surface. The magnetic field produced by the coil is approximately the size of the coil. Probe coils and probe coil forms can be shaped to fit particular ‘geometries to solve complex testing problems. As an example, probe coils fabricated in a pencil shape (pencil probe) are typically used to test threaded areas of mounting studs and nuts or serrated areas of turbine wheels and turbine blade assemblies. Probe coils with added coil shielding may be used where high resolution is required. ‘A variation of the surface probe is shown in Figure 5.2. The coil is mounted in a holder shaped and sized to serve that special function. Holders may be designed to serve any particular requirement (such as the round surface of a tube or bar), or position the coil at a particular place (such as the leading edge of a turbine blades). Spring loading ensures that constant pressure can be obtained and prevents separation.Figure 5.1: Surface probes. @) Coil leads Figure 5.2: Hole probe. Depth adjust collar Applications When using a high-resolution probe coil, the test object surface must be carefully scanned to ensure complete test coverage. This careful scanning is very time consuming. For this reason, probe coil tests of large objects are usually limited to critical areas. Probe coils are used extensively in aircraft testing for crack detection near fasteners and fastener holes. In the case of testing fastener holes (bolt holes, rivet holes) and critical areas of heat exchanger tubes, the probe coil is spinning while being withdrawn at a uniform rate. 30 Personnel Training Publications‘This provides a helical scan of the hole using what is referred to as a spinning probe technique. Encircling Coil Encircling coil, outer diameter coil and feed-through coil are terms commonly used to describe coils that are used primarily to test outside diameter surfaces of objects that pass through the coil. Although the coil is the same in encircling and inside diameter probes, the field distribution is somewhat different. The flux density gradient tends to be more uniform inside the coil and decreases to zero at the center of the tested material. ‘The width of the coil (Figure 5.3) is a function of the application. Wide coils cover large areas, so they respond mostly to bulk effects, e.g., conductivity; whereas, narrow coils sense small areas and so are more responsive to small changes produced by discontinuities or small thickness changes. The magnetic field of the coil extends slightly beyond the ends of the coil. Figure 5.3: (a) Wide encircling coil; and (b) narrow encircling coil. oo Figure 5.4 shows the eddy currents produced in a test rod by an encircling coil. Since the primary magnetic field intensity in the coil is normally considered to be constant across the diameter of the coil, it might seem reasonable to expect that the density of the eddy currents induced would also be constant across the rod. This is not true. Figure 5.4: Eddy currents produced by an encircling coil. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 31The eddy current's strength is greater near the surface and decreases toward the center of the rod. If the diameter of the rod is large enough, there is no current at the center. The phenomenon is known as the center effect and is the result of the opposition of the eddy current field. The eddy current magnetic field at the surface ‘opposes the primary field and reduces it. This reduced field is again reduced by eddy currents just below the surface. Ultimately the strength of the primary field is reduced to zero, and no additional eddy currents are induced. Note that the eddy currents flow in the same plane as the currents flow in the coil; ie., around the circumference of the rod. Thus the encircling coil is especially adapted to locating discontinuities that are parallel or longitudinal to the length of the rod. Applications Encircling coils are primarily used to test tubular and bar-shaped products. The tube or bar is fed through the coil (feed-through) at relatively high speed. The cross-section of the test object within the test coil is simultaneously interrogated. For this reason, circumferential orientation of discontinuities cannot be detected with this application. Internal Coil Bobbin coil, inner diameter coil and inside ‘Probe are terms that describe coils used to test from the inside diameter or bore of a tubular test object. Figure 5.5 illustrates a type of coil that can be inserted into tubing to test for discontinuities and thickness changes in the tube. ‘The internal coil induces currents that encircle the entire circumference of the tube so that the entire section surrounding the coil is tested. Because the currents induced in the material are strongest near the coil, the internal coil is more sensitive to discontinuities lying on or near the inner surface of tubing, while extemal coils are more sensitive to discontinuities lying on or near the outer surface. The internal coil may be either wide or narrow, and the magnetic field extends slightly beyond the ends of the coil. The coil may be shielded or unshielded. Figure 5.5: Internal coil. Article To instrument, Coif 2 Personnel Training PublicationsApplications Internal coils are primary used to test tubular products from the inside diameter or the bore of a tubular test object; for example, tubes examined in heat exchanger applications. Test Com ARRANGEMENTS ‘There are three basic coil arrangement that can be applied in surface, internal and encircling coils. 1. Absolute coil arrangement. 2. Differential coil arrangement. 3. Hybrid coil arrangement (through transmission). Single Coil (Absolute Arrangement) Figure 5.6 illustrates the single coil arrangement. In this arrangement, the same coil is used to induce eddy currents in the test ‘object and to sense the test object's reaction to the eddy currents. ‘The single coil will test only the area under the coil and does not direct reference or compare itself to a reference standard. Because it tests the object without a comparison, itis called absolute. Figure 5.6: Single coil - absolute arrangement. Double Coil (Absolute Arrangement) Figure 5.7 illustrates the double. coil absolute arrangement. In this it is possible to use two coils; one to establish the magnetic field and induce eddy currents into the test object, and another to detect changes in eddy current flow. Note that the secondary coil has the indicating device connected across the coil and it is not connected to an alternating current source. Normally the secondary coil is located inside the primary coil, and the two coils are referred to as double coil. This double coil arrangement may appear in all three of the coil classes: surface, inside and encircling. