NOTE

B I O L O G Y

BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules, Organic and inorganic components,
Metabolites, Carbohydrates (Monosaccharide,
Disaccharide)

Key takeaways

• Organic and inorganic components • Secondary metabolites

• Biomolecules • Carbohydrates
○ Micromolecules ○ Monosaccharides
○ Macromolecules ○ Disaccharides

Prerequisites

• All matter is made of elements and compounds.

• Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus are elements.

Origin of Life on Earth

• Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.

• Life is believed to have originated on Earth 3.5 billion years ago.

Different elements and compounds existed on early Earth

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved
 02

Events leading to the origin of life

1. Earth was covered by a primordial soup that consisted of many different elements and compounds.
2. S pontaneous interactions between the matter in the primordial soup led to the formation of a
few complex organic molecules like the following:
○ Amino acids

○ Sugars

○ Fatty acids

○ Nitrogen bases

3. These organic compounds, along with a few inorganic ones, spontaneously came together to
form the first living cells.

Components of Life

• All living organisms are composed of matter, made of elements and compounds.

Components of Life

Organic components Inorganic components

Components with carbon Components without carbon

containing compounds. containing compounds
Also known as Biomolecules.

How to identify organic components and inorganic components of life?

Experiment Time!

Experiment 1 - Ash Test

Test to identify the inorganic components

1. Fresh weight/wet weight of a leaf is measured. 2. Leaf is dried to remove all water.

H2O H2O
H2O

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 03

3. Dry weight of the leaf is measured 4. Dried leaf is completely burnt in a special
apparatus to oxidise all carbon compounds
to carbon dioxide and water

CO2 H2O

5. Ash left behind can be analysed to reveal the inorganic components (like calcium,
magnesium, etc.)

Component Formula
Sodium Na+
Potassium K+
Calcium Ca++
Magnesium Mg++
Water H2O
NaCl, CaCO3,
Compounds
PO4 3-, SO4 2-

Experiment 2

Test to identify the organic components

1. Washed leaves are taken. 2. Washed leaves are put in a mortar and pestle.

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 04

3. Trichloroacetic acid (Cl3CCOOH) is 4. It is ground to make a slurry.

added into it.

5. The slurry is filtered through a 6. Two fractions are left behind. The filtrate
cheesecloth or cotton. in the beaker (acid-soluble fraction)and
the retentate on the cheesecloth
(acid-insoluble fractions). These fractions
contain the biomolecules.

Biomolecules

• C
 arbon-containing compounds that form the basic chemical structure of all life forms are
biomolecules.

Biomolecules

Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic acids

• They form the chemical basis of life.

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 05

Biomolecules

Micromolecules or Macromolecules or
Biomolecules Biomacromolecules

• B iological molecules that • Biological molecules

are less than 1000 that are more than 1000
daltons daltons
• Found in the acid-soluble • Found in the acid-
fraction (from experiment insoluble fraction (from
2) experiment 2)
• From the cytoplasm of • From the cytoplasm and
cells the organelles of cells

• E
 xception: Lipids are smaller than 800 daltons and yet, are found in acid insoluble fraction
because lipids are insoluble in water and are separated out by TCA.

Metabolites

• M
 olecules that take part in metabolic reactions (any reaction taking place in a living organism)
are known as metabolites.

Metabolites

Primary metabolites or
Secondary metabolites
biomolecules

Metabolites that are not directly involved in the growth

Metabolites that are directly
and development of organisms.
involved in growth and
development of organisms. Abundant in plants, fungi, and algae. These molecules
have specific functions such as the following.
○ Defense

○ Stress responses

○ Attracting pollinators

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 06

Secondary metabolites

Pigments

 igments are natural colouring components

• P
present in animal and plant tissues (like fruits,
leaves, etc.).
Examples:
C
 arotenoid - They produce the bright yellow,
red, and orange colours as seen in carrots.  Pigments give different color
A
 nthocyanin - They produce red, purple, blue, to leaves
or black colour seen in blueberries.

Alkaloids

 lkaloids are organic nitrogen-containing

• A
compounds obtained from plants, which have
physiological effects (like antibacterial,
anti-inflammatory) on human beings.
Examples:
Morphine and codeine are pain-related medications.
They are obtained from opium (from poppy plants)
and act on the central nervous system. Poppy fruit

Terpenoids

 erpenoids are a large class of organic

•  T
compounds obtained from plants.
• They impart aromatic properties to the plant
parts.
Example:
Cinnamon, cloves, and ginger
Cinnamon sticks

Essential oils

 ssential oils are oils extracted from plants,

•  E
which are used in aromatherapy, perfumes,
soaps, incense sticks, flavouring agents, etc.
Example:
Lavender, peppermint, sandalwood, etc.

