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Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century: Insights from

East Asia, North America, and Western Europe

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DOI: 10.1108/S1479-367920210000040009

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CHAPTER 9
EXPLORING LIBERAL ARTS
EDUCATION IN THE TWENTY-
FIRST CENTURY: INSIGHTS FROM
EAST ASIA, NORTH AMERICA,
AND WESTERN EUROPE
Leping Mou

ABSTRACT
Using literature and related documents, the study reviews and analyzes the
global trend of liberal arts education (LAE) resurgence and experimentation
in different societies across three continents, East Asia, North America, and
Western Europe. The study explores how LAE has been incorporated into dif-
ferent societies, how the variations in each model reflect local traditions and
values, and what these adaptations contribute to the new LAE model. Through
the angle of new institutional theory, the study focuses specifically on how these
local models are impacted by institutional factors, the constraint of market,
policy, state, as well as historical figures or organizations. This research with
document analysis of global LAE summarizes the innovation and insights to
date and calls for further research on LAE through new institutional theory
and ideal types. This study builds the foundation for further research exploring
the implementation and educational outcomes of LAE in different societies.
Keywords: Liberal arts education; general education; citizenship;
cultivation; ideal type; local models; institutional factors

Annual Review of Comparative and International Education 2020

International Perspectives on Education and Society, Volume 40, 127–147
Copyright © 2021 by Emerald Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 1479-3679/doi:10.1108/S1479-367920210000040009
127
128 LEPING MOU

INTRODUCTION
Academics and higher education administrators are increasingly concerned with
how best to prepare students for the social challenges and uncertainty of the
twenty-first century (Harari, 2018; McKay, 2016). The current COVID-19 pan-
demic and global rise in xenophobia and nationalism highlight a pressing need to
educate students as socially responsible citizens. Cooperation among individuals
and nations is crucial for coping with existing and emerging global challenges
(Harari, 2020). Administrators and scholars argue that university students need
more than skills (Wheelahan & Pietsch, 2020) and are advocating for the impor-
tance of a liberal arts education (LAE) for the twenty-first century (CBC Radio,
2020; Harari, 2018; Ono, 2019). Even among specialized higher education sys-
tems, it has been recognized that education should emphasize the values of criti-
cal thinking and civic engagement long argued to be the purpose and outcome of
LAE (Jiang, 2014; Jung, Nishimura, & Sasao, 2016; Nishimura & Sasao, 2018;
Nussbaum, 1998), alongside internationalization (Nishimura & Sasao, 2018) and
sustainable development (Mok, 2016, 2017).
LAE originated from notions of the examined life and reflective citizenship
prevalent in Greco-Roman philosophy (Nussbaum, 1998). In modern socie-
ties, LAE refers to education at the undergraduate level, focusing on cultivating
the whole person as a wise citizen with broad knowledge and a sense of civic
responsibility (AAC&U, 1998; Nussbaum, 1998). Critical thinking, civic engage-
ment, and intercultural competence are realized through an internationally rec-
ognized curriculum model characterized by small-class teaching, mentorship
and interaction between students and faculty members, residential experience,
extra-curricular and community-based activities (Godwin & Pickus, 2017; Jung
et al., 2016; Nishimura & Sasao, 2018). Drawing upon British and American
traditions of intellectual learning and democracy (Nelson, 2020; Shen, 2016),
LAE has become an approach to higher learning in many institutions worldwide.
This international upsurge is driven by competition for excellence in the global
economy and the need for versatile capabilities in the face of a challenging labor
market in the twenty-first century (Godwin, 2015; Jung et al., 2016; Kirby & Van
der Wende, 2016; Marber & Araya, 2017; Nishimura & Sasao, 2018; Purinton &
Skaggs, 2017).
In noting the resurgence of LAE globally (Boyle, 2019, 2020; Godwin, 2013;
Van Der Wende, 2014), researchers have tried to identify the driving force behind
the momentum. Some argue globalization and educational imperialism are the
primary forces (Altbach, 2003; Carnoy, 2006), others ascribe this to a global
race for excellence by the competition (Van Der Wende, 2014), or copying the
global model under the world culture influence (Boyle, 2020). While a global
scan of LAE programs reveals a consistent focus on global citizenship and an
effort to cultivate a person in an all-round way to prepare students for the future,
it also reveals a significant range in understanding, approach, and challenges
associated with LAE programs (Jung et al., 2016; Kirby & Van der Wende, 2016;
Nishimura & Sasao, 2018; Shi & Lu, 2016; Wang, 2015). By examining the trends
and variance of LAE in different countries, Boyle (2020) found the LAE features
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 129

are mostly influenced by factors of the founder’s passion, founding source, fac-
ulty network, stakeholder-driven adaption, and university alliance. She argues
that LAE experimentations and local models worldwide are using the United
States as a reference, noting specific features of LAE are visible in East Asia,
North America, and West Europe. Relying on complexity theory, she maintains
that uneven expansion and variability in approach go beyond copying a global
model and institutional variation and argues that further examination is needed
to reveal the process and substance of the innovations in these local cases (Boyle,
2019).
While previous literature and research on LAE around the globe examined
local features and implementation challenges, Boyle’s research highlights the
need for a deeper understanding of how these LAE experimentations and models
adapt to the local context and each unique cultural tradition. Building upon the
literature and related documents from LAE institutions, my research explores
how LAE has been incorporated into different societies, how the variations in
each model reflect local traditions and values and what these adaptations con-
tribute to the new LAE model. Using new institutional theory, I focus specifically
on how these local models are impacted by institutional factors, the constraint
of market, policy, state, as well as historical figures or organizations (Meyer &
Rowan, 2012).