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestingDifferential Coil (Self-Comparison Technique) ‘The differential coil arrangement shown in Figure 5.8 illustrates a ‘means of balancing out effects that are the same. The two coils are wound and electrically connected so that the output of one coil cancels the output of the other coil (oppose each other). This occurs when the test object properties are the same under both coils. In other words, so long as there is no difference in material properties under coils, there is no indication on the indicating device; but when a discontinuity or inhomogeneity is located under either one of the coils, an imbalance occurs which is indicated on the indicating device. This differential coil arrangement is known as the self: comparison technique. The self-comparison technique is insensitive to test object variables that occur gradually. Variables such as gradually changing wall thickness, diameter, temperature or conductivity that affect both coils are not detected with the self-comparison differential coil. Figure 5.8: Double coil - differential arrangement. Personnel Training PublicationsDifferential Coil (External Comparison Technique) ‘The coil arrangement illustrated in Figure 5.9 is exactly the same as the self-comparison, except that the differential coil arrangement is set up on an external reference standard and the test object. A carefully chosen, discontinuity-free test reference object is held stationary in one coil while the test object moves through the other coil. Here coil C and the discontinuity-free test reference standard or object are set up as a reference standard. As the test object passes through coil C,, a comparison is made with the reference standard. No indication is observed unless a discontinuity or other change such as thickness, permeability or conductivity appears in the test object. If a discontinuity passes through coil C,, the output of the coils become unbalanced and an indication is obtained. This differential coil arrangement technique is used to detect differences between a calibration standard and test object. It is mostly used to compare conductivity, permeability and dimensional ‘measurements. The problem with this method is the large number of calibration standards required and the tolerances that exist in diameter and metallurgical composition. Figure 5.9: Differential arrangement - external comparison technique. Hybrid Coil Arrangements (Through Transmission) ‘Hybrid coils may or may not be the same size and are not necessarily adjacent to each other. Common types of the hybrid coil are driver/pickup, through transmission or primary/secondary coil assemblies. The through transmission technique involves inducing eddy currents into the test object by a transmitting coil placed on one side of the material, and the presence of eddy currents is sensed by a receiving coil placed on the opposite side of the material, as shown in Figure 5.10. This arrangement requires that the two coils bbe placed exactly opposite each other. The voltage developed in the Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testingsensing coil is a function of the current magnitude and frequency applied to the excitation coil, coil parameters of the exciting and sensing coils, and the test object characteristics. Only thin materials may be tested with through transmission coils. Figure 5.10: Through transmission arrangement, Transmitting circuit (~) Altemating current ‘Transmitting source coil ‘Material Receiving circuit FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF SENSING ELEMENTS Several critical factors and specifications must be carefully considered when selecting eddy current sensing elements. Frequency The frequency determines eddy current depth of penetration and the amplitude and phase of a discontinuity response. Excitation ‘The amplitude of the excitation signal determines the amplitude of the response. It should be well controlled and its frequency response should be specified. Gain Linearity The amplitude and phase characteristics of gain stages must be qualified for adherence to a standard or specification appropriate to the application. Horizontal and Vertical Deviation Gain of the in-phase and out-of-phase components of a signal must be controlled to prevent unwanted distortion of a signal. In a typical heat exchanger test, a flattened appearance would cause mistepresentation of the data whereas, in the rotating test of a rivet hole for surface breaking cracks, it can be used to minimize lift-off noise and accentuate a crack signal. Personnel Training PublicationsQuadrature Accuracy ‘The phase of reference signals must be well controlled and the response of the display must be designed to ensure that the in-phase and out-of-phase components are truly at 90° electrically and they are displayed orthogonally. Digitization Rate “The digitization rate for a digital system is the number of samples per unit of probe travel. This rate is critical for determining the response to a discontinuity. Digitization rate must be determined from the application criteria. Sample Rate The sample rate for a digital system is the number of interrogations per unit time, often given as samples per second. To calculate the required sample rate for a test, the probe speed is multiplied by the desired digitization rate. Bandwidth ‘Bandwidth governs the response of the system as a function of frequency and is measured in hertz. A variable frequency, external modulator is often used to measure and characterize bandwidth through all stages of an instrument. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing aChapter 6 Flux Leakage Theory INTRODUCTION ‘Magnetism is a property possessed by certain materials by which these materials can exert a mechanical force on other like material. Magnetic flux leakage testing is an electromagnetic technique that can provide a quick assessment of the integrity of ferromagnetic material. This technique involves magnetization of the test object by a permanent magnet or by passing an excitation current directly through ‘an electromagnet. The presence of a discontinuity or thickness change ‘on or near the surface of the material disturbs the magnetic flux lines and results in a local leakage field around the discontinuity. “The magnetic flux leakage can be detected using noncontact sensors, such as a Hall effect probe or a simple induction coil. A Hall effect probe using an element oriented parallel to the sample surface is sensitive to the normal component of the magnetic flux leakage field and generates a typical signal, as shown in Figure 1.5 in Chapter 1 for a rectangular notch. A leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally magnetized test object is shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. This disruption is produced by the alignment of magnetic domains in the stretched metal crack site. For this reason, cracks in the formation state are highly detectable and normally produce sharp, well-defined indications. Open cracks that have been subject to large thermal, chemical or ‘mechanical forces may have had their magnetic field disruption characteristics greatly or entirely reduced and may not be detectable using magnetic particle testing. For high detectability of forming surface cracks, magnetic particle testing uses induced alternating field magnetization techniques as the primary method to test ferromagnetic objects in service. Using wet alternating current fluorescent techniques will generally produce the highest sensitivity obtainable with this technology. Figure 6.1: Leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally magnetized test object. Leakage field. Test object,Figure 6.2: Magnetic particles attracted by a leakage field from a subsurface discontinuity. B AND H Curve To understand the operation of magnetic flux leakage, it is useful to consider the physics of permanent magnets. A permanent magnet can be considered an agglomeration of domains. These domains are elementary magnets obtained as a result of the dipole moments of uncompensated electron spins contained within the domain that are held parallel. In the demagnetized state, the domains orient themselves randomly (Figure 63a) so that closed paths for the magnetic flux exist in the material. The magnetostatic energy under the condition is a minimum. This state is indicated by point 0 on the hysteresis loop (Figure 6.4). When an external magnetic field is applied, the domains tend to align with the direction of the applied field, thereby increasing B. ‘The operating point now moves into region OA in Figure 6.4. The size and orientation of the domains are affected by the potential energy arising out of the interaction between neighboring atoms, associated with the anisotropy energy and associated with external field energy. As the external magnetic field is increased, the operating point moves into region AB of Figure 6.4. The domain walls start shifting and ultimately reach a state when each crystal represents a single domain. Further increases in the magnetic field intensity results in magnetic saturation, a state in which the domains rotate, against the forces of anisotropy until all the domains get aligned in the direction of the applied field (Figure 6.3b). This state is represented by the region BC on the curve of B versus H (Figure 6.4). If the applied magnetic field is then withdrawn, the domains relax. As a result, the parallel alignment of the domains is disturbed (Figure 6.3c). The residual flux B represents a new minimum energy at point D where magnetization H equals 0. If a gap is then introduced as shown in (Figure 6.34), the material self-demagnetizes. The imbalance created by the gap results in a realignment of the domains closest to the gap. These domains take up orientations that are 180° from the original orientation. The mechanical energy injected into the system to introduce the gaps is used to transfer the operating point from D Personnel Training PublicationsFigure 6.3: Physics of permanent magnets: (a) random orientation of domains in unmagnetized state; (b) domains aligned in direction of applied field; (c) relaxation of parallel alignment of domains when magnetic field is removed; (d) self-demagnetization of ‘naterial after magnetic field is removed; and (¢) reversion of domains to random orientation when gap is removed. See Figure 6.4 for characteristic curve. b) © @) B TEESE | Ges " @ oe a tz (ez Ax © ny c (ES / HO. J magnetic flux density (relative scale) measured (field strength) P x ve magnet lus density (ela ie aeae) measured it erstegs ‘aa Figure 6.4: Typical characteristic curve of magnetic flux density B versus magnetic field intensity H. Legend ‘Fe magnetic flux density (relative scale) measured in gauss (Held Fre magnetic Ou fimtoneay (relative Sa Fe, STO Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing ato E. If the air gap is then reduced to zero, as shown in Figure 6.3e, the operating point moves along the minor or recoil loop to F and the domains revert back very nearly to the same orientation as before. If the gap is once again restored, the operating point then moves toward E along the recoil loop FGE. Repeated cycles of opening and closing the gap cause the minor recoil loop to be traced. LinEs OF FoRcE If.a bar magnet is covered with a sheet of paper and iron filings are scattered over the paper, the filings align themselves along definite lines that pass from the poles of the magnet, as shown in Figure 65. ‘The alignment of the iron particles indicates that these lines form a field around the magnet, and any magnetizable material that enters this field is attracted to the magnet. For this reason the lines are called lines of force. Figure 6.5: Magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet. ‘Law _OF MAGNETISM When like poles of magnets are brought together they repel each other, but when unlike poles are brought together, the magnets attract each other. Since the lines of force around a magnet seem to flow from the north to the south pole, they are often called flux lines. Flux is defined as a flow or flowing. Personnel Training PublicationsFLux DENSITY ‘The flux lines that surround a magnet are close together near a bar magnet. Figure 6.6 shows where the magnetic force is strongest. ‘When spread further apart away from the magnet, the magnetic field ‘grows weaker. Thus the density of the flux in a particular area determines the strength of the field in that area. ‘The flux density can be determined by measuring the strength of the field in that area. Flux density is defined as the number of lines of force that pass through a given area at right angles to the lines of force. The unit is the gauss. One gauss is one line of force passing through an area of one square centimeter. Figure 6.6: Distribution of flux around a magnet. —_—ao oe _— a RicuT HAND RULE It was discovered that when an electrical current flows through a wire, a magnetic field exists around the wire. The direction of the ‘magnetic field around the wire depends on the direction of current flow through the wire. This relationship may be determined by the right hand rule, as illustrated in Figure 6.7. Figure 6.7: Magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet. Field direction Wire Current direction Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestingIf the wire is grasped in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of current flow, the fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field. If straight wire is wound into a coil, the lines of force encircling the wire form the magnetic