Toxins
Ricin toxin
 oxins are poisonous substances produced
• T
by living organisms that can adversely affect
body functions.
Example:
Ricin obtained from seeds of castor oil plant. Castor plant
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved
 07

Lectins

• Lectins are proteins that can recognise and

bind carbohydrates.
• These are used to identify cells that contain
specific carbohydrate molecules on their surface.
Example: Concanavalin A
 oncanavalin A isolated from jack bean Canavalia
C
species.

Drugs

• D rugs are the substances that can alter bodily

functions.
• They are used for therapeutic purposes to treat
Catharanthus roseus (source for
diseases.
vinblastine)
Example:
Vinblastine and curcumin

Polymeric substances Turmeric

• P olymeric substances are produced
by plants that protect plants from
fungal and bacterial attacks.
• They are used for tanning of leather,
dyes, etc.
Example:
Rubber latex and tree gums

Rubber latex Tree gums

Did you know?

 hicle or naseberry (Manilkara zapota) is a

• C
native tree of Central America and the West
Indies. The fruit is also known as the sapodilla.
• C
 hicle gum is extracted from the sap of the
trunk and is used in some natural chewing
gums even to this day.

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 08

Carbohydrates

• ‘Carbohydrates’ = Hydrates of carbon

• Compounds having carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1 : 2 : 1
• Carbohydrate general formula - Cn(H2O)n
Exceptions - Rhamnose, deoxyribose
• Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic compounds in nature.
• They are directly produced by plants (also by bacteria, algae, etc.) by the process of
photosynthesis.
• Carbohydrates form the major part of our diet.

Enantiomers

 nantiomers are two different forms of the same molecule that are mirror images of one another
• E
and cannot be superimposed together.
• They are represented as L and D for laevorotatory and dextrorotatory, respectively.
• Laevorotatory - Turns the plane-polarised light to the left or anticlockwise.
• Dextrorotatory - Turns the plane-polarised light to the right or clockwise.

Two Forms

H O H O
C C
HO C H H C OH

CH2OH CH2OH

L - Glyceraldehyde D - Glyceraldehyde

Classification of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

Consist of Consist of really

Consist of polymers
Consist of only 1 long polymers
polymers with 2 with 3 - 9
monomer with loads of
monosaccharides monosaccharides monosaccharides

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 09

Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides are the monomers or building blocks of carbohydrates.

• Mono = Single; Saccharide = Sugar
• They cannot be further hydrolysed* to smaller sugar units.

* = Hydrolysis (Breaking reaction)

A reaction in which a water molecule is added to a substance to split it into two

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

C O C O C O
H H H H H H
H H H
C C O C C C C
OH H OH H OH H
HO HO OH
C C C C OH C C
H OH H OH H OH

+ +
CH2OH
C O
H H
H2O H
C C
OH H
HO OH
C C
H OH

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 10

Classification of monosaccharides

Monosaccharides
(Based on number of C atoms)

Trioses Have 3 carbon atoms

Example: Glyceraldehyde

Have 4 carbon atoms

Tetroses
Example: Erythrose

Pentoses Have 5 carbon atoms.

They can exist in 2 forms

1 1
HC = O 5 HC = O 5
HOCH2 O OH HOCH2 O OH
2 2
H C OH H C H
3
H C 3 OH 4C C1 H C OH 4C C1
4 H H 4 H H
H C OH H C OH
H C
C H H C C H
CH2OH 3 2 CH2OH 3 2
5 5
OH OH OH H
Straight chain Closed ring Straight chain Closed ring
Ribose (-OH) on 2 Carbon
nd
Deoxyribose No (-OH) on 2nd Carbon

Have 6 carbon atoms.

They exist 2 forms - straight-chain
Hexoses
form and closed-ring form.
Example: Glucose

Straight chain Closed ring 6

O 1 H CH2OH
C
2 5C O
C OH The first and the fifth carbon H
H H
3 of a glucose molecule interact 4 1
HO C H H
together to form a ring. C C
4 OH H
H C OH Closed-ring form OH OH
H C5 OH 3C C2
CH2OH H OH
6 D-Glucose
D-Glucose (Right-handed sugar)
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved
 11

Disaccharides

• T wo monosaccharides joined with a glycosidic bond.

• Glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a covalent bond connecting many monosaccharides
together to form other carbohydrates.
• Di = Two, Saccharide = Sugar unit

Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide Disaccharide

Glucose + Fructose Sucrose

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O H CH2OH
C O C O O
H H H H H
H + C C H
C C H HO C OH C C C
OH H H H HO
O CH2OH
HO OH OH C CH2OH OH
C C C C C C C
+
H OH OH H H OH OH H
H2O

Glucose Fructose Disaccharide Sucrose

Formation of a glycosidic bond

Types of disaccharides

Disaccharides

Sucrose Maltose Lactose

• It is also known as ‘table • It is also known as ‘malt • It is also known as ‘milk
sugar’ or ‘cane sugar’. sugar’. sugar’.
• Sucrose is the sugar • Glucose + Glucose = • Glucose + Galactose =
that is generally used in Maltose Lactose
foods. • Reducing sugar • Reducing sugar
• Glucose + Fructose =
Sucrose
• Non-reducing sugar

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 12

Reducing Sugars

• Reducing sugars have a free aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone (C=O) group.

• Reducing sugars can act as reducing agents.
• All monosaccharides are reducing sugars.

Aldose Ketose
Monosaccharide with an aldehyde group Monosaccharide with a ketone group
(-CHO) is called aldose. (-C=O) is called ketose.

Aldehyde group CHO CH2OH

H C OH C O Keto group
HO C H
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
Glucose (C6H12O6)
Fructose (C6H12O6)

• All polysaccharides and sucrose are non-reducing.

Examples: Trehalose, raffinose, stachyose, verbascose, etc.

Experiment Time!

Benedict’s test

Test to check if carbohydrate is reducing or not

• B
 ased on the amount of reducing or non-reducing sugar present in the solution, the precipitate
colour varies from blue to red.

Non reducing
sugar Low High
Add an equal
amount of
Benedict’s solution

About 2 ml of test
solution Heat in water bath Traceable Moderate

Benedict’s Test for Reducing Sugar

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 13

Summary Sheet

Description Example
Inorganic Inorganic compounds - Do not Salts and metals
compounds mandatorily have carbon atoms
Experiment - Ash test

Organic Organic compounds - Carbon Proteins, monosaccharides,

compounds containing compounds covalently etc.
bonded with atoms like H and O.
Experiment - Grinding plant tissues
using TCA to separate biomolecules
in tissues.
Biomolecules Carbon containing compounds that Sugars, nucleic acids, fatty
form the basic chemical structure of acids, amino acids.
all life forms are biomolecules.
Classification of Biological molecules that are less Simple sugars, amino acids,
biomolecules than 1000 daltons that are found in etc.
the acid-soluble fraction.
Biological molecules that are more Complex carbohydrates,
than 1000 daltons that are found in proteins, lipids, etc.
the acid-insoluble fraction.
Metabolites Molecules involved in metabolic Primary metabolites - lipids
reaction directly (primary) and nucleic acids, carbohydrates,
indirectly (secondary) are known as etc.
metabolites. Secondary metabolites -
pigments, alkaloids, ter-
penoids, toxins, lectins,
drugs, etc.

Secondary Pigments - Natural-colouring Carotenoids, anthocyanin

metabolites compounds
Alkaloids - Organic nitrogen- Morphine, codeine
containing compounds
Terpenoids - Impart aromatic Found in cinnamon, ginger,
properties to plant etc.

Essential oils - Used in aromatherapy, Lavender, sandalwood, pep-

perfumes, etc. permint
Toxins - Poisonous substances Ricin from seeds of the castor
oil plant
Lectins - Can recognise and bind to Concanavalin A
carbohydrates

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

 14

Drugs - Can alter bodily functions Curcumin from turmeric, vin-

blastine from C. roseus
Polymeric substances - Produced Rubber latex and tree gums
by plants to protect themselves

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates
Classification based on number
of sugar molecules Based on number of carbon atoms
Number of
carbons Name Examples
Monosaccharides
3C Trioses Glyceraldehyde
Mono = single 4C Tetroses Erythrose
saccharides = sugar molecules 5C Pentoses Ribose
6C Hexoses Glucose
Disaccharides

Di = two Types of Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

saccharides = sugar molecules disacharides
Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Lactose Glucose + Galactose

Oligo = few
Oligosaccharides saccharides = sugar molecules

Poly = many
Polysaccharides
saccharides = sugar molecules

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved