Southern Luzon State University

College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

Name: ___________________________

Yr. /Section: ______________________

Schedule: ________________________

RATING

____________________________
ENGR. MARCELITO P. OBLEA JR.
INSTRUCTOR

CODE: EEN 01-L

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 Overview

This course is intended to enhance the learning experience of the student in topics
encountered in EEN01L. In this lab, students are expected to get hands-on experience in
using the basic measuring devices used in electrical engineering and in interpreting the
results of measurement operations in terms of the concepts introduced in the first
electrical circuits course. How the student performs in the lab depends on his/her
preparation, participation, and teamwork. Each team member must participate in all
aspects of the lab to insure a thorough understanding of the equipment and concepts. The
student and faculty coordinator have certain responsibilities toward successful
completion of the lab's goals and objectives.

Course Goals and Objectives:

The Electrical Circuits Laboratory is designed to provide the student with the knowledge
to use basic measuring instruments and techniques with proficiency. These techniques are
designed to complement the concepts introduced in EEN01L. In addition, the student
should learn how to record experimental results effectively and present these results in a
written report. More explicitly, the class objectives are:

1) To gain proficiency in the use of common measuring instruments.

2) To enhance understanding of basic electric circuit analysis concepts including:

a) Independent and dependent sources.
b) Passive circuit components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, and switches).
c) Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's voltage law, and Kirchhoff's current law.
d) Power and energy relations.
e) Thévenin's theorem and Norton's theorem.
f) Superposition.

3) To develop communication skills through:

a) Maintenance of succinct but complete laboratory notebooks as permanent, written

descriptions of procedures, results, and analyses.
b) Verbal interchanges with the laboratory instructor and other students.
c) Preparation of succinct but complete laboratory reports.

4) To compare theoretical predictions with experimental results and to resolve any

apparent
differences.

Use of Laboratory Instruments

One of the major goals of this lab is to familiarize the student with the proper equipment
and techniques for making electrical measurements. Some understanding of the lab
instruments is necessary to avoid personal or equipment damage. By understanding the
device's purpose and following a few simple rules, costly mistakes can be avoided.

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Ammeters and Voltmeters:
The most common measurements are those of voltages and currents. Throughout this
manual,
the ammeter and voltmeter are represented as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Ammeter and voltmeter.

Ammeters are used to measure the flow of electrical current in a circuit. Theoretically,
measuring devices should not affect the circuit being studied. Thus, for ammeters, it is
important that their internal resistance be very small (ideally near zero) so they will not
constrict the flow of current. However, if the ammeter is connected across a voltage
difference, it will conduct a large current and damage the ammeter. Therefore,
ammeters must always be connected in series in a circuit, never in parallel with a
voltage source. High currents may also damage the needle on an analog ammeter. The
high currents cause the needle to move too quickly, hitting the pin at the end of the scale.
Always set the ammeter to the highest scale possible, then adjust downward to the
appropriate level. Voltmeters are used to measure the potential difference between two
points. Since the voltmeter should not affect the circuit, the voltmeters have very high
(ideally infinite) impedance. Thus, the voltmeter should not draw any current, and not
affect the circuit.

In general, all devices have physical limits. These limits are specified by the device
manufacturer and are referred to as the device rating. The ratings are usually expressed in
terms of voltage limits, current limits, or power limits. It is up to the engineer to make
sure that in device operation, these ratings (limit values) are not exceeded. The following
rules provide a guideline

Instrument Protection Rules:

1) Set instrument scales to the highest range before applying power.

2) Be sure instrument grounds are connected properly. Avoid accidental grounding of

"hot"
leads, i.e., those that are above ground potential.

3) Check polarity markings and connections of instruments carefully before connecting

power.

4) Never connect an ammeter across a voltage source. Only connect ammeters in

series with loads.

5) Do not exceed the voltage and current ratings of instruments or other circuit elements.
This particularly applies to wattmeters since the current or voltage rating may be
exceeded with the needle still on the scale.

6) Be sure the fuse and circuit breakers are of suitable value. When connecting electrical
elements to make up a network in the laboratory, it is easy to lose track of various points
in the network and accidently connect a wire to the wrong place. A procedure to follow
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that helps to avoid this is to connect the main series part of the network first, then go back
and add the elements in parallel. As an element is added, place a small check by it on
your circuit diagram. Then go back and verify all connections before turning on the
power. One day someone's life may depend upon your making sure that all has been done
correctly.

Laboratory Reports

The laboratory report is the primary means of communicating your experience and
conclusions to other professionals. In this course you will use the lab report to inform
your instructor what you did and what you have learned from the experience. Engineering
results are meaningless unless they can be communicated to others.

Your laboratory report should be clear and concise. Use tables, diagrams, sketches, and
plots, as necessary to show what you did, what was observed, and what conclusions you
draw from this. Even though you will work with one or more lab partners, your report
will be the result of your individual effort in order to provide you with practice in
technical communication.

You will be directed by your instructor to prepare a lab report on a few selected lab
experiments during the semester. Your assignment might be different from your lab
partner's assignment.

Sign your report at the end. Include the statement - "This report is accurate to the best of
my knowledge and is a true representation of my laboratory results."

Familiarization and Safety

Electrical Safety

Electrical shock is a hazard that people face when they work around any source of
electrical power. If you are not sure of the operation of equipment or laboratory
procedure, particularly those which might compromise personal safety and the safety of
your laboratory partners, do not hesitate to ask your laboratory instructor for assistance.
As an engineer, one should always review the following basic safety issues.