field inside and outside of the coil, as illustrated in Figure 6.8. This field thus created is similar to the field of a bar magnet. The strength of the magnetic field is dependent upon two factors: the number of turns in the coil, and the magnitude of the current. Increasing either one increases the strength of the magnetic field. Figure 6.8: Magnetic field of a coil. a MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Electric current can be used to create a magnetic field in materials. If coil is wrapped around a bar of iron and direct current passed through the coil,.a magnetic field is established in and around the bar due to the magnetic field caused by the current flowing through the coil. Materials like iron that are magnetizable are called ferromagnetic ‘materials. Ferromagnetic materials are capable of retaining some part of the magnetic field induced in them. Within the ferromagnetic group of materials some are more easily magnetized than others. Those that are easily magnetized retain relatively little of the magnetic field after the current is shut off. Those that are difficult to magnetize retain ‘more of the magnetic field after the current is shut off. Magnetic Domains Some materials that can be magnetized possess atoms that are classified as submicroscopic regions, called magnetic domains. These domains have a positive and negative polarity at opposite ends because of internal magnetic alignment. If the material is not considered to be magnetized, the domains are randomly aligned, usually parallel to the crystalline axis of the material. When the material is subjected to a magnetic field, the domains align themselves parallel to the external magnetic field. The material then acts as a magnet. Figure 6.9 illustrates the domain alignment in nonmagnetized and magnetized material, Personnel Training PublicationsFigure 6.9: Alignment of magnetic domains: (a) in an unmagnetized material; and () in a magnetized material. b) 'sercro'oro'ro OD SOSSESOCSS Magnetic Hysteresis ‘All ferromagnetic materials have certain magnetic properties that are specific to that material. Most of these properties are described by a magnetic hysteresis loop. The data for the hysteresis loop are collected by placing a bar of ferromagnetic material in a coil and applying an alternating current or direct current. By increasing the magnetizing field strength H in small increments, and measuring the flux density B at each increment, the relationship between magnetic field strength and flux density can be plotted. ‘The relationship between magnetic field strength and flux density is not linear for ferromagnetic materials. A specific change in H may produce a smaller or larger change in B, as shown in Figure 6.10, the initial curve for an unmagnetized piece of steel. Starting at point 0 (zero magnetic field strength and zero magnetic flux) and increasing H in small increments, the flux density in the material increases quite rapidly at first, then generally slows until point A is reached. At point A, the material becomes magnetically saturated. Beyond the saturation point, increases in magnetic field strength do not increase the flux density in the material. In diagrams of full hysteresis loops, the curve OA is often drawn as a dashed line since it occurs only during the initial magnetization of an unmagnetized material. It is referred to as the virgin curve of the material. ‘When the magnetic field strength is reduced to zero (point B in Figure 6.10b), the flux density slowly decreases. It lags the field strength and does not reach zero. The amount of flux density remaining in the material (line OB) is called residual magnetism or remanence. The ability of ferromagnetic materials to retain a certain amount of magnetism is called retentivity. Removal of residual magnetism requires the application of a magnetic field strength in the opposite or negative direction (see Figure 6.10c). When the magnetic field strength is first reversed and only a small amount is applied, the flux density slowly decreases. AS additional reverse field strength is applied, the rate of reduction in flux density (line BC) increases until it is almost a straight line (point C) where B equals zero. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 45Figure 6.10: Hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel: (a) virgin curve of a hysteresis loop; (©) hysteresis loop showing residual magnetism; (c) hysteresis loop showing coercive force; (d) hysteresis loop showing reverse magnetism; (e) hysteresis loop showing reverse residual magnetism; and (f) complete hysteresis loop. (a) (b) Zero flux density . oa idual magnetism ‘Zero magnetic: Saturation - field strength 2 H- ° H+ H-- © @ H- He He Coercive force Reverse magnetization. a saturation point © He H+ Residual magnetism D. Reverse B. magnetization point 46 Personnel Training PublicationsIf the amount of magnetic field strength is increased beyond point C, the magnetic flux changes its polarity and initially increases quite rapidly. It then gradually slows until point D is reached (Figure 6.104). This is the reverse polarity saturation point, and additional magnetic field strength will not produce an increase in flux density. When the reversed magnetic field strength is reduced to zero (point E in Figure 6.10e) the flux densities of the residual ‘magnetism from the straight and reversed polarities are equal (Line OB is equal to line OE). ‘Removal of the reversed polarity residual magnetism requires application of magnetic field strength in the original direction. Flux density drops to zero at point F in Figure 6.10f with the application of coercive force OF. Continuing to increase the field strength results in the magnetic polarity changing back to its original direction. This completes the hysteresis loop ABCDEF (note that the curve CDEF is a mirror image of curve ABCF). Magnetic Permeability ‘One of the most important properties of magnetic materials is permeability. Permeability can be thought of as the ease with which ‘materials can be magnetized. Air is assigned a permeability of one (1). Permeability is the ratio between the flux density and the magnetic field strength (B/H). It is also the rate of change of flux density (B) with respect to the magnetizing force (H), and it varies with position around the B and H curve. Eq. 3.4 y= BiH or B= pH where jis permeability (pronounced “mu”), B is magnetic flux density and H is magnetic field intensity. Magnetic properties and hysteresis loops vary widely between materials and material conditions. They are affected by chemical compositions, microstructure and grain size. Fig. 6.11a is a hysteresis loop for hardened steel, and the loop is typical of a ‘material with low permeability, high reluctance, high retentivity and high residual magnetism. That requires high coercive force for removal. Figure 6.11b is the hysteresis loop for an annealed low carbon steel. It is typical of a material with high permeability, low reluctance, low retentivity and low residual magnetism that requires a low coercive force for removal. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 47Figure 6.11: Positive field strength hysteresis loops: (@) hardened steel hysteresis loops; and (b) annealed low carbon steel hysteresis loop. Flux density Personnel Training PublicationsChapter 7 Flux Leakage Sensing Elements Inpuctive Com. SENSORS In order for an inductive coil to detect perturbations in a static magnetic field, there must be relative motion between the coil and the field such that the flux within the coil changes. Ferrites are useful in pickup coils because they do not only provide support for the wire turns but they also concentrate the flux density through the coil windings by a value equal to the effective permeability of the ferrite. For small pieces of ferrite (Figure 7.1) where the dimensional ratio is small, the effective permeability of the ferrite may vary from the low teens to the thousands. The advantage of using ferrite occurs not only in this application but also in the fact that ferrites have very low electrical conductivities, minimizing detrimental eddy current effects in them. Figure 7.1: Ferrite cored magnetic flux leakage detector coil systems. @ Ferrite ) Input > <=. 4 =a ‘Magnetized material Itis important to note in the inductive sensor approach that the flux density must be changing through the coil in order to produce a signal. It is essential that pickup coils are used to generate voltages and not currents. Once a current is allowed to flow in a coil, it creates its own magnetic field — one that can interfere with the field under investigation. The output of such coils is therefore generally fed to a high resistance operational amplifier.Hall Effect Sensors Hall elements are crystals of semiconductor material. When a current is passed through them and they are placed in a magnetic field, a voltage develops across two of the faces of the crystal. The voltage is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. Bulk Hall elements are generally bismuth doped semiconductors such as indium antimonide (InSb). These are produced by solid-state crystal growth technology, cut into small rectangular blocks and have current and voltage leads attached before being encapsulated. Typical sizes are as small as 0.08 cm (0.03 in.) long by 0.04 cm (0.015 in.) wide by 0.05 cm (0.02 in.) thick. ‘Vapor deposited Hall elements have been reported for use in the testing of ball bearings by the magnetic flux leakage technique. In this application, bismuth was evaporated onto an alumina substrate. A newer development is to combine the Hall sensor, its power supply and an amplifier on one chip. Figure 7.2 and Table 7.1 show configurations of typical Hall sensors and their specifications. Figure 7.2: Typical Hall element probes: (a) flat; (b) high linearity; (c) miniature; (d) subminiature; and (¢) axial (see Table 7.1). @ 0.2.x 0.5 cm (0.08 x 0.2 in.) ‘Ss Aluminum holder (b) 0.24 x 0.64 cm (0.1 x 0.25 in.) © 0.075 x 0.15 cm (0.03 x 0.06 in) | ‘Epoxy coated (with slide protector) (@ 0.075 x 0.15 cm (0.03 x 0.06 in.) Reinet Epoxy coated (with slide protector) 0.06 x 0.2 cm (0.025 x 0.08 in.) ‘ ——= 5" s Brass tube (nonmetallic optional) 50 Personnel Training PublicationsTable 7.1: Specifications of typical Hall element probes (see Figure 7.2). Probe Type Hall Output Nominal ‘Temperature Operating Voltage Current Control Coefficient ‘Temperature (millivolts) (milliamperes) CO) (ec) Flat or transverse 340 200 eel 65 t0 85 High linearity 350 350 0.1 ~65 1085 Miniature 200 28 025 ~65 10 85 Subminiature 200 25 025 65 10 85 Axial 100 100 01 65 1085, Since Hall effect sensors do not depend on motion for their sensitivity, they can be scanned at any rate that is mechanically convenient, which may present an advantage over inductive coil sensors depending on the application. However, Hall effect sensors are difficult to fabricate, are somewhat delicate and require more complex auxiliary electronic apparatus than inductive coil sensors. Flux Gate Magnetometer ‘The flux gate magnetometer, also referred to as a ferro-probe or Forster probe, is a device that measures magnetic fields by utilizing the non-linear magnetic characteristic of ferromagnetic core materials as its sensing element. A drive coil and sense coil are wound onto an easily saturated core. The core characteristics and drive current are such that the magnetization changes induced by the leakage field affect the filter harmonic output of the sense coil. In operation, the ferromagnetic core of the sensor is driven cyclically to saturation by means of a periodic current of suitable wave shape in the drive coil windings. In the absence of a signal field, which is usually direct current or very low frequency alternating current, and is generally a very small fraction of the peak value of the driving field, the voltage induced in the sense winding is symmetrical. In other words, it contains only odd harmonics of the fundamental of the drive current. In the presence of a signal, the sense winding voltage becomes asymmetrical. This asymmetry is sensitively related to the signal field and can be detected by various techniques. MAGNETODIODE ‘The magnetodiode is a solid-state device, the resistance of which changes with magnetic field intensity. It consists of (p) zones and (n) zones of a semiconductor, separated by a region of material that has been modified to create a recombination zone, as illustrated in Figure 73. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 51Figure 7.3: Schematic of magnetodiode. a _ Active areas typically measure 0.3 x 0.06 x 0.04 cm (0.12 x 0.024 x 0.016 in.), and output signals are generally larger than for Hall elements, although the response to field intensity is not so linear for higher fields, as shown in Figure 7.4. Figure 7.4: Response of magnetodiode is linear up to about 40 kA-m-1 (500 Oe) at ambient temperature of 25 °C (77 °F) and potential of 6 V. 16 14 12 10 08 06 04 02 0 02} ~o4} 06 ~os} 10} 12} -14} 16 -200--120«-40 «0 «40120200 (25) 15) (05) 5) (15) (25) Magnetic field intensity H, A'm-! (kOe) Potential (V) 52 Personnel Training PublicationsApplications of Magnetodiodes Figure 7.5 shows the use of magnetodiodes for detecting magnetic flux leakage from discontinuities in tubes. The magnetic flux leakage is excited by alternating current electromagnets arranged to detect either internal or external surface breaking discontinuities. The system illustrates the general principles of magnetic flux leakage testing. Sensors are connected differently