Psychology Notes

Positive reinforcerment
 Positive reinforcement refers to the introduction of desirable or pleasant stimuli

after the performance of a behavior. This reward can be used to further
encourage that behavior, or change a pre-existing one.
There are 4 types of Positive reinforcerments
4)Token reinforcers are points or tokens awarded for performing certain actions. These can
then be exchanged for something of value. For example, a teacher may give a student points for
completing assignments on time, which can be exchanged for a prize (Kamery, 2004).
A classic use of positive reinforcement is in animal training and behavior.
Similarly, a person who tweets often and receives lots of replies and retweets is likely to
continue tweeting, as they are being reinforced for their behavior.
These schedules depend on context. For example, an adult looking for a promotion at
work may receive one annually, as long-term schedules tend to be effective foor adults.
Meanwhile, a fixed ratio schedule may be effective for training a dog once it
understands what behaviors are desirable.
Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed after a behavior

is displayed, in order to increase the chance of that behavior being repeated.
For example, a smoker may feel relief after having a cigarette, and so be more likely to
smoke again in order to experience that relief (Cherry, 2018).
In contrast, positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stimulus is added after a

behavior in order to increase its likelihood of being repeated.
Continuing with the above example, if a smoker was given a candy bar after smoking,
they would be more likely to repeat the behavoir in order to get the candy bar.
For example, recent research suggests that while positive reinforcement may be more effective
in the short-term, negative reinforcement may actually lead to longer-lasting behavior change.
One study on the use of positive reinforcement in the classroom shows that it can be used to
significantly improve students' behaviors and social skills, even after the reinforcer is removed.
Finally, learning accompanied by positive feelings and associations is more likely to be

remembered beyond the end of the reinforcement schedule.
Negative Reinforcement
 In negative reinforcement, first devised by B. F. Skinner, an undesirable stimulus is
removed to increase a behavior.
There are two types of negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance learning. Escape learning
occurs when an animal performs a behavior to end an aversive stimulus, while avoidance
learning involves performing a behavior to prevent the aversive stimulus.
The word "negative" in the phrase, "negative reinforcement" means simply to "take something
away. It is this removal of a stimulus that is intended to strengthen a desirable behavior.
Negative reinforcement occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant from
happening. For example, in one of Skinner’s experiments a rat had to press a lever to stop
receiving an electric shock. (For example, I run and try to be more active for stopping smoking.)
Difference between positive and negative reinforcement: For example, imagine that a
parent is trying to potty train their child. Every time they use the toilet, the parent
praises them and gives them a sticker.
This is an example of positive reinforcement because the parent is providing a desirable

consequence (praise and stickers) after the desired behavior (using the toilet) has
occurred, in order to increase its future occurrence.
Now imagine that instead of praising and rewarding your child every time they use the
toilet, the parent simply stops nagging them about it.
This is an example of negative reinforcement because you are removing an aversive

stimulus (nagging) after the desired behavior (using the toilet) has occurred, in order to
increase its future occurrence.
For example, if a student is trying to study for an exam but is easily distracted by social
media, using negative reinforcement (e.g., threatening to take away their phone if they
do not study) could be an effective way to get them to focus on their work (Dad, Ali,
Janjua, Shazad, & Khan, 2010).
However, if the aversive stimulus is not something that the learner cares about, then it is
unlikely to be effective. (like me)
SKINNER BOX

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Positive reinforcerment

 Positive reinforcement refers to the introduction of desirable or pleasant stimuli

There are 4 types of Positive reinforcerments

A classic use of positive reinforcement is in animal training and behavior.

Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed after a behavior

In contrast, positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stimulus is added after a

Finally, learning accompanied by positive feelings and associations is more likely to be

This is an example of positive reinforcement because the parent is providing a desirable

This is an example of negative reinforcement because you are removing an aversive

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