LAE AND ITS UPSURGE AROUND THE GLOBE

LAE. LAE stems from both the Greek philosophy of examined life and the
Roman oratorical tradition (Kimball, 1986). The Greek philosophical tradition
is from Plato and Socrates and emphasizes free citizenship and critical thinking.
It is grounded in skeptical reasoning. The aim of liberal education is a reaction
against the way of educating people by passing on traditional practices and val-
ues. A well-educated person is free to exercise their thought and to live an exam-
ined life. The understanding of liberal education from the Harvard Report (1946),
Nussbaum (1998), and the AAC&U (1998) is close to this definition. There is also
an origin for liberal education in the Roman oratorical tradition of artes liberals
(meaning “arts of the free”), to train good citizens, virtuous and competent to
lead the society. The aim of liberal education is to inform students of the virtues
with the prescription of values and standards for character and conduct, rather
than teaching students to search for them (Kimball, 1986). An important mod-
ern work talking about liberal education is The Idea of A University, written by
British Scholar John Henry Newman in the nineteenth century (Newman, 1982).
Newman’s liberal education follows this Roman oratorical tradition. He argues
that the university’s mission is undergraduate liberal education, which is devoted
to knowledge for its own sake and character formation, not for a job or profes-
sional preparation (Newman, 1982). Its practical end is training good members
of society. He maintained that Christian theology belongs to universal knowledge
and is superior to other knowledge, claiming the centrality of religious truth in
130 LEPING MOU

liberal education. The purpose of liberal education in Newman’s Catholic univer-

sity is to cultivate Christian gentlemen (Fallis, 2011).
In modern societies, LAE refers to “a higher education that is a cultivation
of the whole human being for the functions of citizenship and life generally”
(Nussbaum, 1998, p. 9). It aims to free a person from the constraints of igno-
rance, sectarianism, and myopia to become a wise citizen with social respon-
sibility and to pursue a fruitful life (AAC&U, 1998; Nussbaum, 1998). LAE
was developed in traditional British institutions then adapted in the North
American context (Jiang, 2014). It’s American re-invention focused on capital-
ist democracy and appeared largely in modern research universities (Nelson,
2020). Turning away from its aristocratic British roots, LAE in America became
more democratic with a focus on broader knowledge and interdisciplinary
learning which aimed to train free citizens to meet the demands of civil society
(Shen, 2016).
LAE, General Education, Whole-Person Education. Many scholars use LAE,
general education, and whole-person education interchangeably in their research
(Jiang, 2014; Jung et al., 2016; Kirby & Van der Wende, 2016; Nussbaum, 1998).
Broadly, the three terms refer to the same form of higher education in opposi-
tion to professional and vocational training. However, they have their respective
origins, definitions, and scope. I define and differentiate the three terms below for
clarification.
The concept of LAE originated from an ancient slave-owning society in which
the freemen or ruling class who were concerned with rights and duties of citi-
zenship received liberal education and training seven arts, while the slaves were
trained in vocational and professional education and did menial work (Harvard
Committee, 1946). The seven arts that were appropriate for a free man included
the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the quadrivium (geometry,
arithmetic, music, and astronomy) (Jiang, 2014; Roche, 2010). In modern soci-
ety, it refers to the cultivation of a whole person with general knowledge before
moving onto professional education (Nussbaum, 1998). General education or
general learning is first mentioned in the Yale Report (Yale College, 1828) and
then promoted in the classic book General Education in A Free Society (Harvard
Committee, 1946). General education is more appropriate for referring to the edu-
cation accessible to all the citizens in a democratic society (Harvard Committee,
1946). General education focuses on three primary areas of study (humanities,
natural sciences, and social sciences) with broad learning purposes. Although the
concept of a whole person is often mentioned in the definition or purpose of
LAE and general education, whole-person education, more often used in the East
Asian context (Taiwan and Hong Kong) refers to educating a person holistically
for all-around development.
Based on the understanding, as mentioned earlier, I distinguish the three terms
in this research. In the sense of the person’s overall development, I treat the three
names as synonyms, which could be used interchangeably. In the aspect of models
and values, I argue that LAE has a broad scope and a deep value in cultivating a
free citizen. LAE includes the model of curriculum, residential system, on-class
teaching format, and faculty–student relationship (AAC&U, 2014), while general
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 131