to eliminate signals from the applied field and from relatively long range variations in surface field strength. This system and magnetic flux leakage systems like it are used to rapidly evaluate the surface condition with a depth of only 0.01 cm (0.004 in). Figure 7.5: A magnetodiode testing system for tubes: (a) alternating current magnetizing method; and (b) electrical block diagram. ) (@) OTHER METHODS OF MAGNETIC LEAKAGE FIELD DETECTION Magnetic Tape System For the testing of flat plates and billets, it is possible to scan the surface with wide strips of magnetic recording tape. Discontinuity signals are taken from the tape by an array of tape recorders heads. Scale, dirt or oil on the test surface can contaminate the tape. Surface roughness can tear the tape. ‘Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 53Magnetic Particles Magnetic particles are finely ground high permeability magnetic material, sometimes dyed for visible contrast with the test surface. Ideal test conditions occur when a fine spray of particles is intercepted by a magnetic flux leakage field and some of them stick to the field. An advantage over other forms of magnetic indicators is that the particles have zero lift-off from the discontinuity. A.critical factor in successful magnetic particle testing is the proper choice of magnetizing current level. With too little magnetizing current, the field gradient around discontinuities will not be sufficient magnitude to hold the particles in place. On the other hand, if the magnetizing current is too high, a field gradient may be strong enough even in flawless areas to attract and hold particles over the entire surface, thus obscuring genuine discontinuity indications. For each situation, the optimum current level must usually be found experimentally, but guidelines put you in the general vicinity. Magnetic Resonance Sensors Nuclear magnetic resonance magnetometers are based on the fact that the characteristic atomic frequencies also depend on the strength of magnetic field. In operation, when an atomic nucleus is placed in constant magnetic field and is subjected to a high frequency alternating magnetic field, resonance absorption of energy from the alternating current field take place. ‘The absorption always takes place at a fixed ratio of constant field strength to the alternating field frequency. Hence, if the frequency at which nuclear magnetic resonance take place is measured, the constant field strength can be determined. Resonance magnetometers include a large family of devices that can measure magnetic fields of any strength and are subject to wide variety of applications in the engineering field. Personnel Training PublicationsThe ASNT PERSONNEL TRAINING| 35Chapter 8 Coil Impedance Test OBJECT ‘There are three fundamental properties of material that affect the eddy currents induced in the test part. 1, The conductivity of the test object. 2. The permeability of the test object. 3. The dimensions of the test object. Conductivity Conductivity of a material is defined as the ability of the material to carry electrical current, ie., the number of amperes of current that will flow through a given size (cross-sectional area) of the material when a given voltage is applied to the material. This definition is too cumbersome to use with ease in eddy current testing. Instead, the International Annealed Copper Standard (LACS) system is used. The symbol for conductivity is 5 () and the units are expressed in percent IACS. In the IACS system, the conductivity of unalloyed (pure) annealed copper was selected as the standard, and the conductivities of all other materials are expressed as a percentage of this standard, Unalloyed annealed copper is assigned a rating of 100% and a ‘material that conducts electrical current only half as well is rated at 50% IACS. For example, a wire made of aluminum can carry only 61% of the current that can be carried by the same size wire made of pure alloyed copper at a given voltage. ‘Table 8.1 lists the IACS of several materials. The table illustrates that materials do have different abilities to conduct electrical current. ‘Good conductors include copper and silver, poor conductors include nickel and steel, and non-conductors include wood and glass, Differences in the conductivity of different materials are detectable by eddy current testing due to the effect that the conductivity of the material has on the magnetic field of the exciting coil. Resistivity is defined as the ability of material to resist the flow of current. The symbol for resistivity is p (rho) and the units are expressed in micro-ohm centimeters (Sm). Conductivity and resistivity work in opposition to each other. Conversions between conductivity and resistivity can be made using simple division. The original copper bar used to establish the standard had a direct current resistance of 0.017241 ohms with a conversion factor of 172.41.To convert to either unit, simply follow Equation 8.1. aa - 17241 eae Resistivity in micro ohm-em ible 8.1: Relative conductivity of various metals and alloys. Metal or Alloy Conductivity, %IACS Silver 105 Copper, annealed 100 Gold 70 Aluminum 6 Aluminum alloys: 6061-T6 42 7075-16 32 2024-T4 30 Magnesium 37 70-30 Brass 28 Phosphor bronzes uu Monel 36 Zirconium 34 Zirealoy-2 24 Titanium 3.1 Ti-6AI-4V alloy 1 304 stainless steel 25 Inconel 600 17 Hastelloy X 15 ‘Waspaloy 14 As resistivity increases, conductivity decreases and vice versa. Example Problem: Convert resistivity of 5.5 micro-ohm centimeters to conductivity in %1ACS. Solution: %IACS = 172.41/5.5 micro-ohm = 31.3% IACS Table 8.2 lists the electrical conductivity and resistivity of common metals and alloys. Factors Affecting Conductivity While the inherent conductivity of a pure material is always the same, there are internal factors that can cause what appears to be a change in the inherent conductivity. Personnel Training PublicationsTable 8.2: Electrical resistivity and conductivity of selected metals and alloys. Metal Conductivity Resistivity MS-‘m (%IACS) Qn (uQ-em) ‘Aluminum, pure 35.38 ol) 2.83 x 10-8 (2.83) Aluminum (99.99%) 3767 (494) 2.65 x 10-8 (2.65) Antimony 255 4) 3.92107 (39.18) Bronze, commercial annealed 25.52 44) 3:92 x 10-8 (3.92) Cadmium 1462 (25.2) 6.84 x 10-8 (6.84) Calcium 28.25 487) 3.54 x 10-8 G54) Chromium 5.10 (88) 1.96 x 10-7 (19.59) Cobalt 1601 76) 625 x 10-8 (625) ‘Copper 58 (100) 172x108 (1.72) Gold 40.60 (70) 2.46 x 10-8 (2.46) Iron, pure 10.44 (18) 9.58 x 10-8 (9.58) Iron ingot (99.9%) 9.05 15.6) LAL x 107 (11.05) Magnesium, pure 22.39 (38.6) 447x108 (447) Molybdenum 19.14 @3) 522x108 (5.22) Nickel 14.62 (252) 6.84 x 10-8 (684) Selenium 835 44 1.20 x 10-7 «a1s7) Silver, tin solder 9.63 (16.6) 1,04 x 107 (0.39) Steel, high alloy 1.68 9) 594x107 (59.45) Tin, pure 8.70 as) LAS x 10-7 (49) Tin foil 244 (42) 4.10 x 10-7 (41.05) Tungsten 18.21 @14) 5.49 x 10-8 (5.49) Zinc, commercial rolled 16.24 (28) 6.16 x 10-8 (6.16) Alloy Composition ‘Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or chemical ‘elements with a base metal, Each metal or chemical element has an individual affect on the conductivity of the base metal. ‘The conductivity of the base metal changes to a value relating to the composition of the alloy. Thus it is possible to identify basic metals and their alloys by measuring their conductivity, but ranges of aluminum alloys, for example, overlap. Examples include copper alloys (90-10 Cu-Ni, 70-30) and 300 series stainless steel (304-SS, 316-SS and 316L-SS). Hardness ‘When a metal or alloy is subjected to heat treatment, the metal will become harder or softer depending on the material. This change in hardness is brought about by the internal change in the material that also affects the conductivity and/or permeability of the material. This change can be detected by eddy current test methods. An improper heat treatment can be detected in this manner. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 9Temperature and Residual Stresses The ambient temperature and internal residual stresses of a test material also have an effect on the conductivity of the material. ‘These changes can also be detected by eddy current testing. An increase in the temperature of the material normally results in a decrease in the conductivity of the material. Residual stresses cause an unpredictable, but detectable, change in conductivity. Conductivity Coatings The presence of a conductive coating on a conductive material changes the inherent conductivity of a base metal just an as an alloy would. However, if the thickness of the cladding varies, the conductivity will vary. This change in thickness can be detected using eddy current testing methods. As the test coil is influenced by different conductivities, its impedance varies inversely to conductivity. A higher conductivity causes the test coil to have a lower impedance value. Figure 8.1 illustrates this concept. Figure 8.1: Measured conductivity locus. FSITT te No ' AX g 3% 10% luctivity 100% IACS Resistance —= The coil’s inductive reactance is represented by the Y axis, and coil resistance appears on the X axis. The 0% conductivity point, or air point, is when the coil’s empty reactance (X,) is maxim Figure 8.1 represents a measured conductivity locus. Conductivity is influenced by many factors. Edge Effects Edge effects can be demonstrated by moving the eddy current probe toward the edge of a test sample and observing the change in instrument reading that results. Figure 8.2 is an example of instrument change resulting from edge effect. Test samples must be Personnel Training Publicationslarge enough to prevent this edge interference or probes must be shielded to collimate the field. In this particular case, an edge distance of 0.5 cm (0.2 in.) or more must be maintained to avoid errors. If test objects have a narrow width, a centering jig or holder should be used to maintain the probe on center. Edge distance curves are used to apply correction factors to conductivity readings on production parts. The same changes occur as the coil approaches the end of a tube. Even shielded probes have some edge effect. Figure 8.2: Influence of edge effect on conductivity measured by eddy current probe: (a) probe at edge; and (b) signal. Eddy current @ U probe ‘Unified Numbering System 492024 wrought aluminum alloy, (b) 174 (30) I % 168 es) Xo [ Ea re e 8 16.2 (28)| oo. 2 ee 4) 4) (8) (12)(16)(20(24) Distance from edge, mm (0? in.) Skin Effect In many applications, electromagnetic tests are most sensitive to test object variables nearest to the test coil due to skin effect. Skin effect is a result of mutual interactions of eddy currents, operating frequency, test object conductivity and permeability. The skin effect (the concentration of eddy currents in the test object nearest the test coil) becomes more evident as test frequency, test object conductivity and permeability are increased. ‘Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic TestingEnd Effect End effect follows the same logic as skin effect. End effect is the signal observed when the end of a product approaches the test coil. Response to end effect can be reduced by coil shielding or reducing coil length in outer diameter encircling or inner diameter bobbin coils. End effect is a term most applicable to the testing of bar or tube products. PERMEABILITY FACTORS Permeability originates from the word permeate, meaning to spread through. Permeability is the ease with which a material can become magnetized and it occurs mainly in the Xj component of Z. Soft iron and iron with low carbon content are Very easy to magnetize and are highly permeable. These magnetic materials readily conduct the lines of force. Magnetic materials that are hard to magnetize have low permeability. Hardened ferromagnetic steel with high carbon content is hard to magnetize and has low permeability. Although hard, ferromagnetic steel has low permeability and is difficult to magnetize. It will hold some of the magnetism after the magnetizing current is shut off. That is how a permanent magnet like the horse-shoe magnet is made. The magnetism retained in a magnet is called residual magnetism. ‘When an energized test coil is placed on ferromagnetic materials, the field is greatly intensified by the magnetic properties of the material so that a large change in the impedance of the test coil occurs. If the magnetic field strength at various locations varies even slightly, these small variations have a large effect on the impedance of the coil. These changes in the impedance of the coil are often so large that they mask all other changes, such as conductivity and dimensional changes. This effect may be overcome by magnetizing the material to saturation using a separate coil energized by a direct. current source. Magnetic saturation eliminates or reduces any variations in the residual magnetic field caused by magnetic variables, and thus allows other variations to be measured. Eddy Current tests on carbon steel materials where saturation is not used limits the depth of penetration to very small depths. During saturation, the slope of the B and H curve is almost horizontal, and the permeability relative to air is approximately one (1). DIMENSIONAL FACTORS Dimensional factors of the material that are of concern fall under two types. 1, The dimension and shape of the test object. 