12th STD Mathematics Vol-1 English Medium

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR
MATHEMATICS
VOLUME - I
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2019
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II
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HOW TO USE THE BOOK ?
• Awareness on the scope of higher educational opportunities; courses,

Scope of Mathematics institutions and required competitive examinations.
• Possible financial assistance to help students climb academic ladder.
• Overview of the unit

Learning Objectives: • Give clarity on the intended learning outcomes of the unit.
• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

• Videos, animations, and tutorials.
• To increase the span of attention of concepts

• To visualize the concepts for strengthening and understanding
ICT • To link concepts related to one unit with other units.
• To utilize the digital skills in classroom learning and providing students
experimental learning.
• Recapitulation of the salient points of each chapter for recalling the

Summary concepts learnt.
• Assessing student’s understanding of concepts and get them acquainted

Evaluation with solving exercise problems.
Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading.
• To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive examinations such

Scope for as JEE, KVPY, Math olympiad, etc., the concepts and questions based on
Higher Order Thinking Higher Order Thinking are incorporated in the content of this book.
• Frequently used Mathematical terms have been given with their

Glossary Tamil equivalents.
Mathematics Learning
The correct way to learn is to understand the concepts throughly. Each chapter opens with an Introduction,
Learning Objectives, Various Defi nitions, Theorems, Results and Illustrations. These in turn are followed by
solved examples and exercise problems which have been classifi ed in to various types for quick and effective
revision. One can develop the skill of solving mathematical problems only by doing them. So the teacher's
role is to teach the basic concepts and problems related to it and to scaffold students to try the other problems
on their own. Since the second year of Higher Secondary is considered to be the foundation for learning
higher mathematics, the students must be given more attention to each and every concept mentioned in this
book.
III
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CONTENTS
MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER TITLE Page No. Month

1 Applications of Matrices and Determinants 1 Jun
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Inverse of a Non-Singular Square Matrix 2
1.3 Elementary Transformations of a Matrix 16
1.4 Applications of Matrices: Solving System of
Linear Equations 27
1.5 Applications of Matrices: Consistency of system of
linear equations by rank method 38
2 Complex Numbers 52 Jul

2.1 Introduction to Complex Numbers 52
2.2 Complex Numbers 54
2.3 Basic Algebraic Properties of Complex Numbers 58
2.4 Conjugate of a Complex Number 60
2.5 Modulus of a Complex Number 66
2.6 Geometry and Locus of Complex Numbers 73
2.7 Polar and Euler form of a Complex Number 75
2.8 de Moivre’s Theorem and its Applications 83
3 Theory of Equations 97 Jul
3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Basics of Polynomial Equations 99
3.3 Vieta’s Formulae and Formation of Polynomial Equations 100
3.4 Nature of Roots and Nature of Coefficients of
Polynomial Equations 107
3.5 Applications to Geometrical Problems 111
3.6 Roots of Higher Degree Polynomial Equations 112
3.7 Polynomials with Additional Information 113
3.8 Polynomial Equations with no additional information 118
3.9 Descartes Rule 124
4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 129 Jul/Aug
4.1 Introduction 129
4.2 Some Fundamental Concepts 130
4.3 Sine Function and Inverse Sine Function 133
IV
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4.4 The Cosine Function and Inverse Cosine Function 138
4.5 The Tangent Function and the Inverse Tangent Function 143
4.6 The Cosecant Function and the Inverse Cosecant Function 148
4.7 The Secant Function and Inverse Secant Function 149
4.8 The Cotangent Function and the Inverse Cotangent Function 151
4.9 Principal Value of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 153
4.10 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 155
5 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry-II 172 Aug
5.2 Circle 173
5.3 Conics 182
5.4 Conic Sections 197
5.5 Parametric form of Conics 199
5.6 Tangents and Normals to Conics 201
5.7 Real life Applications of Conics 207
6 Applications of Vector Algebra 221 Aug/Sep
6.2 Geometric Introduction to Vectors 222
6.3 Scalar Product and Vector Product 224
6.4 Scalar triple product 231
6.5 Vector triple product 238
6.6 Jacobi’s Identity and Lagrange’s Identity 239
6.7 Different forms of Equation of a Straight line 242
6.8 Different forms of Equation of a plane 255
6.9 Image of a point in a plane 273
6.10 Meeting point of a line and a plane 274
ANSWERS 282
GLOSSARY 292
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Scope for students after completing Higher Secondary
EXAMS EXAMS
Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) Main Indian Navy Sailors Recruitment

Purpose For Admission in B. E./B. Tech., B. Arch., B. Planning Purpose Admission in 24 weeks Basic training at INS Chilka
Eligibility Class 12 pass (PCM) followed by Professional training
Application Mode Online Eligibility Class 12 (Maths and Physics/Chem./Bio/Computer Sc.)
Source http://jeemain.nic.in Application Mode Online, By Post
JEE Advanced Source www.nausena-bharti.nic.in/index.php
Purpose Admission in UG programmes in IITs and ISM Dhanbad Defence Indian Army Technical Entry Scheme (TES)
Eligibility Class 12 Pass (PCM) Purpose Technical Entry to Army
VI
Application Mode Online Eligibility Class 12 PCM
Source http://jeeadv.iitd.ac.in/ Application Mode Online
Indian Maritime University Common Entrance Test Source www.joinindianarmy.nic.in/
Purpose Admission in Diploma in Nautical Science (DNS) leading National Defence Academy and Naval Academy Examination (I)
to BSc. (Nautical Science) Purpose Admission to Army and Air Force wings of NDA and
Eligibility Class 12 (PCM) 4 years B. Tech course for the Indian Naval Academy
Application Mode By post Course (INAC)
Source www.imu.edu.in/index.php Eligibility Class 12 Passed
Indian Navy B.Tech Entry Scheme Application Mode Online
Purpose Admission in Indian Navy B.Tech course Source www.upsc.gov.in/
Eligibility Class 12 passed