education in some Asian contexts only refers to the curriculum per se. In this
sense, general education falls under the scope of LAE. Whole-person education,
regarding goals and value, has the same purpose as LAE. As for the other aspects,
while LAE has a democratic meaning, whole-person education usually refers to
the concept of an overall-developed whole person in the Confucian or Christian
tradition.
Research and Organizations of LAE Around the globe. Recently, there has been
an increase of LAE programs in 58 countries outside the United States, and there
is a stronger presence of LAE in Asia (K. A. Godwin, 2015). Godwin (2013)
examined the worldwide resurgence and established an inventory recognizing
over 200 liberal education programs in 58 countries outside the United States
(Godwin, 2018). She suggests that liberal education, as a higher education phi-
losophy, could reinforce and resist neoliberal practices (Godwin, 2015). A cross
country case study shows that LAE colleges follow a similar model of the general
education core curriculum, including multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary and
high-impact approaches to cultivate the core values of LAE (Jung, Sanderson,
& Fajardo, 2019). Despite these similarities, programs outside the United States
have their own distinct regional features. For example, the whole-person perspec-
tive, reflective of Confucian traditions, is largely more evident in East Asian socie-
ties (Yang, 2016), though some scholars argue that there can be some challenges
from ideology and tradition in local contexts (Chai, 2016; Jiang, 2014; Postiglione,
2016). Similarly, researchers explored LAE’s adaptation and implementation in
the European context, such as in the Netherlands (Bog & van der Wende, 2016;
de Waard, 2019), UK (Gombrich, 2016), and Germany (Eschenbruch, Gehrke, &
Sterzel, 2016), which largely demonstrate a highly interdisciplinary model.
Besides research, there are global and local organizations and consortiums to
promote LAE or whole-person education. Global level alliance, Global Liberal
Arts Alliance (GLAA, 2020; Jung et al., 2016), regional level alliance, and the
Alliance of Asian Liberal Arts Universities (AALAU, 2019), each work to advo-
cate, facilitate, and promote research, communication, and teaching among their
member LAE colleges and universities. Additionally, there are other organiza-
tions, which are not specifically LAE oriented, but operate with a mission to
promote a whole-person focus, such as the United Board for Christian Higher
Education in Asia (UBCHEA) and Council for Christian Colleges & Universities
(CCCU). UBCHEA funded the former 13 Christian universities in mainland
China before they were closed in the 1950s, now it turns to promote whole-person
education in Asian countries (Wong, 2019). CCCU is an American organization
supporting the education and communication of colleges with Christian higher
education (CCCU, 2016). The member colleges and universities have their edu-
cation with a whole-person focus on the development of the mind, spirit, body,
and emotions, not just for knowledge but wisdom. In West Europe, the European
Liberal Arts Initiative (ELAI) (Dirksen, Kontowski, & Kretz, 2017) is built by
scholars focusing on LAE, promoting research and improving the standing of
liberal arts in Europe. European Liberal Arts Network (ELAN) supports the
mobility of students and scholars in the field of Arts and Humanities among its
member institutions to disseminate the ideals of an LAE (ELAN, 2020). Notably,
132 LEPING MOU

Maastricht University in the Netherlands offers fully funded 4-year PhD posi-
tions on a topic related to LAE in Europe under the supervision of Prof Teun J.
Dekker, who is conducting theoretical and philosophical research concerning the
nature of LAE in the European context (ELAI, 2019).
The abundance of research and practice on LAE around the globe reflects
the importance and urgency of research on this topic. Cheng (2017) and Yang
(2016) suggest LAE reforms need to consider connections to the humanistic
approaches of the Confucian. Moreover, Zha (2019) proposes that LAE in con-
temporary society should consider significant social changes, both domestic and
international, in addition to its focus on critical thinking and innovation. Further
research is necessary to examine the variation and relationship with local cultural
and social features. To fill the gap, this study looks at the literature and documents
of international LAE to explore how it reflects the societal goals of an ideal citi-
zen and how local tradition and values of whole-person cultivation, institutional
and historical factors are integrated into local models.

THEORY AND METHOD

I utilize New Institutional Theory (NIT) as the theoretical framework for this study.
NIT argues that organizational practices and structures often reflect a response to
rules, beliefs, and conventions from the broader environment because organizations
themselves are deeply embedded in social and political milieus (Powell, 2007). As
socially constructed organizations, universities and colleges are deeply involved in
the changing ties among the polity, the economy, and civil society (Meyer & Rowan,
2012). The practices and structures reflect technical demands and resource dependen-
cies and are also shaped by the decision-making of individual stakeholders as well as
the values of historical actors who built the institution. Through this lens, I exam-
ine how the adaptation and innovation of LAE in various universities go beyond
structural isomorphism and loose coupling and how their LAE models reflect the
decision-making of administrators, historical factors and cultural traditions amid
the constraints of government policy, the economy, and the global trend for research
capacity. By carrying out comparative analysis among different types of universities
around the globe, I further explore the variation in LAE models and implementation,
analyze how they draw from their local traditions, cope with the challenges from their
own contexts, and develop innovative strategies for cultivating global citizens.
The institutionalist framework helps explain how the implementation of LAE
in these institutions is influenced by institutional structure, education system,
market forces, global ranking (Douglass, 2016), and social and political traditions
such as the hierarchical political culture in Chinese societies (Yang, 2020). I will
further examine how the work of missionaries from North America (Hayhoe &
Lu, 2010; Lutz, 1971) and organizations such as the UBCHEA played an impor-
tant role in bringing the LAE tradition into the Asian context and how they now
work to promote and advocate the education for a whole-person focus in contem-
porary society (United Board, n.d.; Wong, 2019).
Ideal Types. In Boyle’s research, she used ideal types to classify the different
models and types of LAE on three continents (Boyle, 2020). She identified North
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 133