1. Beware of broken or cracked insulation on power leads.

2. Handle test leads only by the insulated housings.
3. Keep your work area clean and organized
4. Thoroughly check all connections before applying power.
5. Turn power off when making changes to your experiment.
6. Always have someone available to shut off power and render first –aid in the event of
an accident while working on live circuits.
7. In the event of a power failure, turn off the power switched to all equipment
immediately and wait further instructions.
8. After you are done with your experiment, turn all main switches off.
9. Keep in mind that even a minor shock can cause violent muscular reactions that a
person could literally be hurled against workbench corners, walls, or similar barriers. The
resulting injuries can be far more disabling than the initial shock.

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Practical Perspective

Current through the body can cause injury. Let's examine this aspect of electrical safety.
You might think that electrical injury is due to burns. However, this is not the case. The
most common electrical injury is to the nervous system. Nerves use the electro chemical
signals, and electric currents can disrupt those signals. When the current path includes
only skeletal muscles, the effects can include temporary paralysis or involuntary muscle
contractions, which is generally not life threatening. However, when the current path
includes nerves and muscles that control the supply of oxygen to the brain, the problem is
much more serious.

Temporary paralysis of these muscles can stop a person from breathing, and a sudden
muscle
contraction can disrupt the signals that regulate heartbeat. The result is a halt in the flow
of oxygenated blood to the brain, causing death in a few minutes. Table 1 shows a range
of physiological reactions to various current levels. The numbers in the table are
approximate; they are obtained from an analysis of accidents because, obviously, it is not
ethical to perform electrical experiment on people. Good electrical design will limit
current to a few millimeters or less under all possible conditions.

Table 1. Physiological reactions to current levels in humans.

PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTION CURRENT

Barely perceptible 3 - 5 mA
Extreme pain 35 - 50 mA
Muscle paralysis 50 - 70 mA
Heart stoppage 500 mA

Now we develop a simplified electrical model of the human body. The body acts as a
conductor of current, so a reasonable starting point is to model the body using resistors.
Fig. 1 shows a potentially dangerous situation. A voltage difference exists between one
arm and one leg of a human body. Fig. 1b shows an electric model of the human body in
Fig 1a. The arms, legs, neck and trunk (chest and abdomen) each have a characteristic
resistance. Note that the path of the current is through the trunk, which contains the heart,
a potentially deadly arrangement.

Figure 1: An illustration of the human body possible circuit.

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

No.
Title Page
1 Familiarization with Electrical Measuring Instruments
7
2 Electric Power and the Wattmeter
20
3 Analysis of Resistive Series-Parallel Networks
29
4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
41
5 Mesh and Nodal Analysis of DC Circuits
51
Superposition Theorem
6
62
7 Analysis of Series and Parallel RL AC Circuits
70

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 EXPERIMENT 1

Familiarization with Electrical Measuring Instruments

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:

Two types of measuring device used in electricity used today are: the analog and
the digital. The analog meter uses a moving pointer which indicates the measured
voltage on a calibrated scale. The quantity measured by the digital meter appears a
number on a numerical (digital). Anyone who reads numbers can read the digital meter,
but it takes a little practice to read the analog meter.

Types of Electrical Measurements.

Measurements performed on an electric circuit include the circuit current, voltage, power,
and resistance. The measurement of the current and voltage are basic as other quantities
can be obtained such as power and resistance-power can be measured from the product of
voltage and current and resistance can be measured from the voltage to current division
(Ohm's Law).
Electrical measurements are classified into two major types, each using and requiring
different instrumentation:

(a) DC measurements indicate the average value of a time-varying quantity. DC

instruments are used only in circuits where the current is unipolar (dc), thus it has
a non-zero average value. Figures A1 and A2 show two time-varying quantities
that have non-zero average value. The dotted line in each case shows the
indication of a dc instrument measuring the quantity. Equation (1) is the formula
used to calculate the average (also called dc) value of a periodic wave form. Note
that, if the quantity is constant with time, its instantaneous value is also its
average (dc) value. That is the case, for example, when a circuit is supplied by a
battery.

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 (b) AC measurements indicate the rms (root mean square) value of a time-varying
(usually periodic) quantity. Circuits that operate with ac current can only be
measured by ac instruments. A dc instrument used in an ac circuit will indicate
zero (why?).

Current Sensing in DC Measurements.

The measurement of both the current and voltage requires sensing (measurement)
of current. Many analog instruments sense current employing the d'Arsonval
meter. Figure B shows a diagram of this meter.

The core is an electromagnet surrounded by a permanent magnet. The current that flows
in the terminals of the electromagnet coil generates a torque on the core which is directly
proportional to the current. This forces the needle to move. The motion of the needle is
restrained by a mechanical coil (spring). The torque of the spring is directly proportional
to the deflection of the needle. Therefore, the deflection of the needle is directly
proportional to the current at the terminals of the instrument.

Current sensing instruments are rated at a maximum current and a maximum voltage.
Thus, the instrument can safely operate in measurements that do not exceed its ratings.
The ratio of the rated voltage to the rated current of the current sensing instrument is its
internal resistance-this appears in series with its terminals.

The Ammeter.
A dc ammeter can be created employing the d'Arsonval current sensor, as shown in
Figure C. The ammeter must be inserted in series with the current it measures. An
internal arrangement of resistors is used to divide the current so that the sensor sees only
a fraction of the circuit current. With reference to Figure C, this arrangement consists of
several scaling resistors and a selection switch. By selecting one of the scaling resistors,
the portion of the measured current "seen" by the sensor varies.

The scaling resistors determine the range of the current the ammeter can measure. The
resistance of a scaling resistor is chosen so that the current of the sensor is the rated
(maximum) value when the circuit current is at the upper limit of the range. The different
ranges are indicated on the scale of the instrument.

