TEXTBOOK ON RENEWABLE ENERGY& GREEN TECHNOLOGY

63
5.7.5. Designing of solar distillation unit
Following assumptions can be taken into account to find out amount of distilled
water produced per
day.
Latent heat of water
evaporation 2260 kJ/kg -

Density of water -1 kg /litre

Efficiency of solar still 0.30
(30 % depending on designs)
-

Average solar radiation

on given location -6
kWh/m* Iday
Amount of distilled water
required per day 10 litres
Step I: Finding useful solar radiation
Daily available solar radiation: 6 kWh/m/day
Useful solar radiation= daily solar radiationx Solar distill
efficiency
=
6x 0.3= 1.8 kWh/m*/day
Converting Wh to joules, 1 Wh 3600 joules
6480 kJ/ m/day
Step I1: Litres of distilled water produced per day per square meter
Latent heat of water evaporation -2260
kJ/kg
Number of litres of distilled water produced per
square metre per day
Useful solar radiation
Latent heat of water evaporation

=
6480 k/m2/day
2260 kl/kg
=2.86 litres/m /day
Step III: Total area of solar still distill to fulfill the requirement
Total distilled water requirement per day 10 litres/ day =

Total area of the solar still to fulfill

opga o elo
family requirement
Total daily requirement
Number of litres produced per day per square metres

10
2.86

3.49 m2
5.8. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
Photo simply means light. It has come from a Greek word phos. Voltaic means
producing an electric current. Photovoltaic (PV) in a combined word that means
producing electricity under light. This word has come from the name of
Alessandro Volta. He worked on electricity during the seventeenth
century.
Thus, Photovoltaic (PV) in a combined way means producing electricity under
light. A solar cell is a semiconductor device, which converts sun light into
electricity.
64
TEXTBOOK ON RENEWA8LE ENERGY&GREEN TECHNOLOGY
Semiconductors are made of silicon and also known as known energies cell
material. Figure-5.14 illustrates this simple looking but highly complex process
of solar energy conversion into some useful electricity via this device only.

Photons from the suns rays beam

down to earth

Free electrons form in the

solar cell

Assem onductive material, in Power output to various

this case, a sillcon solar cell locations

Figure-5.14: Solar energy conversion to electricity

5.8.1. Simple working of a solar cell

A solar cell is generally made of a semiconductor. The first solar cell was made
of selenium. In present, most of the solar cells are made of crystalline silicon. A
little bit'of boron and phosphorus are added into silicon, which creates holes so
that electrons can flow. A solar cell generally has two layers. One layer has the
silicon/boron semiconductor and is known as the p-type. The other layer is the
silicon/phosphorus semiconductor and is known as the n-type (electrons in
excess). The point at which the 'p' and n' type layers meet is known as a p-n
junction. Metal electrodes are attached to the front and back of the cell. The
electrode is in the form of a metal grid with fingers. It allows the sunlight to
pass through it. An anti-reflection coating is used to decrease the amount of
light reflection. A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5 volts and current
density of 20-40 milli amperes/cm. To get more voltage and current, individual
cells are joined in a series and parallel connection. If number of cells are joined
together in series or parallel form is known as solar module. f a number of
modules are joined together, it forms a solar array. PV hierarchy is shown in
Figure-5.15. These can be used for running of various products like a calculator,
lantern ora water pumping system etc.
TEXTBOOK ON RENEWABLE ENERGY& GREEN
TECHNOLOGY 65
65

ouTent
6urllgnt

junction
tyo

phelna
aeotron ow

Principle of Solar Photovoltaic effect

Cell Module Array

Figure-5.15: PV hierarchy

5.8.2. Advantages and disadvantage of solar PV systems

Advantages
Sunshine is totally free- i.e. there is no fuel cost
Produce no harmful gases-i.e. it is totally safe for our environment
Last, longer- i.e. these systems work well even more than 25 years.
Running cost is very low- i.e. very low maintenance is needed
Very suitable for remote area lighting-ie. improve the quality of life in
such areas
System is modular-i.e. small capacity system can be set up to begin with,
then more such systems could be added to it later on
Flexibility of shape-i.e. thin film modules like those made of amorphous
silicon can be moulded into many different shapes
Building worthy- i.e. it can be a part of the building itself and produce
power too
High job potential-i.e. it uses people with many difierent skills such as
that in science, engineering, finance and management etc.
 66
TEXTBOOK ON RENEWABLE ENERGY& GREEN TECHNOLOG
Disadvantage
Initial investment is high
Depends on the sunshine
Depends on battery storage to run any load at night
5.8.3. Type of solar cells
Based on the material, solar cells are categories in three
Crystalline silicon
categories
These types of cells made from thin slices cut from a single
are
silicon crystal of
(mono-crystalline) or a block of crystals (polycrystalline). Their
efficiency ranges between 14-19%. Importantly, this technology represents
around 80% of the solar cell market
today.
Thin film technology
These types of modules are made
by depositing very thin layers of light-
sensitive materials onto a low.cost substrate such as
glass, stainless steel or even
plastic. There are four différent types of thin film modules being sold in
market now: the
Amorphous Silícon (a-Si)
Cadmium Telluride (cdte)
Copper indium/gallium diselenide/disulphide (CIS, CIGS)
Multi-junction cells (a-Si/m-Si)
Concentrated Cells
Semiconducting PV material is quite costly. The simple idea is to use very little
of this material while collectingthe maximum possible sunlight. The
concentrated
light is
by using cheap plastic lenses or mirrors. These types of solar cells
known as concentrator cells are around 20-30% efficient.
5.8.4. Component of a PV system
Solar panels are the heart of a PV system. However, solar cell
a
electricity as long as sunlight falls on it. It does not store electricity. Solar PV
produces DC