America as democratic and inclusive, Europe as seeking goals of excellence and

tradition, and East Asia as utilitarian and international. However, even Boyle
believes the classification is over simplified. While she concludes by discussing the
convergence and suggests that the diffusion of LAE “provides a useful opportu-
nity to study the interplay between the global and local and to examine the loose
coupling” (P211), I want to highlight the differences and the insights from differ-
ent cultures and traditions.
The ideal type is often used as a methodological tool for analysis in social
science (Hayhoe, 2007; Holmes, 1981). As education in every society aims to cul-
tivate its ideal citizens (Cummings, 1999), the ideal type will be used to construct
the model of a citizen or global citizen in each context, considering subtle com-
parisons among educational philosophical and spiritual traditions. An ideal citi-
zen would involve mental abilities, emotional capacity, social capacity (ability to
interact and collaborate with others), a moral dimension and possibly a spiritual
dimension. Using ideal types should make the synthesis of core cases of LAE in
different societies possible, clarifying both what they have in common and how
they differ. Under this approach, I examine how institutions adopt and imple-
ment their LAE models to nurture a whole person or ideal citizen in different
societies under their traditions. It will take into account the context of the various
historical influences on each education system. Specifically, I will examine how
the whole-person perspective on education from Confucianism (De Bary, 2014;
Tu, 1993), other religions and Christian whole-person perspectives (Y. Ng, Kwan,
& Ip, 2017), are integrated into LAE models cultivating capabilities for all-round
persons (Nussbaum, 2001; Sen, 1993; Walker & Unterhalter, 2007). While Boyle
emphasizes the US influence as a reference society, I would like to shift the power
dynamics, that is, seeing through the other civilization and tradition, and see how
their models can contribute to the global innovation of the LAE model.
Document Analysis and Secondary Literature. This is a qualitative study that
explores how the historical, cultural, and political factors influence the mission
and goals of LAE in the three continents (East Asian, North America, and
Western Europe) by examining second-hand literature and doing document
analysis. I use previous literature on this topic and documents from institutions
and organizations as the data source for this paper. Drawing from other scholars’
arguments, and analyzing the mission and goals, I examine how LAE models in
the three contexts vary from the global models and what are their specific char-
acteristics in each context relating to local culture, social context, and historical
tradition.

LAE EXPERIMENTS ACROSS CONTINENTS:

INNOVATION, CHALLENGES, AND SUGGESTIONS
This section examines the case studies and discussions of LAE models and pro-
grams in East Asia, North America, and Western Europe. By comparing their
practices, innovation, and challenges, insights and suggestions are drawn from
134 LEPING MOU

their specific practice for the global model in the next section. The comparison is
shown in Table 1.
East Asia. In the early twentieth century in China, there were 13 Christian uni-
versities founded by North American missionaries, which followed the American
LAE model and played an important role in the development of modern higher
education (Hayhoe & Lu, 2010; Lutz, 1971; Zhang & Waldron, 1991). These uni-
versities existed until the 1950s when higher education in mainland China turned
to follow the Soviet model with a focus on specialized education (Hayhoe, 2001).
Their LAE curriculum was adapted into the Chinese context at that time with
local traditions and values added in, such as the inclusion of Chinese classics,
local feature programs, a balance between professional and general education
courses, and adding ethics courses of local culture and values after the seculari-
zation of reducing religious elements (Mou, 2020). In South Korea, LAE can
be traced back to Christian missionary work from North America. Several uni-
versities have Christian traditions. For example, Yonsei University and Ehwa
Woman’s University were founded by American Presbyterian and Methodist
missionaries as liberal arts colleges in the late nineteenth century (Ka, 2016).
Taiwan’s LAE started with the founding of Tunghai University (Huang, 2016).
After the closedown of the Christian universities in mainland China in the 1950s,
the funding agency, UBCHEA, established Tunghai University in Taiwan in 1955
to inherit the grand tradition of the 13 Christian universities in mainland China
and promote LAE (Tunghai University, 2018b). In 1953, International Christian
University (ICU) was founded in Japan, with the help of American Missionaries
(Nishimura, 2016). The idea of establishing ICU had been nourished by the wishes
and prayers of those seeking to transform Japan into a country open to the world,
seeking to nurture individuals who can contribute actively to a peaceful future

Table 1.  LAE Experiments Across Continents: East Asia, North America,
Western Europe.
East Asia North America Western Europe

LAE history & LAE in Christian Early LAE colleges LAE origin from Greco-
tradition universities in early and foundation of Roman tradition;
twentieth century American education re-emerging in current
society
Current LAE colleges; General Both in LAE colleges University college;
implementation education program and comprehensive undergrad programs
& residential college universities;
in comprehensive innovation programs
universities
Challenges Specialized education Outdated; seeking Practically oriented focus;
system; influence of new version in mass specialized education
pragmatism higher education era system
Feature & Whole-person focus; Focus on global Interdisciplinary study
suggestions Consider local citizenship, & twenty-first century
tradition and values intercultural capabilities; consider
competence, and citizenship and
inclusivity democracy
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 135

for humankind. Later, Lingnan University was re-established in Hong Kong fol-
lowing the tradition of a former Christian university – Lingnan University in
Guangzhou in mainland China and has developed as the only LAE university in
HK (Lingnan University, 2019). All these LAE institutions have ties to Christian
LAE from the United States.
Amid the specialized education system in East Asia, LAE has been imple-
mented in small colleges and separate units dedicated to the liberal arts and
general education programs in comprehensive universities. The small colleges or
universities are doing LAE through the form of general education curriculum,
residential college, and campus learning experience. For example, in China, a suc-
cessful model has been implemented in a small-scale private college named United
International College (UIC), built under the collaboration between Hong Kong
Baptist University and Beijing Normal University (C.-F. Ng, 2016). UIC inte-
grates the Eastern and Western philosophy and implements its LAE with Chinese
characteristics. On the one hand, the LAE at UIC follows the modes of US lib-
eral arts college, including caring for students, small-class sizes, broad-based cur-
ricula, facilitating cross-fertilization of ideas. On the other hand, UIC strongly
emphasizes Chinese traditional culture, literature, history and Chinese thoughts
through the ages, in addition to helping students acquire an international out-
look. In particular, it has its overarching education goal based on the Confucius
education philosophy, which is to nurture the whole person – Junzi (君子). In
Hong Kong, Lingnan University is striving for a new transformative LAE model
that adapts the LAE to current society. Its curriculum includes three broad areas,
arts, business, and social science. It emphasizes close faculty and student relation-
ship and promotes a residential learning experience for service spirit (Chai, 2016).
In Japan, LAE could be found in postwar Japan with strong American support
and influence (Etzrodt, Hrebenar, Lacktorin, & Nilson, 2016). ICU is a small-
scale private university founded with the collaboration of Japanese and American
churches in 1953 (Nishimura, 2016). ICU has been promoting LAE for half a
century with its distinctive feature of transforming students’ lives. In addition
to its curriculum, student residence, and educational goals, ICU uses the whole
campus as a learning environment for students’ overall development. It also has
English programs for the purpose of internationalization. Miyazaki International
College is another small-scale LAE college in Japan (Thompson & Jung et al.,
2016). Its LAE has an emphasis on English programs and international studies.
In Taiwan, Tunghai University features its student labor program, which aims
at fostering volunteerism and social responsibility and its comprehensive, inte-
grated education environment, which aims at developing well-round characters
by combing general and professional knowledge in the curriculum (Tunghai
University, 2018a).
In comparison with small-scale LAE institutions, the comprehensive research
universities usually implement LAE in the form of a general education curricu-
lum and or pilot zone, which is an experiment to a small cohort of students. In
mainland China, it was not until the 1990s that China began to advocate cul-
tural quality education (which has the same meaning as LAE) to correct the over-
emphasis on professional training (Jiang, 2014; Shi & Lu, 2016; Yang, 2016).
136 LEPING MOU