Application Mode Online
Source www.nausena-bharti.nic.in/index.php
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Scope for students after completing Higher Secondary
EXAMS Job Opportunities
• If you have aspiration to become a scientist/teacher, you can • You have acquired sufficient analytical still to appear for competitive
do degree course in mathematics in any college of your choice. examinations conducted by various organizations such as TNPSC, UPSC,
Doing B.Sc., mathematics with your knowledge which ac- BSRB, RSB.
quired in XII standard mathematics will definitely elevate you to a
better career. • You are placed with better opportunity to get recruitment directly into some
• There are some institutions such as IIT’s, IISc., ISI’s and Anna University of the top Multi National Companies.
which admit students at XII Standard level for their Integrated Courses • You can plan to take up engineering degree course to acquire BE/B.TECH
leading to the award of M.Sc., degree in mathematics/engineering/Statistics/ in any of the leading Technical Institutions/Universities/Engineering colleg-
Computer Science . es. Institutions such as IIT’s , IISc, NIT’s conduct All India Level Entrance
In Mathematics, the following degrees programmes are offered: Examinations to admit students.
VII
- 3-year BSc - 4-year Integrated B.Sc-B.Ed.
- 3-year B. Math - 4-year BS • Indian Forest Services • Scientist Jobs in ISRO, DRDO,
- 4-year B. Tech - 5-year Integrated M.Sc /MS CSIR labs
BITSAT • Union Public Service Commission • Staff Selection Commission
Purpose- For admission to Integrated First Degree Programmes in BITS Pilani,
Goa & Hyderabad campuses. • Indian Defense Services • Public Sector Bank
National Aptitude Test in Architecture (NATA) • Tax Assistant • Statistical Investigator
Purpose- Admission to B.Arch. program • Combined Graduate Level Exam • Tamil Nadu Public Service
Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana (KVPY) Commission
Purpose- Fellowship and admission to IISc Banglore in 4 year BS Degree • Teaching Profession
Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) Admission
Purpose-Admission in B Stat (Hons), B Math (Hons)
Chennai Mathematical Institute
Purpose- Admission in BSc (Hons) in Mathematics and Computer Science, BSc
(Hons) in Mathematics and Physics
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Scholarship and Research Opportunities
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS
• Scholarship for Graduate and Post – Graduate courses NAME OF THE INSTITUTION WEBSITE
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore www.iisc.ac.in
• NTSE at the end of X (from class XI to Ph.D)
Chennai Mathematical Institute (CMI) Chennaie www.cmi.ac.in
• International Olympiad: for getting stipend for Higher Tata Institue of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai www.tifr.res.in
Education in Science and Mathematics
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)
• DST – INSPIRE Scholarships (for UG and PG) www.iist.ac.in
Trivandrum
National Institute of Science Education and Research (NIS-
• DST – INSPIRE Fellowships (for Ph.D) www.niser.ac.in
VIII
ER)
• UGC National Fellowships (for Ph.D) Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani www.bits-pilani.ac.in
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research www.iiseradmission.in
• Indira Gandhi Fellowship for Single Girl Child (for UG and
PG) Anna University https://www.annauniv.edu/
Indian Institute of Technology in various places (IIT’s) www.iitm.ac.in
• Moulana Azad Fellowship for minorities (for Ph.D) National Institute of Technology (NITs) www.nitt.edu
Central Universities www.cucet.ac.in
In addition various fellowships for SC / ST / PWD / OBC
•
etc are available. (Visit website of University Grants State Universities www.ugc.ac.in
Commission (UGC) and Department of Science and Tamil Nadu agricultural University (tnau.ac.in) tnau.ac.in
Technology (DST))
International Institute of Information Technology www.iiit.ac.in
• University Fellowships The Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSC) Chennai. www.imsc.res.in
• Tamil Nadu Collegiate Education fellowship. Hyderabad Central university, Hyderabad. www.uohyd.ac.in
Delhi University, Delhi www.du.ac.in
Mumbai University, Mumbai www.mu.ac.in
Savithiri Bai Phule Pune University, Pune www.unipune.ac.in
31-01-2020 16:23:38
Chapter
1
Applications of Matrices and Determinants
“The greatest mathematicians, as Archimedes, Newton, and Gauss,
always united theory and applications in equal measure.”
-Felix Klein
1.1 Introduction
Matrices are very important and indispensable in handling system
of linear equations which arise as mathematical models of real-world
problems. Mathematicians Gauss, Jordan, Cayley, and Hamilton have
developed the theory of matrices which has been used in investigating
solutions of systems of linear equations.
In this chapter, we present some applications of matrices in

solving system of linear equations. To be specific, we study four
methods, namely (i) Matrix inversion method, (ii) Cramer’s rule
(iii) Gaussian elimination method, and (iv) Rank method. Before knowing
Carl Friedrich Gauss these methods, we introduce the following: (i) Inverse of a non-singular
(1777-1855) square matrix, (ii) Rank of a matrix, (iii) Elementary row and column
German mathematician and transformations, and (iv) Consistency of system of linear equations.
physicist
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to

● Demonstrate a few fundamental tools for solving systems of linear equations:
̵ Adjoint of a square matrix
̵ Inverse of a non-singular matrix
̵ Elementary row and column operations
̵ Row-echelon form
̵ Rank of a matrix
● Use row operations to find the inverse of a non-singular matrix
● Illustrate the following techniques in solving system of linear equations by
̵ Matrix inversion method
̵ Cramer’s rule
̵ Gaussian elimination method
● Test the consistency of system of non-homogeneous linear equations
● Test for non-trivial solution of system of homogeneous linear equations
Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 1 31-01-2020 17:10:27

1.2 Inverse of a Non-Singular Square Matrix
We recall that a square matrix is called a non-singular matrix if its determinant is not equal to
zero and a square matrix is called singular if its determinant is zero. We have already learnt about
multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, addition of two matrices, and multiplication of two matrices.
But a rule could not be formulated to perform division of a matrix by another matrix since a matrix is
just an arrangement of numbers and has no numerical value. When we say that, a matrix A is of order
n, we mean that A is a square matrix having n rows and n columns.
 1
In the case of a real number x ¹ 0, there exists a real number y  =  , called the inverse (or
 x
reciprocal) of x such that xy
= yx = 1. In the same line of thinking, when a matrix A is given, we
search for a matrix B such that the products AB and BA can be found and AB = BA = I , where I is
a unit matrix.
In this section, we define the inverse of a non-singular square matrix and prove that a non-singular
square matrix has a unique inverse. We will also study some of the properties of inverse matrix. For
all these activities, we need a matrix called the adjoint of a square matrix.
1.2.1 Adjoint of a Square Matrix

We recall the properties of the cofactors of the elements of a square matrix. Let A be a square
matrix of by order n whose determinant is denoted A or det ( A ) .Let aij be the element sitting at the
intersection of the i th row and j th column of A. Deleting the i th row and j th column of A, we obtain
a sub-matrix of order (n −1). The determinant of this sub-matrix is called minor of the element aij . It
is denoted by M ij .The product of M ij and (−1)i + j is called cofactor of the element aij . It is denoted
by Aij . Thus the cofactor of aij is Aij = ( −1)i + j M ij .

An important property connecting the elements of a square matrix and their cofactors is that the
sum of the products of the entries (elements) of a row and the corresponding cofactors of the elements
of the same row is equal to the determinant of the matrix; and the sum of the products of the entries
(elements) of a row and the corresponding cofactors of the elements of any other row is equal to 0.
That is,
 A if i = j
ai 1 A j 1 + ai 2 A j 2 +  + ain A jn = 
0 if i ≠ j ,
where A denotes the determinant of the square matrix A. Here A is read as “determinant of A ”
and not as “ modulus of A ”. Note that A is just a real number and it can also be negative. For
2 1 1
instance, we have 1 1 1 = 2(1 − 2) − 1(1 − 2) + 1(2 − 2) = −2 + 1 + 0 = −1.
2 2 1
Definition 1.1
Let A be a square matrix of order n.Then the matrix of cofactors of A is defined as the matrix
obtained by replacing each element aij of A with the corresponding cofactor Aij . The adjoint matrix
of A is defined as the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of A. It is denoted by adj A.
XII - Mathematics 2

Note
T T
adj A is a square matrix of order n and adj A =  Aij  =  (−1)i + j M ij  .
In particular, adj A of a square matrix of order 3 is given below:

T T
 + M 11 − M 12 + M 13   A11 A12 A13   A11 A21 A31 
 =  = 
adj A =  − M 21 + M 22 − M 23   A21 A22 A23   A12 A22 A32  .
 + M 31 − M 32 + M 33   A31 A32 A33   A13 A23 A33 
Theorem 1.1
For every square matrix A of order n , A=
(adj A) (=
adj A) A A In .
Proof
For simplicity, we prove the theorem for n = 3 only.
 a11 a12 a13 
Consider A =  a21 a22 a23  . Then, we get
 a31 a32 a33 
a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 = A , a11 A21 + a12 A22 + a13 A23 = 0, a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33 = 0;
a21 A11 + a22 A12 + a23 A13 = 0, a21 A21 + a22 A22 + a23 A23 = A , a21 A31 + a22 A32 + a23 A33 = 0;
a31 A11 + a32 A12 + a33 A13 = 0, a31 A21 + a32 A22 + a33 A23 = 0, a31 A31 + a32 A32 + a33 A33 = A .
By using the above equations, we get
 a11 a12 a13   A11 A21 A31   A 0 0 1 0 0 

 
A(adjA) =  a21 a22 a23   A12 A22 A32  =  0 A 0  = A 0 1 0  = A I 3 … (1)
 a31 a32 a33   A13 A23 A33   0 0 A  0 0 1 
 A11 A21 A31   a11 a12 a13   A 0 0 1 0 0 

 
(adjA) A =  A12 A22 A32   a21 a22 a23  =  0 A 0  = A 0 1 0  = A I 3 , … (2)
 A13 A23 A33   a31 a32 a33   0 0 A  0 0 1 
where I 3 is the identity matrix of order 3.

So, by equations (1) and (2), we get A=
(adj A) (=
adj A) A A I3.
Note
If A is a singular matrix of order n , then A = 0 and so A=
(adj A) (=
adj A) A On , where On
denotes zero matrix of order n.
Example 1.1
 8 −6 2 
If A =  −6 7 −4  , verify that =
A(adj A) (=
adj A) A | A | I3.
 2 −4 3 
Solution
8 −6 2
We find that | A | = − 6 7 − 4 = 8 (21 − 16) + 6(−18 + 8) + 2(24 − 14) = 40 − 60 + 20 = 0.
2 −4 3
3 Applications of Matrices and Determinants

By the definition of adjoint, we get
T
 (21 − 16) −(−18 + 8) (24 − 14)   5 10 10 

adj A =  −(−18 + 8) (24 − 4) −(−32 + 12)  = 10 20 20  .
 
 (24 − 14) −(−32 + 12) (56 − 36)  10 20 20 
So, we get
 8 − 6 2   5 10 10 
  
A(adj A) =  − 6 7 − 4  10 20 20 
 2 − 4 3  10 20 20 
 40 − 60 + 20 80 − 120 + 40 80 − 120 + 40  0 0 0 
=  −30 + 70 − 40 −60 + 140 − 80 −60 + 140 − 80  = 0 0 0  = 0 I 3 = A I 3 ,
 10 − 40 + 30 20 − 80 + 60 20 − 80 + 60  0 0 0 
Similarly, we get
 5 10 10   8 −6 2 
(adj A) A = 10 20 20   −6 7 −4 
10 20 20   2 −4 3 
 40 − 60 + 20 −30 + 70 − 40 10 − 40 + 30  0 0 0 
= 80 − 120 + 40 −60 + 140 − 80 20 − 80 + 60  = 0 0 0  = 0 I 3 = A I 3 .
80 − 120 + 40 −60 + 140 − 80 20 − 80 + 60  0 0 0 
Hence, A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A I 3 .
1.2.2 Definition of inverse matrix of a square matrix

Now, we define the inverse of a square matrix.
Definition 1.2
Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a square matrix B of order n such that
AB = I n , then the matrix B is called an inverse of A.
= BA
Theorem 1.2
If a square matrix has an inverse, then it is unique.
Proof
Let A be a square matrix order n such that an inverse of A exists. If possible, let there be two
inverses B and C of A. Then, by definition, we have AB
= BA
= I n and AC
= CA
= In .
Using these equations, we get
= C CI =n C=( AB ) (CA
= ) B I n B = B.
Hence the uniqueness follows.
Notation The inverse of a matrix A is denoted by A−1.
Note
AA−1 = A−1 A = I n .
XII - Mathematics 4

Theorem 1.3
Let A be square matrix of order n. Then, A−1 exists if and only if A is non-singular.
Proof
Suppose that A−1 exists. Then AA−1 = A−1 A = I n .
By the product rule for determinants, we get
det( AA−1 ) = det( A) det( A−1 ) = det( A−1 ) det( A) = det( I n ) = 1. So, A = det( A) ≠ 0.

Hence A is non-singular.
Conversely, suppose that A is non-singular.
Then A ¹ 0. By Theorem 1.1, we get
A=
(adj A) (adj
= A) A A In .
 1   1 
So, dividing by A , we get A  adj A  =  adj A  A = I n .
 A   A 
   
1
Thus, we are able to find a matrix B = adj A such that AB
= BA
= In .
A
1
Hence, the inverse of A exists and it is given by A−1 = adj A.
A
Remark
The determinant of a singular matrix is 0 and so a singular matrix has no inverse.
Example 1.2
a b 
If A =   is non-singular, find A−1.
c d 
Solution
T T
 + M 11 − M 12   d − c  d − b
We first find adj A. By definition, we get adj A =   =  = .
 − M 21 + M 22  − b a  − c a 
Since A is non-singular, A = ad − bc ≠ 0.
1 1  d − b
As A−1 = adj A, we get A−1 = .
A ad − bc  − c a 
Example 1.3
 2 −1 3
Find the inverse of the matrix  −5 3 1 .
 −3 2 3
Solution
 2 −1 3 2 −1 3
 
Let A =  −5 3 1 . Then | A |= −5 3 1 = 2(7) + (−12) + 3(−1) = −1 ≠ 0.
 −3 2 3 −3 2 3
Therefore, A−1 exists. Now, we get


T
 3 1 −5 1 −5 3 
+ − + 
 2 3 −3 3 −3 2  T
 7 12 −1   7 9 −10 
 −1 3 2 3 2 −1   
adj A =  − + −  = 9
 15 −1 = 12 15 −17  .
 2 3 −3 3 −3 2 
   −10 −17 1   −1 −1 1 
 + −1 3
−
2 3
+
2 −1 
 3
 1 −5 1 −5 3 
 7 9 −10   −7 −9 10 
1 1 
Hence, A = −1
(adj A) =  12 15 −17  =  −12 −15 17  .
| A| (−1)
 −1 −1 1   1 1 −1
1.2.3 Properties of inverses of matrices

We state and prove some theorems on non-singular matrices.
Theorem 1.4
If A is non-singular, then
1 1 −1
( ) ( )
−1 T
(iii) ( λ A ) =
−1
(i) A−1 = (ii) AT = A−1 A , where λ is a non-zero scalar.
A λ
Proof
Let A be non-singular. Then A ¹ 0 and A−1 exists. By definition,
AA−1 = A−1 A = I n . …(1)
(i) By (1), we get AA−1 = A−1 A = I n .
Using the product rule for determinants, we get A A−1 = I n = 1.
1
Hence, A−1 = .
A
( ) = ( A A) = ( I )
T T T
(ii) From (1), we get AA−1 −1
n .
(A ) ( )
T T
Using the reversal law of transpose, we get −1
AT = AT A−1 = I n . Hence
(A ) ( )
−1 T
T
= A−1 .
1 −1   1 −1 
(iii) Since λ is a non-zero scalar, from (1), we get ( λ A)  A  =  A  ( λ A) = I n .
λ  λ 
1 −1
So, ( λ A ) =
−1
A .
λ
Theorem 1.5 (Left Cancellation Law)
Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n. If A is non-singular and AB = AC , then B = C.
Proof
Since A is non-singular, A−1 exists and AA−1 = A−1 A = I n . Taking AB = AC and pre-multiplying
both sides by A−1 , we get A−1 ( AB ) = A−1 ( AC ). By using the associative property of matrix
multiplication and property of inverse matrix, we get B = C.
XII - Mathematics 6

Theorem1.6 (Right Cancellation Law)
Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n. If A is non-singular and BA = CA, then B = C.
Proof
Since A is non-singular, A−1 exists and AA−1 = A−1 A = I n . Taking BA = CA and post-multiplying
both sides by A−1 , we get ( BA) A−1 = (CA) A−1. By using the associative property of matrix multiplication
and property of inverse matrix, we get B = C.
Note
If A is singular and AB = AC or BA = CA, then B and C need not be equal. For instance,
consider the following matrices:
1 1  1 −1 0 −1
A=  ,B =   and C =  .
2 2 0 1  1 1 
We note that A = 0 and AB = AC ; but B ≠ C.
Theorem 1.7 (Reversal Law for Inverses)

If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then the product AB is also non-singular
and ( AB ) −1 = B −1 A−1.
Proof
Assume that A and B are non-singular matrices of same order n. Then, | A |¹ 0, B ¹ 0, both
A−1 and B −1 exist and they are of order n. The products AB and B −1 A−1 can be found and they are also
of order n. Using the product rule for determinants, we get AB =| A || B |≠ 0. So, AB is non-singular
and
( AB)( B −1 A−1 ) = ( A( BB −1 )) A−1 = ( AI n ) A−1 = AA−1 = I n ;
( B −1 A−1 )( AB ) = ( B −1 ( A−1 A)) B = ( B −1 I n ) B = B −1 B = I n .
Hence ( AB ) −1 = B −1 A−1.
Theorem 1.8 (Law of Double Inverse)

If A is non-singular, then A−1 is also non-singular and ( A−1 ) −1 = A.
Proof
Assume that A is non-singular. Then A ≠ 0, and A−1 exists.
1
Now A−1 = ≠ 0 ⇒ A−1 is also non-singular, and AA−1 = A−1 A = I .
A
( ) ( )
−1 −1
Now, AA−1 = I ⇒ AA−1 = I ⇒ A−1 A−1 = I . ... (1)
( )
−1
Post-multiplying by A on both sides of equation (1), we get A−1 = A.

Theorem 1.9
If A is a non-singular square matrix of order n , then
1
(i) ( )
( adj A) = adj A−1 = A (ii)
−1
A
adj A =| A |n −1
adj ( adj A ) = | A |n − 2 A
(iii) (iv) adj(λ A) = λ n −1adj( A), λ is a nonzero scalar
adj (adj A) = A
(v)
( n −1)2
(vi) (adj A)T = adj AT ( )
Proof
Since A is a non-singular square matrix, we have A ¹ 0 and so, we get
1 1 1
( ) ( )
−1 −1
(i) A−1 = (adj A) ⇒ adj A = | A | A−1 ⇒ (adj A) −1 = A A−1 = A−1 = A.
| A| | A| | A|
1
( ) ( )
−1
Replacing A by A−1 in adj A = A A−1 , we get adj A−1 = A−1 A−1 = A.
A
1
Hence, we get ( adj A ) = adj A−1 =
−1
( ) A
A.
A(adj A) (=
(ii)
= adj A) A | A | I n ⇒ det ( A(adj A) ) = det ( (adj A) A ) = det (| A | I n )
⇒ A adj A = | A |n ⇒ adj A =| A |n −1 .
(iii) For any non-singular matrix B of order n, we have =

B(adj B) (=
adj B) B | B | In.
Put B = adj A. Then, we get ( adj A) (adj ( adj A)) = | adj A | I n .
So, since adj A =| A |n −1 , we get ( adj A ) (adj ( adj A )) = | A |n −1 I n .
Pre-multiplying both sides by A, we get A ( adj A ) ( adj ( adj A ) ) = A | A |n −1 I n . ( ) ( )

Using the associative property of matrix multiplication, we get
( A ( adj A) ) adj ( adj A) = A | A |n−1 I n .
( )
Hence, we get ( A I ) ( adj ( adj A) ) =
n | A |n −1 A. That is, adj ( adj A ) = | A |n − 2 A.
(iv) Replacing A by λ A in adj( A) = A A−1 where λ is a non-zero scalar, we get

1 −1
adj(λ A) = λ A (λ A) −1 = λ n A
A = λ n −1 A A−1 = λ n −1adj( A) .
λ
(v) By (iii), we have adj ( adj A ) =| A |n − 2 A . So, by taking determinant on both sides, we get
( )
n 2 ( n −1)2
adj(adjA) = | A |n − 2 A = | A |( n − 2 )
A =| A |n − 2 n +1
= A .
1 1
( ) ( )
−1
(vi) Replacing A by AT in A−1 = adj A , we get AT = adj AT and hence, we
| A| T
|A |
T
 1 
( )= ( ) ( ) = (| A | A )
−1 T T
adj A  = ( adj A ) .
T T T −1 −1 T
get adj A |A | A =| A | A = | A |
 | A| 
XII - Mathematics 8

Note
If A is a non-singular matrix of order 3, then, | A |¹ 0 . By theorem 1.9 (ii), we get adjA =| A |2
and so, adj A is positive. Then, we get A = ± adj A .
1
So, we get A−1 = ± adj A.
adj A
1
Further, by property (iii), we get A = adj ( adj A ) .
A
1
Hence, if A is a non-singular matrix of order 3, then we get A = ± adj ( adj A ) .
adj A
Example 1.4
If A is a non-singular matrix of odd order, prove that adj A is positive.
Solution
Let A be a non-singular matrix of order 2m + 1, where m = 0,1, 2,  . Then, we get A ¹ 0 and,
by theorem 1.9 (ii), we have adj A =| A |( 2 m +1) −1 =| A |2 m .
Since | A |2 m is always positive, we get that adj A is positive.
Example 1.5
 7 7 −7 
Find a matrix A if adj( A) =  −1 11 7  .
11 5 7 
Solution
7 7 −7
First, we find adj( A) = −1 11 7 = 7(77 − 35) − 7(−7 − 77) − 7(−5 − 121) = 1764 > 0.
11 5 7
So, we get
T
 + (77 − 35) −(−7 − 77) +(−5 − 121) 
1 1 
A=± adj ( adj A ) = ±  −(49 + 35) +(49 + 77) −(35 − 77) 
adj A 1764
 +(49 + 77) −(49 − 7) + (77 + 7) 
T
 42 84 −126   1 −2 3 
1 
= ±  −84 126 42  = ±  2 3 −1 .

42
126 −42 84   −3 1 2 
Example 1.6
 −1 2 2 
If adj A =  1 1 2  , find A−1 .
 2 2 1 

Solution
−1 2 2
We compute adj A = 1 1 2 = 9 .
2 2 1
 −1 2 2   −1 2 2 
1 1  1
So, we get A = ± −1
adj( A) = ±  1 1 2  = ±  1 1 2  .

adj( A) 9 3
 2 2 1   2 2 1 
Example1.7
If A is symmetric, prove that adj A is also symmetric.
Solution
Suppose A is symmetric. Then, AT = A and so, by theorem 1.9 (vi), we get

( )
adj AT = ( adj A ) ⇒ adj A = ( adj A ) ⇒ adj A is symmetric.
T T
Theorem 1.10
If A and B are any two non-singular square matrices of order n , then
adj( AB ) = (adj B )(adj A).
Proof
Replacing A by AB in adj( A) = A A−1 , we get
( )( )
adj( AB ) = | AB | ( AB ) −1 = | B | B −1 | A | A−1 = adj( B) adj( A) .
Example 1.8
2 9
( ) ( )
−1 T
Verify the property AT = A−1 with A =  .
1 7 
Solution
 7 9
− 
1 7 −9   5 5
For the given A, we get A = (2)(7) − (9)(1) = 14 − 9 = 5 . So, A−1 =  =  .
5  −1 2   1 2 
−
 5 5 
 7 1
 5 − 
5 1  7 −1
( )
T
Then, A−1 =  =  . ... (1)
− 9 2  5  −9 2 
 5 5 
2 1
For the given A, We get AT =  
T
. So A = (2)(7) − (1)(9) = 5 .
9 7 
1  7 −1
(A )
−1
T
Then, = . ... (2)
5  −9 2 
( ) = ( A )
T −1
T
From (1) and (2), we get A−1 . Thus, we have verified the given property.
XII - Mathematics 10

Example 1.9
0 −3  −2 −3
Verify ( AB ) −1 = B −1 A−1 with A =   ,B =  .
1 4   0 −1
Solution
0 −3  −2 −3  0 + 0 0 + 3   0 3 
We get AB =   = = 
1 4   0 −1  −2 + 0 −3 − 4   −2 −7 
1  −7 −3 1  −7 −3
( AB )
−1
= = … (1)
(0 + 6)  2 0  6  2 0 
1  4 3 1  4 3
A−1 = =
(0 + 3)  −1 0  3  −1 0 
1  −1 3  1  −1 3 
B −1 = =
(2 − 0)  0 −2  2  0 −2 
1  −1 3  1  4 3 1  −7 −3
B −1 A−1 = = . … (2)
2  0 −2  3  −1 0  6  2 0 
As the matrices in (1) and (2) are same, ( AB ) −1 = B −1 A−1 is verified.
Example 1.10
 4 3 2 −1
If A = 
2 5  , find x and y such that A + xA + yI 2 = O2 . Hence, find A .
 
Solution
 4 3  4 3  22 27 
Since A2 =   =  ,
 2 5  2 5 18 31
 22 27   4 3 1 0   0 0 
A2 + xA + yI 2 = O2 ⇒   + x  + y = 
18 31  2 5 0 1  0 0 
 22 + 4 x + y 27 + 3 x  0 0 
⇒  = .
 18 + 2 x 31 + 5 x + y  0 0 
So, we get 22 + 4 x + y = 0, 31 + 5 x + y = 0, 27 + 3 x = 0 and 18 + 2 x = 0.
Hence x = −9 and y = 14. Then, we get A2 − 9 A + 14 I 2 = O2 .
Post-multiplying this equation by A−1 , we get A − 9 I + 14 A−1 = O2 . Hence, we get

2
1 1  1 0   4 3  1  5 −3
A−1 = ( 9 I 2 − A) =  9  − = .
14 14  0 1   2 5  14  −2 4 


1.2.4 Application of matrices to Geometry
There is a special type of non-singular matrices which are widely used in applications of matrices
to geometry. For simplicity, we consider two-dimensional analytical geometry.
y
Let O be the origin, and x ' O x and y ' O y be the x -axis and Y
M P
y -axis. Let P be a point in the plane whose coordinates are ( x, y ) q
X
with respect to the coordinate system. Suppose that we rotate the R T Q
x -axis and y -axis about the origin, through an angle θ as shown q x
x′
O L N
in the figure. Let X ' OX and Y ' OY be the new X -axis and new
X′
Y -axis. Let ( X , Y ) be the new set of coordinates of P with
respect to the new coordinate system. Referring to Fig.1.1, Y′
y′
we get
Fig.1.1
x = OL = ON − LN = X cos θ − QT = X cos θ − Y sin θ ,
y = PL = PT + TL = QN + PT = X sin θ + Y cos θ .
These equations provide transformation of one coordinate system into another coordinate system.
The above two equations can be written in the matrix form
 x cos θ − sin θ   X 
 y  =  sin θ .
   cos θ   Y 
cos θ − sin θ   x X  2 2
Let W = 
cos θ 
. Then  y  = W  Y  and W = cos θ + sin θ = 1 .
 sin θ    
 cos θ sin θ 
So, W has inverse and W −1 =   . We note that W −1 = W T . Then, we get the
 − sin θ cos θ 
inverse transformation by the equation
X  −1  x   cos θ sin θ   x   x cos θ − y sin θ 

 Y  = W  y  =  − sin θ =
cos θ   y   x sin θ + y cos θ 
.
    
Hence, we get the transformation X = x cos θ − y sin θ , Y = x sin θ + y cos θ .

This transformation is used in Computer Graphics and determined by the matrix
cos θ − sin θ 
W = . We note that the matrix W satisfies a special property W −1 = W T ; that is,
 sin θ cos θ 
T T
WW
= W= W I.
Definition 1.3
T T
A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AA
= A= A I.
Note
A is orthogonal if and only if A is non-singular and A−1 = AT .

Example 1.11
cos θ − sin θ 
Prove that  is orthogonal.
 sin θ cos θ 
Solution
T
cos θ − sin θ  cos θ − sin θ   cos θ sin θ 
Let A =   . Then, AT =   = .
 sin θ cos θ   sin θ cos θ   − sin θ cos θ 
So, we get
cos θ − sin θ   cos θ sin θ 
AAT = 
 sin θ cos θ   − sin θ cos θ 
 cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ cos θ sin θ − sin θ cos θ  1 0 

=  =  = I2 .
sin θ cos θ − cos θ sin θ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ  0 1 
Similarly, we get AT A = I 2 . Hence AAT = AT A = I 2 ⇒ A is orthogonal.
Example 1.12
 6 −3 a 
1
If A = b −2 6  is orthogonal, find a, b and c , and hence A−1 .
7
 2 c 3 
Solution
If A is orthogonal, then AAT = AT A = I 3 . So, we have
 6 −3 a   6 b 2  1 0 0 
1 1
AA = I 3 ⇒ b −2 6   −3 −2 c  = 0 1 0 
T
7 7
 2 c 3   a 6 3  0 0 1 
 45 + a 2 6b + 6 + 6a 12 − 3c + 3a  1 0 0 
 
⇒  6b + 6 + 6a

2
b + 40 2b − 2c + 18 = 49 0 1 0 
12 − 3c + 3a 2b − 2c + 18
 c 2 + 13  0 0 1 
45 + a 2 = 49 
 2 
b + 40 = 49 
c 2 + 13 = 49  a 2 = 4, b 2 = 9, c 2 = 36, 

⇒   ⇒   ⇒ a = 2, b = −3, c = 6
6b + 6 + 6a = 0  a + b = −1, a − c = −4, b − c = −9 
12 − 3c + 3a = 0 
 
2b − 2c + 18 = 0 
 6 −3 2   6 −3 2 
1 1
So, we get A =  −3 −2 6  and hence, A = A =  −3 −2 6  .
 −1 T
7 7
 2 6 3   2 6 3 

1.2.5 Application of matrices to Cryptography
One of the important applications of inverse of a non-singular square
matrix is in cryptography. Cryptography is an art of communication
between two people by keeping the information not known to others. It is
based upon two factors, namely encryption and decryption. Encryption
means the process of transformation of an information (plain form) into an
unreadable form (coded form). On the other hand, Decryption means the
transformation of the coded message back into original form. Encryption and decryption require a
secret technique which is known only to the sender and the receiver.
This secret is called a key. One way of generating a key is by using a non-singular matrix to
encrypt a message by the sender. The receiver decodes (decrypts) the message to retrieve the original
message by using the inverse of the matrix. The matrix used for encryption is called encryption
matrix (encoding matrix) and that used for decoding is called decryption matrix (decoding
matrix).
We explain the process of encryption and decryption by means of an example.
Suppose that the sender and receiver consider messages in alphabets A − Z only, both assign the
numbers 1-26 to the letters A − Z respectively, and the number 0 to a blank space. For simplicity, the
sender employs a key as post-multiplication by a non-singular matrix of order 3 of his own choice.
The receiver uses post-multiplication by the inverse of the matrix which has been chosen by the
sender.
Let the encoding matrix be
1 −1 1 
A =  2 −1 0  .
1 0 0 
Let the message to be sent by the sender be “WELCOME”.

Since the key is taken as the operation of post-multiplication by a square matrix of order 3, the
message is cut into pieces (WEL), (COM), (E), each of length 3, and converted into a sequence of
row matrices of numbers:
[23 5 12],[3 15 13],[5 0 0].
Note that, we have included two zeros in the last row matrix. The reason is to get a row matrix
with 5 as the first entry.
Next, we encode the message by post-multiplying each row matrix as given below:
Uncoded Encoding Coded
row matrix matrix row matrix
1 −1 1 
[ 23 5 12]  2 −1 0 = [45 − 28 23];
1 0 0 
1 −1 1 
[3 15 13]  2 −1 0 = [46 − 18 3];
1 0 0 
1 −1 1 
[5 0 0]  2 −1 0 = [5 − 5 5].
1 0 0 

So the encoded message is [45 − 28 23] [46 − 18 3] [5 − 5 5]
The receiver will decode the message by the reverse key, post-multiplying by the inverse of A.
So the decoding matrix is
0 0 1 
1
−1
A = adj A = 0 −1 2  .
A
1 −1 1 
The receiver decodes the coded message as follows:
Coded Decoding Decoded
row matrix matrix row matrix
0 0 1 
[ 45 − 28 23] 0 −1 2  = [23 5 12];
1 −1 1 
0 0 1 
[46 − 18 3] 0 −1 2  = [3 15 13] ;
1 −1 1 
0 0 1 
[5 − 5 5] 0 −1 2  = [5 0 0].
1 −1 1 
So, the sequence of decoded row matrices is [ 23 5 12] , [3 15 13] , [5 0 0] .
Thus, the receiver reads the message as “WELCOME”.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Find the adjoint of the following:
2 3 1  2 2 1
 −3 4  1
(i)  
 
(ii)  3 4 1  (iii)  −2 1 2 
 6 2  3 7 2 
3
 1 −2 2 
2. Find the inverse (if it exists) of the following:
5 1 1  2 3 1
 −2 4 
(i)   (ii) 1 5 1 (iii)  3 4 1 
 1 −3 1 1 5  3 7 2 
 cos α 0 sin α 
3. If F (α ) =  0 0  , show that [ F (α ) ] = F (−α ).
−1
1
 − sin α 0 cos α 
5 3
4. If A =   , show that A2 − 3 A − 7 I 2 = O2 . Hence find A−1 .
 −1 −2 
 −8 1 4 
1
5. If A =  4 4 7  , prove that A−1 = AT .
9
 1 −8 4 

 8 − 4
If A = 
6.  , verify that A=
(adj A) (=
adj A) A A I2 .
− 5 3 
3 2  −1 −3 −1 −1 −1
7. If A =   and B =   , verify that ( AB ) =B A .
 7 5   5 2 
 2 −4 2 
8. If adj( A) =  −3 12 −7  , find A.
 −2 0 2 
 0 −2 0 
9. If adj( A) =  6 2 −6  , find A−1.
 −3 0 6 
1 0 1
10. Find adj(adj( A)) if adj A =  0 2 0  .
 −1 0 1 
 1 tan x  cos 2 x − sin 2 x 

11. A =   , show that AT A−1 =  .
 − tan x 1   sin 2 x cos 2 x 
 5 3  14 7 
12. Find the matrix A for which A  =  .
 −1 −2   7 7 
1 −1 3 −2  1 1 
13. Given A =   , B=  and C =   , find a matrix X such that AXB = C.
2 0  1 1  2 2
0 1 1 
1
14. If A = 1 0 1  , show that A−1 = A2 − 3I . ( )
2
1 1 0 
 −1 −1
15. Decrypt the received encoded message [ 2 −3][ 20 4] with the encryption matrix  
2 1
and the decryption matrix as its inverse, where the system of codes are described by the
numbers 1-26 to the letters A − Z respectively, and the number 0 to a blank space.
1.3 Elementary Transformations of a Matrix

A matrix can be transformed to another matrix by certain operations called elementary row
operations and elementary column operations.
1.3.1 Elementary row and column operations

Elementary row (column) operations on a matrix are as follows:
(i) The interchanging of any two rows (columns) of the matrix
(ii) Replacing a row (column) of the matrix by a non-zero scalar multiple of the row (column) by a
non-zero scalar.
(iii) Replacing a row (column) of the matrix by a sum of the row (column) with a non-zero scalar
multiple of another row (column) of the matrix.

Elementary row operations and elementary column operations on a matrix are known as
elementary transformations.
We use the following notations for elementary row transformations:
(i) Interchanging of ith and jth rows is denoted by Ri ↔ R j .
(ii) The multiplication of each element of ith row by a non-zero constant λ is denoted by Ri → λ Ri .
(iii) Addition to ith row, a non-zero constant λ multiple of jth row is denoted by Ri → Ri + λ R j .
Similar notations are used for elementary column transformations.
Definition 1.4
Two matrices A and B of same order are said to be equivalent to one another if one can be
obtained from the other by the applications of elementary transformations. Symbolically, we write
A  B to mean that the matrix A is equivalent to the matrix B .
 1 −2 2 
For instance, let us consider a matrix A =  −1 1 3  .
 1 −1 −4 
After performing the elementary row operation R2 → R2 + R1 on A , we get a matrix B in which

the second row is the sum of the second row in A and the first row in A .
1 −2 2 
Thus, we get A  B = 0 −1 5  .
1 −1 −4 
The above elementary row transformation is also represented as follows:
 1 −2 2  1 −2 2 
 −1 1 3  R
2
→ 0 −1 5  .
→ R2 + R1 
 
 1 −1 −4  1 −1 −4 

Note
An elementary transformation transforms a given matrix into another matrix which need not be
equal to the given matrix.
1.3.2 Row-Echelon form

Using the row elementary operations, we can transform a given non-zero matrix to a simplified
form called a Row-echelon form. In a row-echelon form, we may have rows all of whose entries are
zero. Such rows are called zero rows. A non-zero row is one in which at least one of the entries is not
6 0 −1
zero. For instance, in the matrix 0 0 1  , R1 and R2 are non-zero rows and R3 is a zero row.
0 0 0 
Definition 1.5
A non-zero matrix E is said to be in a row-echelon form if:
(i) All zero rows of E occur below every non-zero row of E.
(ii) The first non-zero element in any row i of E occurs in the j th column of E , then all other
entries in the j th column of E below the first non-zero element of row i are zeros.
(iii) The first non-zero entry in the i th row of E lies to the left of the first non-zero entry in
(i +1) th row of E .