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The Voltmeter.
The voltmeter is connected in parallel to the measured voltage. Thus, it should insert a
large resistance so that the circuit is not disturbed. Figure D shows a voltmeter created
using a current sensor, series resistors and a selection switch. The current sensed by the
sensor is proportional to the measured voltage. The resistance of the scaling resistors
determines the range of voltage measurement. Their value is chosen to limit the current
into the sensor.

Measurement of Resistance.
There are two methods to measure resistance: (a) Directly employing the Wheatstone
bridge. (b) Indirectly, by measuring current and voltage. The first method will be
discussed in Experiment 2. The indirect method uses an ammeter and a voltmeter
arranged in two possible configurations shown in Figures E and F. An external source
drives a constant current into the resistor. With reference to Figures E and F, the ammeter
is in series with the measured resistor and the voltmeter in parallel.

Each configuration E and F gives different error in the measurement of the resistor. In the
arrangement of Figure E, the voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown
resistor and, also, across the internal resistance of the ammeter. If, I, is the indication of
the ammeter and V the indication of the voltmeter, the estimated value, Rm, of the
unknown resistor is given by (2):

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The Ohmmeter. A simplified schematic diagram of the ohmmeter is shown in Figure G.
The instrument employs a current sensor and a battery. The battery drives a constant
current into the resistor measured by the current sensor. The value of the resistance is
indicated on the instrument scale (sensor scale) from Ohm's law dividing the battery
voltage by the current. The variable resistor in Figure G is adjusted so that only rated
current flows into the sensor when the instrument terminals are shorted. The maximum
deflection of the scale is, therefore, graded to zero ohms and the minimum deflection of
the scale (open terminals) is graded to infinite ohms.

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Operating Controls

Most meters have two basic operating controls: the function switch and the range
switch. First the desired measuring function must be selected. We’re discussing
voltmeters, so we would select the voltmeter function by setting the function switch to
VOLTS. We can further select the function by switching to AC VOLTS or DC VOLTS.
This represents alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc), as in the household power
outlets or batteries, respectively. You will learn more about the different types of
voltages in later exercises. We are concerned with only direct current at this time.
Second, we must choose the range. The range switch works in conjunction with
the function switch to select the proper operating range for a specific measurement. One
other control is found on most meters. On DMMs it is called ZERO control. Its purpose
is to set the meter to zero before any measurement is made. This is much like setting
your watch to the correct time so that subsequent time checks will be correct. On VOMs
this same control is called the ZERO OHMS control and is used only to adjust the
ohmmeter. This is discussed in greater depth when you learn to use the multimeter as an
ohmmeter.

Meter Scales

In general the voltage scales on an analog EVM are linear, and the ohms scale is
nonlinear. The scale on a rule is the most familiar example of a linear scale. On the rule
each inch is the same length. If the scale were nonlinear, the distances between the inch
markings would not be the same.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To identify the operating controls of typical analog and digital multi-meters.

2. To be able to give in writing the purpose of each meter control.
3. To be able to identify the meter lead polarity and connections.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Power Supply
Analog Multimeter set
Digital Multimeter set
EveryCircuit Apps

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PROCEDURE

A. Familiarization with the Equipment.

1. Become familiar with the power supply, the analog and digital meters, and the resistor
color code.

Figure 1.1 Resistor Color Code

Figure 1.2 DC Power Supply

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 Figure 1.3 Analog Multimeter

Figure 1.5 Digital Multimeter

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B. Use of the Ohmmeter.
2. Pick five resistors from the resistor box.

A B

C D

E F

G H

3. Measure the resistance of the resistors using the color code and ohmmeter.
4. Put your data on Table 1.

C. Measurement of Resistance Using an Analog Ammeter and a Voltmeter.

5. Use one of the resistor you pick up on the box then connect it in the arrangement
shown in Figure 1a. Set the voltage of the supply to what the instructor advised. Measure
the voltage and the current indicated in the figure. Tabulate your measurements as in
Table 2.

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 6. Repeat Procedure 7 using the arrangement of Figure 1b. Tabulate your
measurements as in Table 3.
7. Compare the voltage and current measured in Figure 1a and Figure 1b.

Table 1
Measurement of resistance according to color code and ohmmeter.

Color Code Resistor Reading

Resistor 1st 2nd 3rd 4th According to Color Code
Band Band Band band
1
2
3
4
5

Table 2
Measured Values from Figure 1a.

Voltage Computed
Resistance Compueted Values
Supply (VS) Resistance
(R)
VR IR VR/IR
0V
5V
10 V
15 V
20 V
24 V

Table 3
Measured Values from Figure 1a.

Voltage Computed
Resistance Compueted Values
Supply (VS) Resistance
(R)
VR IR VR/IR
5V
10 V
15 V
20 V
24 V

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DRAWINGS / ILLUSTRATIONS /COMPUTATION

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DRAWINGS / ILLUSTRATIONS / COMPUTATION

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OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS

CONCLUSION

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EVALUATION
1. List the controls on the panel of your meter, and state the purpose of each.
2. Draw a linear scale with number calibrations from 0 to 10. Divide each of the
major divisions into10 minor divisions. Show where 8.7 would be on your
scale.
3. Explain in detail the procedure you used to zero the voltage functions of your
meter.
4. Explain in detail the procedure you used to zero the ohms function of your
meter.
5. Design an ammeter with two scales: 0-2 mA and 0-10 mA. Use a current sensor
rated at 200 μA, 100 mV. What resistance does the instrument insert in the circuit
at each scale?
6. Using the same current sensor as in (5), design a voltmeter with two scales: 0-10
V and 0-100 V. What is the maximum current the instrument draws from the
circuit for each scale?
7. Compare and discuss the measurements from Figures 1a and 1b. What is in each
case the % error between the measured and rated value of the resistor?

ANSWERS:

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 EXPERIMENT 2

Electric Power and The Wattmeter

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:

Power is the rate at which body or system does work. It is measured usually
in watts or in horsepower. Watt is the SI unit of power equal to one joule per second. In
electrical terms it is the energy per second expended by a current of one ampere flowing
between points on a conductor between which there is a potential difference of one volt.
It is named after a famous British engineer, James Watt who invented the steam.

In a circuit,

P  0
That is,

+ Power absorbed = - power supplied

3A 3A 3A 3A

+ - + -

4V 4V 4V 4V

- + - +

(a) (b) (a) (b)

absorbing power supplied power

(a) from positive terminal (a) to positive terminal

(b) to negative terminal (b) from negative terminal

Electrical power is measured by an electrical engineering device called a

wattmeter. Power is calculated through the common equation P  IV where I stands for
current and V stands for voltage supply. In some cases when the voltage supply or the
current is not indicated and the resistance is given, we can also use the equation P  I 2 R
2
or P  V R where R stands for the resistance of the resistor used.

A wattmeter measured the electric power in watts. Figure 2.1 shows a

wattmeter that consists essentially of two coils and a voltage coil. A current coil with

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very low impedance (ideally zero) is connected in series with the load and responds to the
load current. The voltage coil with very high impedance (ideally infinite) is connected in
parallel with the load and responds to the load voltage. The current coil acts like an open
circuit because of its high impedance. As a result, the presence of the wattmeter does not
disturb the circuit or have an effect on the power measurement.

Figure 2.1 The wattmeter connected to the load

OBJECTIVES:

1. Measure the DC power using volt-ampere methods.

2. Measure the DC power using DC wattmeter.
3. To study the power dissipation in electric circuits,
4. To learn how to use wattmeter.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 1pc. Wattmeter
 1 pc. Voltmeter
 1 pc. Ammeter
 1 unit DC power supply
 1 pc. VOM
 1 pc. 220 Ω resistor

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 WATTMETER

DC VOLTMETER DC AMMETER

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit in figure 2-a.

2. Turn – ON power supply.
3. Set the power suplply in Table 2.1. Measure the V and I for each setting
and record it in the table.
4. Compute the power dissipated by using P  IV , or P  I 2 R P = I2R, or
2
P V 2
R P = V / R. (Note: the computed value must at least the same)
5. Repeat step 3 using different values voltage source V. Record the
computed values in Table 5.
6. Connect the circuit in figure 2-b, adjust the power supply as indicated in
table 2.1 and measure Power for each setting and record it in the table.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

Figure 2-a

Figure 2-b

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 DATA SHEET:

Table 2.1

Percentage
Measured Measured Computed Power Power
Volts Difference
I V Measured
P = VI P = I2R P = V2/R
0
8
12
20
24
Note: All computed power must be near equal.

COMPUTATION

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OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS

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CONCLUSION

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EVALUATION:

1. From the data in Table 2-1 what general conclusion can you draw about the
relationship between i and v when R is any value?
(a) State the conclusion in words.
(b) Write the conclusion as a formula.
2. (a) Is it necessary to confirm further the general formula set forth in answer to
question 1b?
(b) How would you confirm the general formula in question 1?

3. For a constant value of R, what is the effect on I of

a. Doubling v ? b. Halving v ?
4. For a constant value of V, what is the effect on I of:
a. Doubling R ? b.Halving R

ANSWERS:

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 EXPERIMENT 3

Analysis of resistive series-parallel networks

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:

Resistance is the property of all materials that reduces the flow of electricity
through them. It is defined by Ohm’s law as the ratio of potential difference between the
ends of a conductor to the current flowing through it. The resistance of a conductor
depends on its dimensions, the material of which it is made, its temperature and in same
cases the extent to which it is illuminated. The unit of resistance is ohm. The reciprocal
of the resistance in direct current circuit is the conductance. The unit of the reciprocal
resistance is called the mho.

The Ohm’s Low is the basic low of an electric current, named for its discoverer,
Georg Simon Ohm. The current I, flowing through an element in a circuit is directly
proportional to the voltage drop, V, across it. Where the formula is written as V = IR and
R is the resistance of the circuit element.

A. SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

When two resistors are in series, the same current flowing are the same

iT = i1 = i2 = i 3 = in

Single-loop circuit with two resistors in series

I t  i1  i2  i3  ...  in

The equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of the

individual resistance.
That is,

Req  R1  R2  R3  ...  Rn

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Voltage Divider

R1 R2
v1  v v2  v
R1  R2 R1  R2

For N resistors (R1, R2 …RN)

Rn
vn  v
R1  R2  ...  Rn

B. PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION

When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the voltages across
them are the same.

Vt  v1  v2  v3  ...  vn

The equivalent resistance of resistors connected in parallel is equal to the

product of the resistances divided by the sum.
That is,

R1 R2
Req 
R1  R2

derived from,

1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2

The equivalent conductance of resistor connected in parallel is the sum of

their individual conductance.

Geq  G1  G2  G3  ...  Gn

Current Divider
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 R2 R1
i1  i i2  i
R1  R2 R1  R2

or

G1 G2
i1  i i2  i
G1  G 2 G1  G 2

OBJECTIVES:
1. To verify experimentally the rules for finding the total resistance of a series-
parallel circuit.
2. To compute and measure the total resistance of a combined series-parallel
connected resistance.
3. Formulate mathematical rule, which gives the total resistance of a series and
parallel connected resistor.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 1pc. EVM (Electronic Voltmeter)

 1 set connecting wire
 1 DC Power Supply (0-30 Volt)
 Resistors: ½ w, + 5%
R1 - 100 Ω
R2 - 220 Ω
R3 - 330 Ω
R4 - 470 Ω
R5 - 560 Ω

PROCEDURE:

PART 1: SERIES CIRCUIT

1. Connect the resistors in series as shown in fig. 3-1. Connect the DC power
supply across nodes a and b. Set the DC power supply voltage to 10 volts.
2. Turn on the power supply. Measure and record voltages and current required in
Table 3.1.
3. Turn off the power supply and disconnect it from the circuit. Using the VOM
measure and record the resistance across a and b.
4. Compute the total resistance using Rt  Eab
it
5. Using the nominal values of the resistance and the source voltage, compute for
the expected voltage and currents in the circuit.
6. Compute for the percent difference between the measured and computed values
of the voltages and currents. Use the computed values as the correct values.

PART 2: PARALLEL CIRCUIT

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 1. Connect the resistors in parallel as shown in fig. 3-2. Connect the DC power
supply across points a and b. Set the DC power supply to 10 volts.
2. Turn on the power supply. Measure and record the quantities required in table
3.2.
3. Turn off the power supply and disconnect it from the circuit. Using the VOM,
measure and record the resistance across a and b (Rt).
4. Compute the total resistance using Rt  Eab
it
5. Using the nominal values of the resistance and the currents in the circuit,
compute for the expected voltage and current I the circuit.
6. Compute for the percent difference between the measured and computed values
of the voltages and currents. Use the computed values as the correct values.

PART 3: SERIES – PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. Connect the resistors in series-parallel as shown in fig. 3-3. Connect the DC

power supply to 10 volts.
2. Turn on the power supply. Measure and record the quantities as required in the
table 3.3.
3. Turn off the power supply and disconnect it from the circuit. Using VOM
measure and record the resistance across a and b.
4. Compute the total resistance using Rt  Eab
it
5. Using nominal values of the resistance and the currents in the circuit, compute
for the expected voltage and current in the circuit.
6. Compute for the percent difference between the measured and computed values
of the voltages and currents. Use the computed values as the correct values.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS

Figure 3-1

Figure 3-2

32 | P a g e
 Figure 3-3

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DRAWINGS/SET-UP

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DATA SHEETS:

TABLE 3.1

Rt v1 v2 v3 v4 it
Measured Values

Computed Values

% Difference

TABLE 3.2

Rt i1 i2 i3 i4 It

Measured Values

Computed values

% Difference

TABLE 3.3

Rt v1 v2 v3 it i4

Measured Values

Computed Values

% Difference

35 | P a g e
COMPUTATION

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 __________________________________________________________________
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OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS

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CONCLUSION

38 | P a g e
EVALUATION:

1. Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminal on the given circuit.
Where: R1 = 100 ohms
R2 = R3 = R4 = 300 ohms
R5 = 200 ohms
(a) A and B
(b) B and C
(c) C and D
(d) D and A
2. What is the effect on the resistance of the following:
(a) increasing the number of the resistance in series
(b) decreasing the number of resistor in series
(c) increasing the number of resistor in parallel
(d) decreasing the number of resistor in parallel
3. Did your calculated values Rt equal your measured Rt. If not, why?

ANSWERS

39 | P a g e
40 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 4

Kirchhoff’s Laws

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:

Thus far we have considered Ohm’s law and how it may be used to find the
current, voltage and power associated with a resistor. However, Ohm’s law by itself
cannot be used to analyze even the simplest circuit. The solution of complex electric
circuits is simplified by the application of Kirchoff’s laws. These laws were formulated
and published by the physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887). The two laws are
formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
These laws together with the terminal characteristics for the various circuits elements,
permit systematic methods of solution for any electrical work.

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

In previous experiment we verified that the total current It in a circuit

containing resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the currents in each of the
parallel branches. This was one demonstration of Kirchhoff’s current law, limited to a
parallel network. The law is perfectly general, however, and is applicable to any circuit.
It states that the current entering any junction of an electric circuit is equal to the current
leaving that junction also it states that the algebraic sum of current entering a node
(closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically,

Σ in = 0

n=1

Where n is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth
current entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, current entering a node may be
regarded as positive, while current leaving the node may be taken as negative, or vice
versa.

It = i1 + i2 + i3 + … + in

Consider the series-parallel circuit, Fig. 4.1. Designate the total current as IT.
Current IT enters the node A, in the direction indicated by the arrow. The currents
leaving the node A are I1, I2 and I3 as shown. The currents I1, I2 and I3 then enter into the
node B and IT leaves the node B.

41 | P a g e
 Figure 4.1

This means that whatever current enters a node will leave that node. It makes
no difference whether the current splits at the node or whether the splits current come
together at the node.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that around any closed circuit, the sum of
applied voltages (s) must equal the sum of the voltage drops within the circuit.

Mathematically,

Σ vm = 0

m=1

Where M the number of voltages in the loop (or number of branches in the
loop) and vn is the mth voltages.

This idea was explored in previous experiments. There, we found that the
applied voltage was completely used. None is ever lost, nor is any ever gained. If a
voltage is applied to a circuit, it is used by the components in the circuit totally. If the
voltage drops across the resistors of a series circuit are added together, this sum will be
the same as the applied voltage. This is Kirchoff’s voltage law.

Consider the series circuit in Fig. 4.2. The three series connected resistors
may be replaced by a single resistor RT whose resistance is equal to the sum of R1, R2 and
R3. The applied voltage VT in the circuit is such that the product of IT and RT, IT is the
total current and RT is the sum of the total resistances. That is, VT = IT x RT.

Figure 4.2 Series circuit

42 | P a g e
 Current is the same everywhere in a series circuit. Therefore IT is the
current in R1, R2 and R3. The voltage drop V1 across R1 is V1 = IT x R1, V2 = IT x R2 and
V3 = IT xR3. By adding the equations, we get

V1 + V2 + V3 = IT x R1 + IT x R2 + IT xR3

Factoring IT, we have,

V1 + V2 + V3 = IT (R1 + R2 + R3) ; where, RT = R1 + R2 + R3

Therefore we can write the equations as follows:

V1 + V2 + V3 = IT x RT

but IT X RT = VT as above.

Therefore:

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 .

The equation is a mathematical statement of Kirchoff’s voltage law, states

that the applied voltage is equal to the voltage drops across each of the resistors in that
circuit.

But this is contrary to fact, for the measured current IT = VT / RT, by OHM’s
Law. Similarly, the sum of V1, V2 and V3 cannot be less than VT = V1 + V2 + V3. We
express Kirchoff’s law mathematically by the formula:

VT= V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + ……

This formula says that the voltage drops across all the series connected circuit
resistances add to equal the applied voltage, that no voltage is lost, and no voltage is lost,
no voltage is gained, but it is all used.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To define and characterize the principles and theories of Kirchhoff’s Law.

2. To determine the analysis of the relationship between the sum of the
voltage drops and voltage rise around the close path or loop,
3. To determine the relationship between the sum of the currents entering
any junction of an electric circuit and the current leaving the junction.

43 | P a g e
MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 1 pc. Circuit Board

 1 pc. Ammeter
 2 units DC Power Supply
 1 pc. VOM
 Connecting Wires
 Resistors:
* 470 ohms

* 220 ohms

* 330 ohms

PROCEDURE:

1. Using two regulated dc power supply, connect the circuit as shown in fig.
4-1.
2. Turn – ON the power supply and set V1 to 15 V and V2 to 20 V. Using
voltmeter, measure the individual voltage drops across each resistor,
record the value on table 4-1.
3. Using the circuit and the values in fig. 4-a, compute for the individual
voltage, record it on table 4-1.
4. Using an ammeter, measure the individual current drawn by each resistor,
record result in table 4-2.
5. Using the circuit and the values in fig. 4-a, compute for the individual
branch current, record it on table 4-2.
6. Compute for the percentage difference of the individual branch currents
and voltage drops by each resistor. Record the results.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

Resistors: Voltage Source:

R1 = 470 ohms V1 = 15 V

R2 = 220 ohms V2 = 20 V

R3 = 330 ohms

44 | P a g e
DRAWINGS/SET-UP

45 | P a g e
DATA SHEET:

Table 4.1 Voltage Drop

Voltage V1 V2 V3

Measured

Computed

% Difference

Table 4.2 Individual Current

Current I1 I2 I3

Measured

Computed

% Difference

46 | P a g e
COMPUTATION

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47 | P a g e
OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS

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CONCLUSION

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________________________________________________________________________
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EVALUATION:

1. In figure given below, V1 = 1/2 V2 = 18V, V3 = 25V, V4 = 30V. The applied voltage
must then be equal to ____________ volts.

2. Use KCL to obtain currents, i1, i2, and i3 in the circuit shown.

49 | P a g e
ANSWERS

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50 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 5

Mesh and Nodal Analysis

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

Development of the Mesh Equations.

In the previous section you used Kirchhoff’s laws to solve for the current in each
branch of a given network. While the methods used were relatively simple, branch-
current analysis is awkward to use because it generally involves solving several
simultaneous linear equations. It is not difficult to see that the number of equations may
be prohibitively large even for a relatively simple circuit.
A better approach and one which is used extensively in analyzing linear bilateral
networks is called mesh (or loop) analysis. While the technique is similar to branch-
current analysis, the number of simultaneous linear equations tends to be less. The
principal difference between mesh analysis and branch-current analysis is that we simply
need to apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around closed loops without the need for applying
Kirchhoff’s current law.

The steps used in solving a circuit using mesh analysis are as follows:

1. Arbitrarily assign a clockwise current to each interior closed loop in the network.
Although the assigned current may be in any direction, a clockwise direction is used to
make later work simpler.
2. Using the assigned loop currents, indicate the voltage polarities across all resistors in
the circuit. For a resistor which is common to two loops, the polarities of the voltage drop
due to each loop current should be indicated on the appropriate side of the component.
3. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the loop equations for each loop in the
network. Do not forget that resistors which are common to two loops will have two
voltage drops, one due to each loop.
4. Solve the resultant simultaneous linear equations.
5. Branch currents are determined by algebraically combining the loop currents which are
common to the branch.

Development of the Nodal Equations.

The nodal equations express the KCL in terms of the nodal voltages of the circuit. The
KCL at each node is written assuming that all branch currents leave the node. The nodal
equations of the circuit of Figure A are:

51 | P a g e
The general characteristics of the nodal equations are: The diagonal coefficients represent
the total conductance directly connected to the node. The off diagonal coefficients
represent the negative of the total conductance connected between any two nodes.
The nodal equations in (2) can be cast in a matrix form as in (3).

(3)

The matrix in (3) is symmetric and is called the nodal admittance matrix of the circuit. It
is often referred to as the Y . The elements of this matrix are the coefficients in (2).
bus
Physical Interpretation of the Nodal Admittance Matrix.
With reference to Figure B, if Node 2 is shorted to the ground and a voltage E1 is applied
to Node 1, then the elements y11 and y21 of the nodal admittance matrix are:

y11 = I1 / E1

y21 = I2 / E1 (4)

Where I1 and I2 are the currents measured into Nodes 1 and 2 respectively. Similarly for
Node 2.

52 | P a g e
The Nodal Impedance Matrix.
The solution of (3) yields:

(5)

The matrix in (5) that relates the nodal currents to the nodal voltages is the nodal
impedance matrix. This matrix is the inverse of the nodal admittance matrix and it is also
symmetric. The nodal impedance matrix is often referred to as the Z matrix and has
bus
many applications in the study of power networks especially in the study of faults and
protection.

The elements of the nodal impedance matrix can be measured experimentally. With
reference to Figure C, the elements z11 and z21 of the matrix are derived by (a) applying a
voltage E1 to Node 1, (b) measuring the resulting current I1 and voltage E2. Then
according to (6):

z11 = E1 / I1 z21 = E2 / I1 (6)

53 | P a g e
OBJECTIVES

1. To introduce students to the nodal voltage and mesh current methods for
solving circuits.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Power supply
Multimeter
Resistors

PROCEDURES

A. Verification of the Nodal Equation

1. Construct the circuit of Figure 4-1. Use the following resistors
R0 = 510 Ω, R =1k, R =6.8k, R =3.3k, R =5.1k, R =2.k, R =10k.
1 2 3 4 5 6

2. Activate the source and measure the nodal voltages

B. Verification of the Mesh Equation

3. Measure the currents, as shown in Figure 2

Theoretical Development
1. Discuss the nodal and mesh method. When is one preferred over the other?
2. Write the nodal and mesh equations of the experiment circuit. Solve the
equations.
3. Compare the measured values of the nodal with the values computed.

54 | P a g e
DATA INFORMATION SHEET

Voltage V1 V2 V3

Measured

Computed

% Error

Current I1 I2 I3 I4

Measured

Computed

% Error

55 | P a g e
DRAWING/SET-UP

56 | P a g e
DRAWING/SET-UP

57 | P a g e
OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS

58 | P a g e
CONCLUSION

59 | P a g e
EVALUATION:

1. Find the mesh currents in the figure below.

2. Find the node voltages in the figure below.

ANSWERS

60 | P a g e
61 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 6

Superposition Theorem
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:

The superposition theorem is like the methods of previous activities

that are also can be used to find the solution of networks with two or more
sources that are neither in series nor in parallel. The advantage of this
method for this type of networks is that does not require the use of
mathematical technique such as determinants to find the required voltages or
currents. Instead each source is treated independently and the algebraic sum
is found to determine a particular unknown quantity of the network. In other
word, for a network with n sources, n is independent series-parallel networks
would have to be considered before a solution could be obtained.

Its principle states that the voltages across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem

1. Turn – off all independent sources except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using Kirchoff’s law (or
by mesh and nodal method)
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

Consider the figure below.

Figure 6.1 Resistor circuit with two voltage sources

62 | P a g e
 is turned – off, applying MESH Analysis

Note:
, and are
all branch currents
MESH 1 MESH 2

Figure 6.2 Resistor circuit with one short-circuited voltage source

KVL at Mesh 1

(R1 + R3) - R3 = 0 ; and are mesh currents

= ; =- ; = -

KVL at Mesh 2

- + (R2 + R3) + =0

After the Figure 6.2 is solved, is the then replaced by a short circuit and
the new circuit is then solved.

MESH 1
MESH 2

Figure 7.3 Resistor circuit with one short-circuited voltage source

63 | P a g e
 KVL at Mesh 1
- + (R1 + R3) - R3 = 0
= ; =- ; = -

KVL at Mesh 2
- R3 + (R2 + R3) = 0

The total current through any portion of the network is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents produced independently by each source. That
is, for a two source network, if the current produced by one source is on one
direction, while that produced by the other is in the opposite direction
through the same resistor, the resulting currents is the difference of the two
and as the direction of the larger. If the individual currents are in the same
direction, the resulting current is the sum of the two in the direction of either
current. This rule holds true for the voltage across a portion of a network as
determined by polarities, and it can be extended to networks with any
number of sources.

The superposition theorem or principle is not applicable to power

effects since the power loss in a resistor varies as the source (nonlinear) of
the current or voltage. For this reason, the power to an element cannot be
determined until the total current through (or voltage across) the element has
been determined by superposition.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To be familiar with the Superposition Theorem.

2. To study and apply the Superposition Theorem in the solution of an
electric circuit.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 2 pcs. DC Power Supply (0-30V)

 1 pc. VOM
 1 pc. Circuit Board
 1 set Connecting wires
 Resistors
o 1 pc. 100 Ω
o 1 pc. 220 Ω
o 1 pc. 330 Ω

64 | P a g e
 o 1 pc. 470 Ω
o 1 pc. 560 Ω

PROCEDURES:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1

2. Turn on the power supplies. Measure and record the currents
, and . Turn off the power supplies.
3. Disconnect the power supply and short circuit the
terminals in the circuit board as shown in Fig. 7.2.
4. Turn on the power supply. Measure and records the currents
, and . Turn off the power supply.
5. Reconnect the power supply . Disconnect the power
supply and short circuit is terminal in the circuit board as
shown in Fig. 7.3.
6. Turn on the power supply. Measure and records the currents
, and . Turn off the power supply.
7. Compute for the currents , and using the measured
values of , and and , and .
8. Compute for the percentage difference between measured
and computed values. Use the computed values as the
correct values.

65 | P a g e
DATA SHEET:
Table 7.1 Measured Values

Both and Connected

20v - is SHORT Circuited, is CONNECTED

15v - is CONNECTED, is SHORT Circuited

Note: Values Recorded on the row i should be the same or near equal to the
values recorded on the row +

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 Table 7.2 Computed Values

Table 7.3 Percent Difference between measured and computed

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DRAWINGS/SET-UP

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EVALUATION:

1. What are the possible sources of error in this experiment? Explain.

2. Develop a flow chart serve as guide in solving electric circuit
problems using superposition theorem.
3. Using the superposition theorem, determine the current drawn by
each resistors?