Cultural quality education was promoted first in a few elite universities and then
in over 100 universities in China (Shi & Lu, 2016). In several research universities,
LAE started with general curriculum reform and the pilot zone of a residential
college, such as in Tinghua, Fudan, and Peking (Shi & Lu, 2016). Cao (2016)
examined the implementation of general education at Tsinghua University, a
multi-disciplinary research university. Despite the influence of the American
practice of a liberal arts college, the Xinya College within Tsinghua is adapting
LAE with a critical eye and a keen awareness of its cultural roots and educational
tradition into Chinese culture and society. A study of LAE at Fudan University
in Shanghai discussed its reform in the broadened curriculum in six areas and
first-year students’ residential college (Chai, 2016). In Taiwan, comprehensive
public universities, such as Tsing Hua University in Hsin Chu and National
Taiwan University (NTU), also developed general education or LAE (Huang,
2016). Huang (2016) examined the general education promotion in NTU in 2006
through a special budget policy, rewarding best practice, and organizing promo-
tional events.
The current reform or experimentation of LAE in East Asia comes from the
pressure of competing for economic success with a highly qualified labor force
(Van Der Wende, 2014). The general education reform in mainland China started
in the 1990s with an aim of combating the shortcomings of specialized education
(Jiang, 2014). Shi and Lu (2016) found that the general education curriculum at
many universities in China is problematic because it is simply a mixture of elec-
tive courses from different departments without a systematic design which only
adds an extra burden to students. These courses suffer from a lack of qualified
instructors, which makes LAE perfunctory. Jiang (2014) found that both moral
reasoning and spirituality in the three universities he studied in Shanghai were
neglected and needed to be given attention. On a deeper level, the challenges are
rooted in the constraints of policy and pursuit of research excellence. In Taiwan,
the challenges of implementation in NTU are a limited number of liberal arts
courses and the influence of pragmatism and utilitarianism in academic culture.
In Hong Kong, LAE programs are criticized for being too theoretical rather than
practical and hard to meet students’ needs who are practical and professional-ori-
ented in Lingnan (Chai, 2016). The current implementation is highly influenced
by society’s practical orientation and its focus on economic success in the age of
globalization. Also, under Western hegemony (Altbach, 2003; Carnoy, 2006), the
LAE is designed to follow the US model, and many programs emphasize English
programs for the purpose of internationalization. The implementation of LAE
into East Asian contexts by copying the Western model reflects a lack of under-
standing of the core values of liberal arts (Yang, 2016). There is still a long way to
go in a society where the short-term economic return is considered more valuable
than long-term whole-person development.
LAE in East Asia needs to consider the local culture heritage (Cao, 2016; Kara
A. Godwin & Pickus, 2017; Yang, 2016). Shi and Lu (2016) suggest avoiding
conformism, encouraging innovation, and maintaining diversity. They propose
three models of implementation: empiricism, idealism, and pilot zone (some trial
experimentation with a small group of students). Considering the tradition and
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 137