panel produces DC electrical power, which is different from AC power that is

generally received from electricity grid supply. Hence, many other components
are required for a
working system that depends on whether the system is
connected to the electricity grid or whether it is designed as a stand-alone
system. These components are called as Balance of System (BOS). Components
which belonging to the BOS are:
Storage battery
Charge controller
Inverter
Support structure
Junction boxes
Wires, cables & fuses
Connectors and switches
Battery
Batteries are used to storage energy. Energy storage unit is a vital part of stand-
alone systems because it assures that the
system can deliver electricity during
the night and in periods of bad weather. Lcad-acid batteries and SMF batteries
are found most suitable for the solar system.
 2
Solar Radiation and its Measurement

2.1. Introduction
and radiated by the sun,
more
In general, the energy produced the earth.
the sun's energy that reaches
specifically the term refers to converted directly
Solar energy, received in
the form of radiation, can be
and electricity,
o r indirectly irnto
other forms of energy, such a s heat
m a n . Since the sun.
is expected to radiate at a n
which c a n be utilized by
be regarded as
for few billion years, it may
essentialy constant rate
a
major drawbacks to the
an in-exhaustible of useful energy. The
source
are:
extensive application of solar energy
arrives at
variable m a n n e r in which it
1. The intermittent and
the earth's surface and
area required to collect
the energy at a useful rate.
2. The large
to u s e this energy for power produc-
Experiments a r e underway
cooking and high temperature
tion, house heating, air conditioning,
melting of metals.
w a v e s of which
a s electromagnetic
Energy is radiated by the s u n micrometers (1
in the range of 0.2 to 4.0
99 per cent have wave lengths earth's
micrometer =
Solar energy reaching the top of the
1 0 meter).
radiation (short
consists of about 8 per cent ultraviolet
atmosphere cent visible light (0.39
wave less than 0.39 micrometer), 46 per
length,
cent infrared radiation (long wave

to 0.78 micrometer), and 46 per

m o r e than 0.78 micrometer).
length
2.2. Solar Constant
is of very hot gases, the heat being
large sphere
The sun a
Its diameter is 1.39 x
by various kinds of fusion reactions.
generated is 1.27 x 101 km. The m e a n
distance
10 km. while that of the earth the sun is large, it subtends
between the two is 1.50 x 10° km. Although
surface. This is because it is
an angle of only 32
minutes at the earth's
from
Thus the beam radiation received
also at a very large distance.
The brightness of the sun varies
the s u n on the earth is almost parallel.
 Non-Conventional Sources of Energ
48
it is
calculations,;
However for engineering is.
Irom its centre edge.
to its the solar disc
brightness all
over

customary to assume that the radiation coming

from the sun

uniform. As viewed from

the earth, the
a black surface
equivalent to that coming from
be essentially
appears to
at 5762°K. atmos-
solar arrives at the top of the
The rate at which energy
amount of energy
the solar constant IThis is the,
phere is called
a r e a perpendicular
to the sun's direction
recetved in unit time o n a unit the sunl's
at the m e a n distance of the earth from
the sun.Because of
the rate of arrival of
distance and activity vary throughout the year,
so called solar
constant is thus
solar radiation varies accordingly. The
3 per cent
a n average from which the
actual values vary upto about
however, for
in either direction. This variation is not important
most practical purposes: The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration's (NASA) standard value for the solar constant,
expressed in three common units, is as follows:
1.353 kilowatts per square metre or 1353 watt per square metre.
116.5 langleys (calories per sq. cm) per hour, or 1165 keal per sq.
hour (1 langley beingequal to 1 of solar radiation received
callcm
m per
in one day).
429.2 Btu per sq. ft. per hour.
The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little
a-terrestrial (out
through the year. Because of this variation, the ext.
to thee
side the earth's atmosphere) flux also varies. The earth is closest
the winter. This variation in.
s u n in the s u m n m e r and farthest away in
of solar
distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity
radiation I that reaches the earth. This c a n be approximated by the
equation

1+0.033 cos 360(72)

365
(2.2.1)

360 x n2 .(2.2.2)
1+0.033 cos 365
earth and s u n
where n is the day of the year. As the distance between
radiation also
varies a little through the year, due to it extra-terrestrial
varies.
of e x -
It is also useful to know the spectral distribution
traterrestrial solar radiation. Measurements of
this distribution a r e
made and recorded Thekaekara. It will be noted from Fig. 2.2.1,
by M.P.
which shows spectral distribution of solar radiation intensity at the
outer limit of atmosphere, that the maximum value of 2074 W/m-um
cent of the sun's
occurs at a wavelength of 0.48 um and that99 per
4 um. The percentage of
radiation is obtained upto a wavelength of
Spectral beam radiation

(W/m um)
50 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

or scattered and
that, has not been absorbed
Solar radiation
radiation" or
reaches the ground directly from the sun is called "direct
Beam radiation. It is the radiation which produces a shadow when
that solar radia-
interrupted by an opaque object. Diffuse radiatión isbeen
changed by
tion received from the sun after its direction has
retlection and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the solar

radiation is scattered in attdirections î the atmosphere, diffuse radia-

tion comesothe earth trom all parts of the sky. Fig. 2.3.1. The total
solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is the sum
of the direct and diffuse radiation. This is referred to in a general sense
as the insolation at that point. More specifically, the insolation is
defined as the total solar radiation energy received on a horizontal
surface of unit area (eg.,1sq.m) on the ground in unit time (e.g., 1 day).
Reflected back
into space

Diffusd'i Atmospheric
SCatterihg absorption
Reflected (war míng of
back by surtace Ditfuse air)
radiation Direct
radiation

Surface of earth

Fig. 2.3.1. Direct, diffuse and total radiation.

The insolation at a given location on the earth's surface depends,
among other factors, on the altitude of the sun in the sky. (The altitude
is the angle between the sun's direction and the horizontal). Since the
sun's altitude changes with the date and time of the day and with the
geographic latitude at which the observations are made, the rate of
arrival of solar radiation on the ground is a variable quantity even in
the time.
There are, nevertheless, some general points that can be made.
The smaller the sun's altitude, the greater the thickness of atmosphere
through which the solar radiation must pass the reach the ground Fig
2.3.1. As a result of absorption and scattering, the insolation is less
when the sun is low in the sky than when it is higher. However,
when
constitutes a larger fraction of the
scattering occurs, diffuse radiation
 3
Solar Energy Collectors
3.1. Introduction
A solar colloctor is a dovice for collecting nolar radiation and
transfer the onergy to a fluid passing in contact with it. Utilization of
solar enorgy requires solar colleetors. Thoso aro gonoral of two types :
() Non concontrating or flat plate type solar collector.
(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.
The solur energy collector, with its ansociated absorber, is the
essontial component of any systom for the conversion of solar radiation
energy into more usnble form (e.8 heat or oloctricity). In the non-con
centration type, the collector area (i.e. the area that intercepts the solar
radiation) is the same as the absorber area (i.e. the area absorbing the
radiation). On the other hand, in concentrating collectors, the area
intercepting the solar radiationisgreater, sometimes hundred of time8
greater than the absorber area. By means of concentrating collectors,
much higher temperatures can be obtained than with the non-con
centrating type. Concentrating collectors may be used to generate
medium pressure steam. They use many different arrangements of
mirrors and lenses to concentrate the sun's rays on the boiler. This type
shows better efficieney than the flat plate type. For best efliciency,
collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it moves through the
sky.
3.2. Physical Principles of the Conversion of Solar Radintion
into Heat
The fundamental process now in general use for heat conversion
is the green house effect. The name come from its first use in green
houses, in which it is possible to grow exotic plants in cold climates
through better utilization of the available sunlight.
Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of
light, a shortwave radiation, not all of which is visible to the human
eye. When this radiation strikos a solid or liquid, it is absorbed and
transforned into hent energy ; the material becomes warm and stores
76 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
of
within the spectrum of invisible
aimum at about 10 um, which is in
infra-red light. The ordinary glass plate fixed above the black plate
be seen in Fig. 3.2.3.
a green house has a spectral absorption which can which is relativey
protile of plastic is similar. Thus glass
ne
transparent for visible light is absorbent for the infra-red light emitted
by the black plate when it evacuates its thermal energy. The infra-rea
light absorbed by the glass is remitted in all directions, half of it is
emitted to the outside and lost, the other half re-emitted towards the
black plate which absorbs it again. More and more heat is accumulated
the way in the black plate, whose temperature thus increases.
Bquilibrium is reached when the energy gain by absorption of visible
lightis exactly balanced by the loss of energy through infra-red emission
of the glass plate. With rising temperature, the wavelength of the
nfra-red emission becomes shorter. At 200°c (473°K) the maximum
radiation is emitted at about 6 um, compared with 10 um at room
temperature. Finaly at about 500°c (773°K) the bulk of the radiation
would be emitted at 4 um, at which
wavelength, glass is partially
transparent for infra-red light.
It follows that an efficient green house effect is
possible only
below 500°C. However, unless concentration of sunlight is combined
with the green house effect, the equilibrium temperature achieved are
much lower because, practice, the equilibrium temperature is further
reduced by heat losses from the black plate due to thermal conductivity
and air convection.
3.3. Flat-Plate Collectors
Where temperatures below about 90°C are adequate, as they are
for space and servicee water heating flat plate collectors, which are of
the non-concentrating type, are particularly convenient. They are made
in rectangular panels, from about 1.7 to 2.9.sq. m, in area, and are
relatively simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and
absorb both direct and diffuse solar radiation, they are consequently
partially effective even on cloudy days when there is no direct radiation.
Flat-plate solar collectors may be divided into two m¡in clas-
sifications based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.
Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and non-
freezing aqueous solutions and occasionally for non-aqueous heat trans-
fer fluids. Air or gas heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters.
The principal difference between the two types is the design of
the passages for the heat for the transfer fluid.
The majority of the flat-plate collector have five main com-
ponents as follows
(0) Atransparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass
or radiation transmitting plastic film or sheet.
 Solar Energy Collectors 77
u)
Tubes,
collector absorber fins, passages or channels are integral with the
other fluid. plate or connected to it, which
carry the water, air or
i ) The absorber
plate, normally metallic or with
surface, although a wide variety a black,
of other materials can be used with air
heaters.
iu) Insulation, which should be
minimise the heat losses. Standard provided
to at the back and sides

glass or styro-foam are used for this insulating materials such as fibre
purpose.
(U) The casing
container which enclose the other components
or
and protects them from the weather.
(A) A Typical Liquid Collector
There are many flat-plate collector designs, but most are based
on the principle shown in Fig. 3.3.1. It is the plate and tube
type
Solar radiation
(Direct and dittuse)
s e ransparent
cover Cushion
ebb SUpports &
Seats for
9lass
Absorber-

Insulation QKOQ::

Heat transport tluid

(in tubes)
Fig. 3.3.1. Selection through typical flat-plate collector.
collector. It basically consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for
solar radiation, called the absorbing surface. Typically a metal plate,
usually of copper, steel or aluminium material with tubing of copper in
thermal contact with the plates, are the most commonly used materials.
The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2 mm in
thickne5s, while the tubes, which are also of metal, range in diameter
from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom
(in some cases, to the top) of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging
from 5 to 15 cm. In some designs, the tubes are also in line and integral
with the absorber plate. For the absorber plate corrugated galvanized
sheet is a material widely availablethroughout the world, Fig. 3.3.2 (a)
and (b) show two ways in which it has been used.
The use of conventional standard panel radiators showm in
Fig. 3.3.2 (c) is one of the simplest practical applications. The methods
of bonding and clamping tubes to flat or corrugated sheet are showm in
Fig. 3.3.2 (d) and (e), while Fig. 3.3.2 (f) is the "tube in strip" or roll
 Collectors 81
Solar Energy

moisture may condense

problem with this design is that in cold weather,
the inside of the transparent cover plate
and thus decrease the
on
transmission of the solar radiation.
Header
Water
out

Header
Fig. 3.3.3. Water
flow in flat-plate collector.
Water is a very effective
from certain drawbacks, one is theheat-transport medium, but it suffers
tubes in cold climates possibility offreezing in the collector
during cold nights. As stated earlier
gycol is added to
prevent freezing, but this generally addsethylene
to the
complexity of the heating system. Furthermore, the
is less effective than water antifreeze solution
for heat removed from
cases, the water is drained from the absorber. In some
the collector tubes if
expected, but difficulties have been freezing
is
in the morning. experienced in refilling all the tubes
Another problem arises
water; this is aggravated if from corrosion of the metal tubes by the
air to enter. The the water is drained at night thus
oxygen
metals. Corrosion can be
in air increases
the rate of allowing
corrosion of most
minimized by using
is a less
expensive copper
tubing. Aluminium
water is desirable. alternative, although periodic chemical treatment of
Finally, leaks in a
system require immediate attention. water
(or anti freeze) circulation
(B) Typiral Air Collectors or Solar Air
Heaters
Fig. 3.3.4 shows a schematic
stream is heated by the back
side
flat-plate collector where an air
to the plate of the collector plate. Fins
increase the contact
surface., The back side of the attached collector
Solar radiation
Glass cover

Absorber
plate
Fins
Insulation
Fig. 3.3.4. Typical Solar Air
Collector.
82 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
isheavily insulated with minerallwool or some other material. The most
favourable orientation, of a collector, for heating only is facing
at an inclination angle to the horizontal equal to the latitude plus 1d.
due south
Air has been used so far to,a lesser extent as the heat-transport
medium in solar collectors, but it, may have some advantages over
water. To decrease the power required to pump the necessary volume
of air through tubes, wider flow channels are used. For example, the air
and
may be passed through a space between the absorber plate
flow path
nsulator with bafiles arranged to provide long (zig-zag)
a

Fig. 3.3.5.

Baffles-K

obot
Air rat
flow

in flat-plate collector.
Fig. 3.3.5. Zig-zag air flow path
fluid eliminates both freezing
The u s e of air a s the heat-transport c o n c e r n than
small air leaks a r e of less
and corrosion problems, and (or by way
water leaks. Moreover,
the heated air can be used directly
duct sizes
for heating. On the other hand, larger
of heat storage) space a r e required for
rates, with increased pumping power,
and higher flow medium. Another
drawback
water is the heat transport
air than when
hot water supply system
from air to water in a
is that transfer of heat
is inefficient.
solar heat'
has a n important place among
But solar air heater meant for the
subsystems in many systems
collectors. It c a n be used
a s

Possible applications of solar air heaters are

utilization of solar energy. for comfort,
heating
of agricultural products,
space
drying or curing seasoning of timber, curing of
agents,
regeneration of dehumidifying
a s plastics.
industrial products such
ai
of collectors for heating
Numerous variations in the design ii
3.3.6 and 3.3.7. Air c a n be passed
a r e showm
in Figs. or duct
by solar energy surface such a s finned plates
solar absorbing
contact with black of
of variou
or roughened plates
a s mentioned
above, corrugated glass plate
of metal screening and overlapped
below or on bot
ez
materials, several layer above or
through, surpentine, aab
Flow may be straight absorber material.
or through a porous
of the absorber plate,
sides
102
Non-Conventional
Sources of Ener

Useful gain q =
Fr [S-U; (Tf-1
6 . 8 0 (60 15)]
=
0.810[340.62

= 0.810 x 34.62
28.07 kcal/hr m'. Ans.
7.88 x 45]
gu
0.810 (395
or Ans.
33.21 W/m* hr.
Collection efficiency
qu
neHRb
28.07 = 0.06 = 6%. Ans.
800x 1.40

3.7. Concentrating
Collector: Focusing Type
collector is a device
to collect solar
Introduction. Focusing
absorbing
with high intensity of
solar radiation on the energy
energy
u s e optical system
in the form of
surface. Such collectors generally
collector is a special form
offlat-plate
o r refiractors. Afocusing surface
reflectors a reflecting (or refracting)
collector modified by introducing absorber. These
solar radiations and the
(concentrator) between the
have radiation increase
fror low value of 1 . 5 2
type of collectors c a n collectors radiation falling
values of the order of 10,000. In these
to high receiver (or absorber) of
is focused on to a
on a relatively large area
concentration,
As a result of the energy
considerably smaller a r e a .
of 500°C o r m o r e .
fluids c a n be heated to temperatures
between collectors of the non-focusing
An importance difference radiation
in that the latter concentrate only direct
and focusing types from all
direction, since diffuse radiation arrives
coming from a specific the direction for which
small proportion is from
directions, only a very directs the solar radiation on-to
an
o c c u r s . The optical system
focusing surrounded by a transparent
absorber of smaller a r e a which usually
is
losses (in addition to those
c o v e r . Because of
the optical system, certain
the cover) are
radiation is transmitted through
which o c c u r while the in the mirron
CC
reflection or absorption losses T
introduced. These include
losses due to geometrical
imperfections in the optical as
or lenses and
combined effect of all losses
is indicated through the ca
The
system.
introduction of a term called the optical
efficiency. The introduction d m-
the fact that the flux inciden
m o r e optical losses
is compensated for by su
a smaler a r e a . As a resut
on the absorber
surface is concentrated on als
s a m e extent a s in a flat
thermal loss terms do not dominate to the m
the
collection efficiency is usually higher. al
plate collector and the
Concentratingor focusin th
Types of concentrating collectors. categories line focusin pa
two general
collectors may be considered in and t
In practice, the line is a collector pipe
and point foçusing types.
- - I T . l n m a through which the
heat transport fluid flow tro
 Solar Energy Collectors 103
Because the sun has a
finite
area or volume rather thansize, focusing does infact occur over a
a line or small
concentrating collector geometries, the point. As per the number ot
collectors are: main-types of concentrating
(a) Parabolic trough
collector
(6) Mirror strip reflector
(c) Fresnel lens collector
(d) Flat plate collector with
adjustable mirrors
(e) Compound parabolic concentrator (C.P.C.).
Line
Focusing Collectors: Parabolic Trough Reflector.
The principle
of the parabolic
concentration
trough collector, which is often used in
collectors,
is shown by the cross-section in Fig. 3.7.1, solaar
radiation coming from the
particular direction is collected over the area

Sun rays
30cdA
dut sd1oeda dut
bl o (otsd sr
Focus

bo.os
oi3slon s Vertex
odsefoa LParabolic
reflector
Fig. 3.7.1. Cross-section of parabolic-trough collector.
n
of the reflecting surface and is concentrated at the focus ofthe
if the reflector is in the form of a trough with
parabola,
e parabolic cross-section,
the solar radiation is focused alone a line. Mostly cylindrical
parabolic
oncentrators are used, in which absorber is placed along focus axis.
The collector pipe, preferably with a selective absorber coating, is used
as an absorber. The dimension of
e
parabolic trough or parabolic eylindri
cal collector can be vary over a wide range the length of a reflector unit
of may be roughly 3 to 5 m, and the width about 1.5 to 2.4 m, Ten or more
at
such units are often connected end to end in a row, several rows
t, may
also be connected in parallel. Parabolic trough reflectors have been
made ofhighly polished aluminium, of silvered glass or of a thin film of
aluminized plastic on a firm base. Instead of havinga continuous form,
g
the reflector may be constructed from a number of long flat strips on a
parabolic base.
he For the solar radiation to be
brought
to a focus by parabolic
trough retlector, the sun must be in such a direction that it lies on the
104 Non-Conventional Sources of Energ

Shield

Stay rods
Chain
drive

Mirror
strips Jack
shaft

Absorber
tube Glass'shield on
absorber tube
Fig. 3.7.2. A typical cylindrical paraholic system.
plane passing through the focal line and the vertex (i.e., the base) of the
parabola. Since the elevation of the sun is always changing, either the
reílector trough or the collector pipe (absorber) must be turn con-
tinuously about its long axis to maintain the required orientation. Both
schemes a r e used in aifferent practical-designs. Either the
trough/cylindrical reflector or the pipe is turned by partial rotation
around a single axis parallel to the trough length. Trough type collectors
are generally oriented in the east-west or north-south directions. For
the east-west orientation, the collectors are laid flat on (or parallel, to)
the ground. For the north-south orientation, however, the north end of
the trough is raised so that the collectors are sloped facing south-just like
flat-plate collectors. Ideally, the slope angle should be changed periodically;
it is simpler, but less efficient, however to use a fixed angle design.
The north-south orientation permits more solar energy to be
collected than the east-west arrangement, except around the winter
equinox. On the other hand, construction costs are higher for the
north-south (sloping) type. Moreover, a system of such collectors re
quires a larger land area to allow for the shadowing effect of the sloping
troughs. The increased separation distance between rows of collectors
also results in increased pipe line costs and greater pumping and
thermal losses. Finally the sun set position of an east-west reflector in
essentially the same as the sunrise position, and little or no evernight
adjustment is required. For the north-south orientation, however, the
trough (or receiver) must be turned through a large angle from aunaet
to sunrise. The choise of orientation in any
particular instance dependa
the foregoing and other
on
consideration
 Solar Energy Collectors 105

(6) Mirror-Strip Reflector. In another kind of focusing colleC

tor, a number of plane or slightly curved
(concave) mirror
mounted on a flat base. The angles of the individual mirrorsSp
are such
that they reflect solar
radiation from a specific direction
on to the santo
tocal line (Fig. 3.7.3). The angles of the mirrors must be adjusted

oesso ed Sun rays

e hee adla

aobbpe

Focus
e

Mirror L
strips
Fig. 3.7.3. Mirror-strip solar collector.
allow for changes in the sun's elevation, while the focal line (for collector
pipe) remains in a fixed position. Alternatively, as mentioned for
n
parabolic trough collectors, the mirror strips may be fixed and the
S
collector pipe moved continuously so as to remain on the focal line.
(c) Fresnel Lens Collector. In addition to the reflecting collec-
o, tors described above, a refraction type of focusing collectors has been
of developed. It utilizes thefocusingeffect ofa Fresnel lens, as represented
ke in cross-section in Fig. 3.7.4. For a trough-type collector, the lens is
Solar ra diation
edde xoitnibse naeloe e
be
o
ter
3o woll eo wwMMM
the wolio
re

ing Fresnel o e y wo
tors lens
and
or is
ight
the
inset be
ends Container Receiver Pipe
(Line focus)
Fig 37. Cross-seetion of Fresnel lens through collector
T06 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
made
width. It is
overall length and 0.95 m in in
4.7 in
rectangle, about m
and c a n probably
be produced
in sections from cost acrylic plastic s e r v e s only
as a
triangular trough
cost. The rounded
quantity at low concentrating the solar energ
container and plays n o role in continuouslyy
the Fresnel lens must be
To be fully effective,
both along and perpen
with the sun in two directions namely, in the
aligned orienting the troughs
dicular to its length. This is achieved by
about the length wise axis , in
north-south direction with rotation are raised to increase the slope
addition, the north ends of the troughs
the sun's elevation decreases (and vice versa).
The total solar radia
as is about 30 per cent greater
1on energy that c a n be collected annually
than for an east-west orientation.
Receiver pipe. The receiver pipe of a parabolic line focusing
collector, shown in cross-section in Fig. 3.7.5 has the same general
Heat transport
Pyrex fluid
jacket
Evacuated
Space

Absorber
surface-

Hollow
steel plug

Fig. 3.7.5. Cross-section of solar energy pipe receiver.

characteristics as a flat-plate collector. The solar radiation absorber is
central steel pipe with a treated surface. A selective absorber surface,
such as the black chrome referred to earlier, may be advantageous. AA
hollow steel plug within the absorber pipe restricts the flow of the
heat-transfer fluid to a narrow annular region. This results in a high
flow velocity of the fluid and consequently a high rate of heat transfer
from the absorber.
The absorber pipe is usually enclosed ina glass (Pyrex) jacket in
order to decrease thermal losses by convection and radiation. The space
between the pipe and the jacket is sometimes evacuated to reduce
convection losses. The diameter of the glass jacket may be about 5 cm
and that of the absorber pipe about 3 cm. The annulus between this

pipe and the plug may be as little as 2.5 mm wide.

In a Fresnel lens collector, the solar radiation is focused into the
absorber from the top, rather than'from the bottom as in the parabolic
A modified absorber desigm is then possible Fig, 3.7.6,
(reflection) type.
 Solar Energy Collectors 107

Glass Plate

Absorber
surface

Hollow plug
Heat transport
fluid

collector.
Fig. 3.7.6. Receiver for Fresnel lens
absorber pipe and a flat-plate
Insulation at the bottom and sides of the
over the top reduce thermal losses.
A stainless steel reflector adjacent
to the pipe (absorber or receiver) reflects
back emitted thermal
radiation.
(Paraboloidal Type). A
Point Focusing Collector
radiation to a focus at a point
paraboloidal dish collector brings solar
a small central volume. (Fig.
3.7.7). A dish 6.6 m in, diameter
actually
curved mirror segments forming a
has been made from about 200
located at the focus, is a cavity made
paraboloidal surface. The absorber,
black chrome selective coating. The
of a zirconium-copper alloy with a
of the absorber cavity through
heat-transport fluid flows into and out
dish can be turned automatically about
pipes bonded to the interior. The in a
so that the s u n is always kept
two axes (up-dowm and left-right)
of the paraboloidal dish. Thus,
line with the focus and the base (vertex)
all times.
the s u n can be fully tracked at essentially
ratio is the ratio of the
The concentration ratios (concentration
a r e a of the concentrator aperture
to the energy absorbing a r e a of the
a r e veryhigh
receiver, it determines the effectiveness of a concentrator),
in the case of parabolic system and therefore can be used where high
the con-
temperatures are required. In a cylindrical parabolic system,

Paraboloid
Absor ber dish
(focus)

Fig. 3.7.7. Point focus solar collector (Paraboloid).

 Non-Conventional
Sources of Ernergy
108
counter-parts.
In both the
ratio is lower than paraboloid the focal line
in
centration
focus i.e., along
the receiver is placed at the and at the
focus point
cases, or parabolic trough system
cylindrical parabolic
in paraboloidal system. would be
to 100 or higher
ratios of about 30 o r higher.
Concentration
in the range 300 to 500°C
temperatures have
needed to achieve concentration ratios necessarily
Collectors desigmed for such high
the s u n continuous
small angles of field of view
and hence need to track
such collector is :
ly. A broad classification of collector in the form of a parabolic through
() The linear focus
o r the o n e s employing
faceted mirror strips.
foci.
(Axicon) with aberrated
i) Spherical and conicàl mirror with
concentration ratios achievable
The physical upper limit to the
determined by theirfld ratios (focal
paraboloids and parabolic troughs is
and 100 respectively for the two
length/diameter) and a r e about 10,000
ratios achieved in practice are about to
of
cases. The concentration
of the reflector,
the above values because of surface irregularities
tracking errors etc.
such the paraboloidal mirror
(iii) Central receiver collector,
as

heliostat mirrors.
and the tower power plant using
reflector con-
A system equivalent to a very large paraboloidal
mirror distributed o v e r a n a r e a o n the
sists of a considerable number of
c a n be steered independently
ground. Each mirror, called a heliostat, solar radiation is always directed
about two a x e s so that the reflected
tower (Fig. 3.7.8). This type of
towards a n absorber mounted o n a
This is mostly used
collector is classified a s Central Receiver Collector.
of electrical energy.
in tower power plants for generation
Absorber(boiler) Sun rays

Heliostates
reflector
Fig. 3.7.8. Distributed heliostat point-focusing
(Central-Receiver).
 Collectors 109
Solar Energy

composed of many
In the typical central receiver, the mirror is
small mirrors ; each with its own heliostat to follow the sun. Tne
but when the
helhostats are generally located in the horizontal plane,terrain. The
basic

is favourable, c a n simply follow the existing

Situation concentrator and the
heliostat sys
a i t t e r e n c e between a single mirror
This m e a n s that
dilute mirror.
tem is that the heliostat system has a

surface within the system is

mirror surtace.
not covered with
entre
the diluteness is the fill factor. A central receiver

This generally termed a s a r e a is

covered by
40% that 40% of the land
with a fill factor of means

the mirrors.
as shown in figure many
In central receiver optical system dilute
a
mounted to act together like a

Small mirrors are separately central receiver is

associated with the
paraboloid. The basic problem non-linear drive rate in
two c o - o r -
heliostat mirrors require
that the
of keeping the reflected image point
dinates to achieve the requirement the
is the requirement that
Along with the problem
fixed receiver.
on a
to survive storms and operate successfully
heliostat be rugged enough
in a moderate wiud
concentrators mentioned above
Among all the steerable
utilization of the
have the highest efficiency in terms of the
paraboloids losses
steerable paraboloid Lnere a r e n o
reflector a r e a because in a fully of the
radiation losses a r e small because
due to aperature effects. Also a r e the most
absorber at the focus. Both then they
small a r e a of the area
to0. A practical size tor aperature
difficult to fabricate and operate be
to 20 kW of useful energy could
would be about 50 m fromn which 15
extracted by thermal conversion processes.

Concentrating Collectors: Non-Focusing Type. The

flat plate
asimplest type of concentrating collector is the mirror-boosted,
collector. It consists of a flat plate facing south with mirorrs attached

0f t o its north and south edges (Fig.