ANSWERS:

69 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT 7

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

INTRODUTORY INFORMATION:

Thevenin’s theorem stated that a linear two terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series
with a resistor , where is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and
in the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off. On the other hand, the Norton’s theorem
states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistor , where
is the short circuit current through the terminals and is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

In finding the Thevenin resistance , we need to consider two

cases:

Case 1: If the network has no dependent source, we turn off all independent
sources. is the input resistance of the network looking between two
terminals a and b.

70 | P a g e
Case 2: If the network has dependent source, we turn off all independent
sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off
because they are controlled by circuit variables. We apply a voltage source
at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current . Then =
/ . In either approach we may assume any value of and . We may
use = 1V or = 1A, or even use unspecified values of or .

It often occurs that takes a negative value. In this case, the

negative resistance (V = -iR) implies that the circuit with dependent sources.
Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify a
circuit. A large circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage
source and a single resistor. This replacement technique is a powerful tool in
circuit design.

= --------------- = = ---------------
+ +

Now we present the steps leading to the proper value of and :

(1) Remove that portion of the network across which the Thevenin
equivalent circuit is to be fund. (2) Mark the Thevenin’s terminals of the
remaining two terminal network. (3) Calculate by first setting all sources
to zero and then finding the resultant resistance between two marked
terminals. (4) Calculate by first replacing the voltage and current sources
and then finding the open circuit voltage between the marked terminals. (5)
Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit
previously removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
This step is indicated by the placement of the resistor R between the
terminals of the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E.L.

Norton, an American Engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories, propose a
similar theorem known as Norton’s Theorem.

We are mainly concerned with how to get and . In fact, from

what we know about source transformation, the Thevenin and Norton
resistances are equal; that is = .

To find the Norton current , we determine the short circuit current

flowing terminal a and b in both circuits. It is evident that the short circuit
current is . This must be the same short circuit current from terminal a and
b, since the two circuits are equivalent. Thus, = . Dependent and
independent sources are treated the same way as Thevenin’s theorem.

71 | P a g e
 Observe the close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s
theorem: = as in, and

= -----------

There is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source

transformation is often called Thevenin Norton transformation. Since ,
are are related, to determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent
circuits required that we find:

- the open circuit across terminals a and b.

- the short circuit current at terminals a and b.
- the equivalent or input resistance at terminal a and b when all
independent sources are turned off.

We can calculate any of the three using the method that takes the least
effort and use them to get the third using Ohm’s Law.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To define and characterize basic concepts about Thevenin’s and

Norton’s Theorem.
2. To study the equivalent circuit of an electric source using Thevenin’s
and Norton’s Theorem.
3. To determine the voltages and currents in an electric circuit using
equivalent circuits.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 2 pcs. Regulated DC Power Supply (0-30V)

 1 pc. VOM
 1 pc. DMM
 1 pc. Circuit Board
 3 pcs. 220 Ω
 2 pcs. 330 Ω
 2 pcs. 470 Ω
 1 pc. 560 Ω

72 | P a g e
PROCEDURES:

1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 8-a.

2. Turn on the power supplies. Measure and the current I in the
resistor in Table 8.1.
3. Turn off the power supplies. Disconnect the resistor .
4. Turn on the power supplies. Measure and record , the
open circuit voltage across terminals a and b in table 8.1.
Turn off the power supply.
5. Place the ammeter across terminals a and b. The positive
terminal of the ammeter is to be connected to the terminal of
the higher potential.
6. Turn on the power supply. Measure and record , the short
circuit current across the terminal a and b in table 8.1. Turn
off the power supply.
7. Disconnect the power supplies and and place short
circuits across their terminal in the circuit board.
8. Using the digital multimeter. Measure the resistance
between a and b.
9. Compute I’ = / + . Compute the percentage
difference between I and I. Record these values in table 8.1
10.Compute I’’ = / ( + ). Compute the percentage
difference between I and I. Record these values in table 8.1
11. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 8-b.
12. Turn on the power supplies. Measure and record the current
I in the resistor and in table 8.2.
13. Turn off the power supplies. Disconnect the resistor and
.
14. Turn on the power supplies. Measure and record the
open circuit voltage across terminals a and b, in table 8.2.
Turn off the power supply.
15. Place an ammeter across terminals a and b, the positive
terminal of the ammeter is to be connected to the terminal of
higher potential.
16. Turn on the power supplies. Measure and record the Ishort
circuit current across terminals a and b, in table 8.2. Turn off
the power supply.
17. Disconnect the power supplies and and place short
circuits across their terminals.
18. Using the digital multimeter, measure the resistance
between a and b.
19. Compute I’ = / /( + + ). Compute for the
percentage difference between I’ and I’’. Record these
values in table 8.2.
20. Compute I’’ = / ( + + ). Compute for the
percentage difference between I’ and I’’. Record these
values in table 6.2.

73 | P a g e
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

Figure 8-b

74 | P a g e
DRAWING/ SET-UP:

75 | P a g e
DATA SHEET:

Table 8.1

% %
I I difference I’’ difference

Table 8.2

% %
I I difference I’’ difference

COMPUTATION:

76 | P a g e
OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS
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CONCLUSION
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EVALUATION:

1. Explain in your own words, how Thevenin’s theorem is used to

convert any linear two-terminal network into a simple equivalent
circuit consisting of a resistance in series with a voltage source.
2. Explain an advantage if using Thevenin’s theorem when finding load
currents in a dc circuit.
3. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown.

4. Check using Norton’s Theorem.

ANSWER:
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