social context, an indigenous model different from the Western one would be the
right approach for East Asian countries (Postiglione, 2016).
North America. The United States has been regarded as the home of LAE col-
leges, and LAE serves as the foundation of American education (K. A. Godwin &
Altbach, 2016; Jiang, 2014). Despite the decline of LAE in recent decades (Logan
& Curry, 2015), studies argue for the innovation of LAE and seeking a new direc-
tion in the twenty-first century (Chopp, Frost, & Weiss, 2016). Chopp, Chancellor
of the University of Denver and former President of Swarthmore College, identi-
fied the basic principles of LAE as critical inquiry, moral and civic character, and
knowledge to improve the world (Chopp, 2014). The Association of American
Colleges & Universities (AACU) stated the core values of LAE for the twenty-
first century lie in cultivating students with broad knowledge, versatile skills, and
social responsibility to face complexity, diversity, and change (Association of
American Colleges & Universities, 2014). Godwin and Altbach (2016) summarize
the main components of LAE as interdisciplinarity, broad learning literacy skills,
global citizenship, and social responsibility.
Besides the theoretical exploration of LAE, there are several specific studies
on LAE in American society praising the strong capabilities of its graduates in
the workplace. Anders (2017) discusses the value of a humanities based education
noting that it equips employees by cultivating curiosity, creativity, and empathy.
Similarly, Stross’ qualitative study (2018) examines the employment experience
and work trajectories of graduates from the liberal arts program at Stanford
University arguing that critical thinking, transferable skills, and lifelong learn-
ing capability are advantageous in the workplace. Most recently, the University
of Virginia’s College of Arts & Sciences adopted a New College Curriculum,
which enables the communication and collaboration of faculty members across
disciplines for designing a liberal arts and sciences education for the twenty-first
century (Carfagno, 2019). A newly proposed model of LAE at Stanford is exam-
ined by Zha (2017). In this new model, students are expected to couple their dis-
ciplinary pursuit with the purpose of learning, with the help of a teaching hub
for core competencies such as scientific analysis, quantitative reasoning, social
inquiry, moral and ethical reasoning, esthetic interpretation, creative confidence,
and communication effectiveness, etc. (Zha, 2017). Also, several specific case
studies are exploring new reforms in liberal arts colleges. For example, Pomona
College has shifted toward global education, deeper learning, and the use of tech-
nology as an innovation (Grigsby, 2016). Swanson and Chavis (2019) examine the
impact of the dialogue-based program for intercultural communicative compe-
tencies at Hope College. In the case of Landmark College, Major (2019) found
the focus on universal design for learning, its open and inclusive pedagogies, and
its embrace of multiple learning styles all contribute to the new efforts in the
realms of diversity and identity.
Canada features a public system of postsecondary education with an egalitar-
ian focus (Zha, 2013). In Canada, educational reforms advocate for inclusivity,
equity, and excellence. Emberley and Newell argued that the aims of education
lie in the “nourishing and forming a human being who will take his or her place
among the responsibilities and possibilities, the freedoms and risks, of the world”
138 LEPING MOU

(Emberley & Newell, 1994, p. 3), which has been undermined by current education
reforms. They argue that the teaching and educational aims from the forefathers of
Canadian education, McCulloch, Ryerson, and Young, made a good balance of
“individual needs with social responsibilities, common sense with moral principle, and
freedom with future” (p. 166). However, these teachings and curriculum focus have
been lost and need to be revisited. Otherwise, missing the foundations of liberal educa-
tion will lead to bankrupt education (Emberley & Newell, 1994). Livingstone agrees,
suggesting that current liberal education is often reduced to the pursuit of transfer-
able skills, without touching upon the core values in cultivating the powers of mind
and body with discipline (Livingstone, 2015). He argued further that current reform
is facing challenges from democratic and materialistic purposes. To discuss the future
and innovation of LAE in Canada, a conference was hosted by Universities Canada
in 2016 (McKay, 2016). This conference emphasized the adaptability of skills and citi-
zenry and human rights cultivation through the study of humanity and arts subjects,
such as literature, arts, history, and philosophy (McKay, 2016).
Unlike the United States and Canada, Mexico has no liberal or general educa-
tion tradition in its higher education (de Vries & Romero, 2012). Though some
institutions have undertaken initiatives to provide general education courses and
extra-curricular activities for cultivating well-developed citizens, its education
system mainly focuses on vocational relevance or the need for postgraduate stud-
ies in research universities. Hence, de Vries and Romero (2012) doubt that there
will be a trend toward a LAE in the undergraduate study despite the current inef-
ficiency of specialized, rigid, professionally oriented programs.
In the United States and Canada, LAE programs have mostly become a series
of points for students to check without a significant amount of intellectual coher-
ence or meaning (Carfagno, 2019). Thus, it is regarded as outdated, elite, and in
need of reform. The liberal arts colleges in the United States are now facing chal-
lenges in the age of mass higher education and twenty-first-century developments
(Chopp et al., 2016). Current research on LAE innovation and experimentation
focuses on global citizenship, intercultural competence, and inclusivity, besides
the emphasis of twenty-first-century skills.
Western Europe. In Western Europe, LAE experimentation has been explored
through both theoretical investigation and case studies. The twenty-first cen-
tury requires graduates to be broadly educated, global citizens, both literate
and numerate. The utilitarian rationales of the knowledge economy are related
to the inherent humanistic values of LAE. As such, in Europe, the globaliza-
tion and the innovative character of the knowledge economy are leading to a
revival and revaluing of the liberal arts and sciences tradition. Since the LAE
is in the stage of re-emerging popularity, strong advocacy is required by and
within the European higher education community to deepen the understanding
of the liberal arts model of education to truly benefit from its potential for the
twenty-first century (Van der Wende, 2017). From the lens of sustainability, it is
argued that LAE has an advantage due to its comprehensive view and emphasis
on self-knowledge (Tubbs, 2018). Similarly, the value of a liberal arts and sciences
education is noted as excellent preparation for a large and growing number of
jobs (Gombrich, 2016). Specific case studies of LAE in Amsterdam University
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 139