3.7.9). If the mirrors a r e set at the Mirror
proper angle, they reflect solar up.are
radiation on to the absorber plate.
Thus, the latter receives reflected
radiation in addition to that nor-
mally falling on it. The mirrors cut
off part of the scattered radiation
that would otherwise have reached
the absorber plate, and only part of Flot plate Mirr or
the scattered radiation falling on collector
the mirrors will be reflected onto
Fig. 3.7.9. Flat-plate collector
the absorber. Thus the concentra-
augmented with mirrors.
110 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
reaching
increase in direct radiation
tioneffect arisesmainly from the
the absorber plate.
combined in two or m o r e rows,
When a number of collectors a r e north-south
are, the r o w s must be set
further apart in the
as they often shading caused by the
mirroor
directions to allow for the additional sun
be effective, the
extensions.Furthermore, in order for the mirrors to
attitude changes.
should be adjusted continuously a s the sun's
angles
For these reasons, and they can provide only a relatively small increase
with
in the solar radiation falling on the absorber, flat-plate collectors
mirrors are not widely used.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC). The CPC (or
Winston Collector) is a trough-like arrangement oftwo facing parabolic
mirrors (Fig. 3.7.10). Unlike the
reflector
single parabolic trough
A described earlier, the
focusing, but solar
CPC is
non
radiation from
many directions is reflected toward
the bottom of the trough. Because of
Parabola this characteristic ;a large proportion
of the solar radiation, including dif
fuse (scattered) radiation, entering
the trough opening is collected (andd
concentrated) on a small area. In
Absorber Axis addition to collecting both direct and
diffuse radiations, an advantage of
Fig. 3.7.10. Compound parabolic the CPCis
that it provides moderately
concentrator. good concentration, although less
than a focussing collector, in an east-west direction without (or only
seasonal) adjustment for sun tracking.
It is possible to concentrate solar radiation by a factor of 10
without diurnal tracking, usiug this type of collector
CPC reflectors can be designed for any absorber shapes: For
example:
(a) Flat one sided absorber,
(6) Flat two sided absorbers (fin),
(c)Wedge-like absorbers, or
(d) Tubular absorbers.
For economic as well as for thermal reasons the fin and the
tubular type of absorbers are preferable. With a concentrie tubular
absorber with an evacuated jacket, temperatures of about 200°C are
achievable with Winston collectors. They are suitable for the tempera-
ture range of 100-150°C even if the absorber is not surrounded by a
vacuum. It is claimed that Winstoncollectors are capable of competitive
 Solar Ener Collectors 111

performance at high temperatures of about 300°C required for power

generation, if they are used with selectively coated, vacuum enclosta
The
receivers which decrease thermal losses from the collector.
aduantages of this new type are
() There is no need for tracking, as it has high acceptance
For concentration ratios
angle, only seasonal adjustments a r e required.
not be required.
of 3, even seasonal adjustments may
diffuse radiation is much larger
(ii) The efficiency for accepting
than conventional concentrators,
and
To value
concentration ratio is equal to the maximum
(ii) Its
angle.
possible for a given a ceptance
collector is also m o r e
linear paraboiic
The parabolic trough o r a collector. It has many
knowm as the cylindrical parabolic
commonly now available.
commercial versions which are,
maximum c o n
described so far, the
Out of all configurations
it is of the
ratios a r e available
with paraboloidal system,
centration
order of 10,000.
Concentrating Collec-
Disadvantages of
3.8. Advantages and Collectors
tors over Flat-Plate Type
concentrator systems
main advantages of
Advantages. The
collectors are
over flat-plate type
less material and a r e structurally
1. Reflecting surfacesrequired c o n c e n t r a t o r system the cost
collectors. For a
simpler than flat-plate less than
solar collecting surface is therefore potentially
unitarea of
per
collectors.
that for flat-plate
smaller than
of a concentrator system is
2. The absorber area
collection and therefore
s a m e solar energy
that of a flat-plate system for
is
the insolation intensity greater.
which heat is lost to the surroundings
3. Because of the a r e a from that for flat-plate
a r e a is less than
unit of the solar energy collecting is more c o n -
per insulation on the absorber
collector and because the in a c o n -
fluid c a n attain higher temperatures
centrated, the working
than in a flat-plate collector
of the s a m e solar energy
centratingsystem
collecting surface.
small of absorber per unit of solar energy
4. Owing to the area
v a c u u m insulation
selective surface treatment and/or
collecting area, collector efticiency are economically
to reduce heat losses and improve
feasible.
112 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

5. Focusing or concentrating systems be used for electric

can

power generation when not

used for heating or cooling. The total useful1
concentrator system
operating time per year can therefore be large for a
than for a flat-plate collector and the initial installation cost
of the
system can be regained by saving in energy in a shorter period of time.

6. Because the temperature attainable with concentrating col-

lector system is higher, the amount of heat which can be stored per unit
volume is larger and consequently the heat storage costs are less for
concentrator systems than for flat-plate collectors.
7. In solar heating and cooling applications, the higher tempera
makes
ture of the working fluid attainable with a concentrating system
to attain higher efficiencies, in the cooling cycle
and lower
itpossible
cost for air conditioning with concentrator systems than with flat-plate
collectors.
8. Little anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a
or no

concentrator system whereas the entire solar energy

collection surface

requiresanti-freeze protection in a flat-plate collector.

Disadvantages
1. Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only
collectors because
beam component is collected in case of focusing
diffuse component can not be reflected and is thus lost.
to have
2. In s o m e stationary reflecting systems it is necessary
a small absorber to track the sun image; in others the reflector may
round operation is
have to be adjustable m o r e than one position if year
desired; in other words costly orienting systems have to be used to track
the sunn.
to retain
3. Additional regquirements of maintenance particular
oxidation etc.
the quality of reflecting surface against dirt, weather,
4. Non-uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat-plate
collectors is uniform.
5. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the
factors in energy balances.
intercept loss, so they introduce additional
6. High initial cost.

Cylindrical Parabolic Con-

3.9. Performance Analysis of a

centrating Collector

Energy balances are used to describe the performance of focusing

collectors. Consider a parabolic
collector systems as done with flat-plate