2. The presence of discontinuities in the test object. Personnel Training PublicationsTest Object Shape and Thickness Eddy currents do not penetrate throughout thick material but tend to be concentrated near the surface. Thus there is a finite, or limited, depth of penetration. For mathematical reasons, it has become useful to define the standard depth of penetration as the distance from the surface of the test object to the point where the current density is about 37% of the current density at the surface. ‘The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a nonmagnetic test. object depends on the conductivity of the nonmagnetic material (the greater the conductivity, the less the penetration) and the frequency of the alternating current used to energize the test coil (the lower the frequency, the greater the penetration). ‘When the material is thin enough (as shown in Figure 8.3) so that all of the coil’s magnetic field is not used in creating eddy currents, the strength of the eddy currents is reduced. This appears to the test circuit as an apparent difference in conductivity from that of the thicker piece of the material. Figure 8.3: Effect of material thickness on eddy current tests. DISCONTINUITIES AA discontinuity is defined as any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of an object. The flow of eddy currents within the material is affected by the presence of discontinuities, such as cracks, pits, vibrational damage and corrosion. Discontinuities in a test object disturb the normal eddy current flow and this results in a change in the coil impedance. ‘The magnitude of the indication caused by a discontinuity is primarily dependent on the amount of current disrupted by the discontinuity. In other words, the depth, width and length of a discontinuity determines the change in the eddy current flow, as. shown in Figure 8.4. Discontinuities open to the surface are more easily detected than subsurface discontinuities. Discontinuities open to the surface can be detected with a wide range of frequencies; subsurface investigations require a more careful frequency selection. ‘Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing 63Figure 8.4: Distortion of eddy currents by a discontinuity. S57 Discontinuity Eddy currents Personnel Training PublicationsChapter 9 Eddy Current Test Systems and Analysis IMPEDANCE TESTING SYSTEMS Impedance testing systems are the simplest to operate. Most of the portable conductivity testers and discontinuity detectors simply detect a change in impedance. They do not detect phase shifts. Impedance testing, in spite of the many variables that can cause changes in impedance, is actually fairly simple and direct. The most difficult task for the technician is the ability to recognize with any degree of certainty whether a change in impedance is due to a change in lift-off or due to a change in conductivity. The presence of discontinuities in the material will also cause changes in the impedance. Since discontinuities are indicated by sudden changes in indications as opposed to gradual changes for all the other conductivity factors, the technician has no difficulty in differentiating the two types. PHASE ANALYSIS SYSTEMS Because a change in impedance is accompanied by a shift in phase, it is possible to observe the phase shifts rather than the impedance change to determine the conditions that exist in the material. ‘The impedance of a coil may be represented by a vector, whose length represents the impedance value and whose direction represents a phase angle (the angle by which the current lags behind the voltage). These vectors may be measured and plotted on a chart known as the impedance-plane diagram. The impedance-plane diagram may be plotted either by knowing the impedance value and the phase angle or by knowing the resistive component and the reactive component. Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram Figure 9.1 is a typical impedance-plane representation of several impedances obtained by eddy current testing from several different types of nonmagnetic metals with the same test set and at the same frequency with different conductivity. The lag angles and impedance values obtained for each of these materials, including the values obtained when the coil was held in air, are shown by their individual vectors.Figure 9.1: Impedance vectors shown on impedance-plane diagram. 0% IACS (Air) 3 & g i z 8 100% LACS 7 Coil resistance ————> In Figure 9.2, a curve is drawn connecting the impedance value of each of the vectors. This curve then is the locus of all the impedances that will result from changes in conductivity. If all other factors are held constant, a change in conductivity of any material will result in an impedance value that will fall somewhere on this curve. An increase in conductivity will cause the impedance to move to the right and down along the curve, while decrease in conductivity will cause the impedance to move up and to the left. Figure 9.2: Conductivity locus on impedance-plane diagram for nonmagnetic materials, Coil inductive reactance—» 0 ‘Coil resistance———> 6 Personnel Training PublicationsFigure 9.3 illustrates the locus of all the impedances that will result as the coil is lifted off the 100% LACS material (all other factors held constant). When the coil is held in contact with the 100% IACS material, the locus is on the conductivity curve. As the coil is lifted off the material, the impedance moves in the direction indicted by the dashed line. As the coil is further removed, the impedance moves further along the dashed line until the material no longer affects the coil (the coil is in air). At this point the impedance is back on the conductivity curve at 0% LACS as shown. Figure 9.3: Lift-off locus on impedance-plane diagram. 90° 0% IACS (Air) Coil inductive reactance—> Coil resistance———> Figure 9.4 illustrates a family of lift-off curves ~ each one starting at a different conductivity. Note the angles (A and B) formed at the junctions of the lift-off locus curves and the conductivity locus curve. In the areas of low conductivity on the diagram, the angle (B) is small. In the areas of high conductivity, the angle (A) is larger. ‘Thus the impedance-plane diagram shows that in materials with high conductivity, it is easier to detect a change in lift-off. In areas of high conductivity on the diagram, a change in conductivity is mostly a change in the coil’s inductive reactance (vertical), while changes in lift-off are mostly a change in the coil’s resistance (horizontal). Due to this large difference in direction, the effect of lift-off may be distinguished from the effect of a change in conductivity. Classroom Training Series: Electromagnetic Testing

Et Classroom Training Book 2012

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Et Classroom Training Book 2012

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Et Classroom Training Book 2012

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like