College (AUC) (Bog & van der Wende, 2016; de Waard, 2019), the University of
Freiburg (Eschenbruch et al., 2016), and in the UK (Gombrich, 2016) shed light
on the importance of preparing students for twenty-first century skills.
de Waard (2019) examined the theme-based model for interdisciplinary educa-
tion that underpins the curriculum at AUC, with six themes including (1) Energy,
Climate, and Sustainability; (2) Life, Evolution, and Universe; (3) Health and
Well-being; (4) Information, Communication, and Cognition; (5) Social Systems;
and (6) Cities and Cultures. This model can hone students’ interdisciplinary skills
through a critical and participatory pedagogy that promotes cross-disciplinary
dialogue and interaction and reflective awareness of disciplinary boundaries and
predilections. From a similar perspective, Bog and van der Wende (2016) maintain
that AUC has a commitment to excellence, diversity, and the global perspective in
its LAE model, through an international curriculum, which includes communica-
tion and language, information and communication technologies, and offers all
students ample opportunities to focus on science and science-related majors and
develop strong analytical and quantitative skills.
In Germany, a study has drawn from these observations and reflections to create
and implement a novel new interdisciplinary undergraduate curriculum at University
College Freiburg (UCF) (Eschenbruch et al., 2016). This same study proposes five
fundamental perspectives that are particularly relevant for an emerging European
model of a liberal education: student autonomy and independence; an interdiscipli-
nary and epistemological outlook; an early research orientation; the curricular inte-
gration of skills training; and an internationally oriented, multilingual mission within
a larger university. It argues that the LAE model’s focus today shares the same core
value with the ancient Greco-Roman philosophy, because its focus on educating inde-
pendent and responsible young people who can work and act in interdisciplinary and
intercultural contexts is just as innovative and necessary training grounds as the “arts
of the free” in ancient Greece. In the UK, by using the examples of University College
London Arts and Sciences student profiles and examining experiences of graduate
recruitment, Gombrich (2016) sees the values of LAE in today’s higher education sys-
tem and argues that a re-emergence of polymathy1 and generalism2 are both valued
educational ambitions and central to the future of work.
The studies of LAE in Europe demonstrate that its tradition of aristocracy
has been discarded in favor of new models aiming at cultivating talents for the
twenty-first century. The focus and aims are more practically oriented, emphasiz-
ing science and skills which are needed for the job market in current societies. The
models have a common emphasis on interdisciplinary study. As a recent phenom-
enon, the LAE in Europe has only been explored by a few universities and the
re-emergence is influenced by the American style.

DISCUSSION
Competing for Global Excellence with Twenty-first Century Skills. The global
resurgence is highly impacted by the current trend of seeking to strengthen eco-
nomic competitiveness (Van Der Wende, 2014). This motivation toward LAE can
140 LEPING MOU

be found in many countries, especially in East Asia and West Europe, who believe
it will cultivate a high-quality labor force and result in economic growth and sta-
bility. This is the case in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Japan, or Taiwan.
Also, in European institutions, such as AUC and UCL, the aim of its LAE has
a focus on striving for global excellence. To meet the technological advancement
of the twenty-first century, striving for excellence in LAE is realized through the
interdisciplinary curriculum and emphasis on science subjects. Viewed from the
lens of NIT, universities are trying to fulfill their role of producing qualified tal-
ents under this global trend for economic competitiveness. As such, their LAE
experience and reform are mainly oriented toward this practical goal.
Civic Responsibility and Global Citizenship. Despite the practical aims of skills
cultivation, there are concerns about the values of LAE in nurturing civic citi-
zenship, which goes beyond the realistic objective of twenty-first century global
competence or competition. This noble goal reflects that universities are still
holding fast to their mission and social responsibilities for cultivating model citi-
zens. Although research found challenges of implementing LAE in some contexts
with different political systems and cultural traditions from the United States, it
is noticeable that LAE, across continents, has its focus on the cultivation of civic
responsibility and global citizenship. For example, in the context of mainland
China, despite its political ideology on socialism, the interpretation and under-
standing of LAE are related to the educational goals of a whole person from
the Confucian tradition, which has its overall development with six arts and are
educated to serve the country and nation. This understanding is actually align-
ing with the foundation of LAE in cultivating responsible citizens. In this sense,
civic duty in the value of LAE has been well implemented in Chinese society.
Also, with the emphasis on internationalization and English language programs
in non-English countries, LAE does help to nurture students’ global perspective,
care for global issues in this age, and the competence of intercultural communica-
tion. Such capabilities are in urgent need at this time of globalization, especially
in light of the current pandemic and rising nationalism.
Historical Factors and Institutional Actors. In the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, the spread of American LAE to East Asia was mainly due
to Christian missionary work. At that time, the North American missionaries
helped build some colleges and universities with Christian higher education back-
ground, such as the former 13 Christian universities in mainland China, Tunghai
in Taiwan, ICU in Japan, or Yonsei in South Korea. UBCHEA played an impor-
tant role in promoting the LAE from North America to East Asian with the
founding of Christian universities. After decades of development, LAE in these
universities adapted to the local context and made contributions to the develop-
ment of higher education. The LAE in these universities was influenced by the
organization’s values and mission and promotes a Christian notion of the whole
person. In the current societies, organizations, such as UBCHEA and CCCU,
promote education for the goal of whole-person development in an all-around
way, both spiritually and intellectually. Hence, we can find the institutions or
organizations influence the spread and the format of LAE. Looking through
new institutional theory, the spread of a form of LAE is out of the interest of
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 141

organizations, founders, or the stakeholders. Though the purpose of the organi-

zations is not for promoting LAE, specifically, their practice and promotion help
with the spreading and expansion of modern LAE outside the United States.
Institutional Actor Among Polity, Market, and Nation. NIT argues that
institutions are among the social constraints of polity, market, and nation.
It is the same with universities trying to implement or adapt LAE into their
mission and practice amid their social contexts, education systems, tradition
and history. In recent decades, higher education institutions worldwide have
been influenced by the trend of global ranking, as policymakers and admin-
istrators face pressure to build highly ranked universities graduating an edu-
cated workforce which will support a strong economy. Thus, the spreading of
LAE is realized by copying the global model or the American model. Among
the professionally oriented education system, with the influence of research
excellence and pressure for global ranking, it is hard for LAE universities to
adhere to the small-scale LAE model. Instead they struggle to balance the
often competing demands of the education system, enhanced research capac-
ity and graduate employability. In the United States, where the modern LAE
dominates its education system, both LAE colleges and comprehensive uni-
versities are trying to find a way to innovate and adapt to the current trend of
higher education massification.
LAE: Global Model or Context-dependent? What is an LAE in the age of
mass higher education? The tradition of LAE as an elite higher education, with
small-class teaching, on-campus residence, a close relationship between faculty
and students, and extra-curricular activities is challenged by the massification
of higher education over the past few decades. This has forced LAE to
adapt and expanded into comprehensive universities with general education
reform. New models of LAE have been explored for the twenty-first century in
institutions across the United States, and other countries. Outside the United
States, there has always been a discussion of conflicts with local traditions
and contexts. Hence, recognizing the core values of LAE is a prerequisite for
adapting LAE into diverse societies around the globe. As the educational goal
of cultivating a whole person has been recognized, universities are trying to
invent their way of developing free citizens with comprehensive capabilities
for their societies. In this sense, indigenous values and culture should be an
integral part of their own LAE. For example, LAE in East Asian societies,
especially in the Chinese context, needs to incorporate the Confucian
elements, such as the educational goals of Confucianism of cultivation of
a Junzi to serve the society with six arts. Similarly, LAE in the American
context must focus on cultivating the citizens for its democratic society,
which has discarded the meaning of aristocracy and become more citizenship
focused. In Europe, the focus is on excellence. As we see the variation and
elasticity, it is clear that, rather than having a global model, LAE must be
understood within each unique context. The innovation of LAE needs to take
into account local traditions and values with the recognition of its core value
of cultivating a free citizen/whole person for its societies and global society.
142 LEPING MOU

CONCLUSION
The study reviews and analyzes the global trend of LAE resurgence and
experimentation. It discusses the focus, variation, challenges, and suggestions
for exploring LAE models in different societies across continents. This research
and document analysis of global LAE summarizes the innovation and insights
to date and calls for further research on LAE through NIT and ideal types. The
motivation for implementing LAE has been influenced by the global trend of
pursuing excellence and competitiveness. In some contexts, the spreading of LAE
has been facilitated by historical factors and organizations, such as missionaries
and UBCHEA. Under the current trend of higher education massification and
the global trend of research capacity, institutions are strategically adapting and
implementing LAE amid the constraints of policy, market, and other factors.
Realizing the core values of LAE in cultivating citizens with capabilities for
local and global societies, the innovation and insights from local culture and
tradition might be valuable for understanding and exploring LAE in this age of
globalization.
LAE, as an ideal or educational philosophy, has been spread all around the
globe. Understanding the core values of LAE is crucial for a global explora-
tion of its models and innovation in the twenty-first century. In conformity
with its original idea of cultivating a free person in the ancient Greek-roman
society, LAE today aims to educate independent and responsible citizens
with capabilities for working in interdisciplinary and intercultural contexts.
Insights can be drawn from the experimentation and emerging models in East
Asian, North America, and West Europe. In East Asian societies, though
the challenges come from cultural traditions or social norms, the value
from Confucianism with a focus on whole-person cultivation is helpful for
the adaptation of LAE into the local context. In North America, LAE has
been the foundation of its education tradition. Though the current reform
has focused on accommodating the massification of higher education in
both research universities and in LAE colleges, the emphasis on democracy,
citizenship, and inclusivity and diversity has significance for the models of
LAE in other contexts. In West Europe, LAE is re-emerging in a manner
very different from both its Greco-Roman origins and its aristocratic roots
at Oxford and Cambridge. The latest emergence of LAE in the Netherland
and Germany emphasizes twenty-first century skills, with attention paid to
science rather than just humanities and social science.
Borrowing from these insights, the exploration and understanding of LAE
in the age of globalization should embrace these values, such as a whole-person
focus, democracy, citizenship, inclusivity, and capabilities from different tradi-
tions and cultures, new models and innovations. Realizing this core value and its
context-dependent models, new experiments of LAE should consider local cul-
ture and tradition in adaptation and indigenization. Educational values and ele-
ments from local culture and tradition should be integrated into the LAE modes
for the cultivation of global citizens who will cooperate and communicate for
global peace and prosperity of all human beings across nations.
Exploring Liberal Arts Education in the Twenty-first Century 143

As the current research trend and competition for global ranking narrow the
diversity of knowledge (Marginson, 2011), there are calls for an agreement of
plural and alternative models of higher education which will contribute to dia-
logue among civilization, cultural tolerance, and enhanced democracy (Hayhoe,
2019; Marginson, 2013). Though not a panacea to all social problems, LAE or
education for the whole person’s cultivation in an all-around way has gained rec-
ognition in every society (Nishimura & Sasao, 2018). This research brings insights
into exploring LAE modes in various contexts and contributes to the innovation
of LAE in an age of STEM3 (Marginson, 2017). This study contributes to the
diversification of university models when the global research university domi-
nates all ranking systems.
This study builds the foundation for further research exploring the imple-
mentation and educational outcomes of LAE in different societies. Theoretically
informed empirical investigation of LAE implementation in different social con-
texts in the twenty-first century would be valuable additions to the body of knowl-
edge and advance understanding considerably. Further steps on LAE research
could employ mixed-methods to research the outcome with observation, inter-
view, survey, and documents, involving faculty members and students, alumni, to
inform evidence-based policy and decision-making in LAE (Sasao, 2019). Also,
research can focus on the effectiveness of LAE with longitudinal studies on the
long-term effect on alumni (Chung et al., 2019).

NOTES
1.  A polymath is an individual whose knowledge spans a significant number of subjects,
known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems.
2.  Generalism refers to the practice of studying many different things rather than spe-
cializing in one subject.
3.  In education, the acronym STEM stands for the disciplines of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics.

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