Note
A non-zero matrix is in a row-echelon form if all zero rows occur as bottom rows of the
matrix, and if the first non-zero element in any lower row occurs to the right of the first non-
zero entry in the higher row.
0 1 1  1 0 −1 2 
 
The following matrices are in row-echelon form:(i) 0 0 3 ,(ii) 0 0 2 8 
0 0 0  0 0 0 6 
Consider the matrix in (i). Go up row by row from the last row of the matrix. The third row is a
zero row. The first non-zero entry in the second row occurs in the third column and it lies to the right
of the first non-zero entry in the first row which occurs in the second column. So the matrix is in row-
echelon form.
Consider the matrix in (ii). G o up row by row from the last row of the matrix. All the rows are
non-zero rows. The first non-zero entry in the third row occurs in the fourth column and it occurs
to the right of the first non-zero entry in the second row which occurs in the third column. The first
non-zero entry in the second row occurs in the third column and it occurs to the right of the first
non-zero entry in the first row which occurs in the first column. So the matrix is in row-echelon form.
The following matrices are not in row-echelon form:
1 −2 0  0 3 −2 
(i) 0 0 5  , (ii) 5 0 0  .
 
0 1 0   3 2 0 
Consider the matrix in (i). In this matrix, the first non-zero entry in the third row occurs in the
second column and it is on the left of the first non-zero entry in the second row which occurs in the
third column. So the matrix is not in row-echelon form.
Consider the matrix in (ii). I n this matrix, the first non-zero entry in the second row occurs in the
first column and it is on the left of the first non-zero entry in the first row which occurs in the second
column. So the matrix is not in row-echelon form.
Method to reduce a matrix aij  m × n to a row-echelon form.
Step 1
Inspect the first row. If the first row is a zero row, then the row is interchanged with a non-zero
row below the first row. If a11 is not equal to 0, then go to step 2. Otherwise, interchange the first row
R1 with any other row below the first row which has a non-zero element in the first column; if no row
below the first row has non-zero entry in the first column, then consider a12 . If a12 is not equal to 0,
then go to step 2. Otherwise, interchange the first row R1 with any other row below the first row which
has a non-zero element in the second column; if no row below the first row has non-zero entry in the
second column, then consider a13 . Proceed in the same way till we get a non-zero entry in the first row.
This is called pivoting and the first non-zero element in the first row is called the pivot of the first row.
Step 2
Use the first row and elementary row operations to transform all elements under the pivot to
become zeros.
Step 3
Consider the next row as first row and perform steps 1 and 2 with the rows below this row only.
Repeat the step until all rows are exhausted.

Example 1.13
 3 −1 2 
Reduce the matrix  −6 2 4  to a row-echelon form.
 −3 1 2 
Solution
 3 −1 2  R2 → R2 + 2 R1 ,  3 −1 2  R → R − 1 R  3 −1 2 
 −6 2 4  R
→ R3 + R1 0 0 8   2 → 0 0 8  .
3 3 2
 
3
→    
 −3 1 2  0 0 4  0 0 0 
Note
 3 −1 2   3 −1 2 
→ 0 0 1  . This is also a row-echelon form of the given matrix.
→ R2 / 8 
0 0 8  R
 
2
0 0 0  0 0 0 
So, a row-echelon form of a matrix is not necessarily unique.
Example 1.14
 0 3 1 6
Reduce the matrix  −1 0 2 5  to a row-echelon form.
 4 2 0 0 
Solution
 0 3 1 6  −1 0 2 5   −1 0 2 5 
 −1 0 2 5  R
1
↔ R2   R
→  0 3 1 6  
3
→ R3
+ 4 R1
→  0 3 1 6 
 
 4 2 0 0   4 2 0 0   0 2 8 20 
 
2  −1 0 2 5   −1 0 2 5 
R3 → R3 − R2   R3 →3R2 
 3 →  0 3 1 6  →  0 3 1 6  .
 0 0 22 16   0 0 22 48
 
 3 
1.3.3 Rank of a Matrix

To define the rank of a matrix, we have to know about sub-matrices and minors of a matrix.
Let A be a given matrix. A matrix obtained by deleting some rows and some columns of A is
called a sub-matrix of A. A matrix is a sub-matrix of itself because it is obtained by leaving zero
number of rows and zero number of columns.
Recall that the determinant of a square sub-matrix of a matrix is called a minor of the matrix.
Definition 1.6
The rank of a matrix A is defined as the order of a highest order non-vanishing minor of the
matrix A. It is denoted by the symbol ρ ( A). The rank of a zero matrix is defined to be 0.

Note
(i) If a matrix contains at-least one non-zero element, then ρ ( A) ≥ 1.
(ii) The rank of the identity matrix I n is n.
(iii) If the rank of a matrix A is r, then there exists at-least one minor of A of order r which does
not vanish and every minor of A of order r +1 and higher order (if any) vanishes.
(iv) If A is an m × n matrix, then ρ ( A) ≤ min{m, n} = minimum of m, n.
(v) A square matrix A of order n has inverse if and only if ρ ( A) = n.
Example 1.15
3 2 5   4 3 1 −2 
Find the rank of each of the following matrices: (i) 1 1 2  (ii)  −3 −1 −2 4 
 
3 3 6   6 7 −1 2 
Solution
3 2 5 
(i) Let A = 1 1 2  . Then A is a matrix of order 3 × 3 . So ρ ( A) ≤ min {3, 3} = 3 . The highest
3 3 6 
order of minors of A is 3 . There is only one third order minor of A .
3 2 5
It is 1 1 2 = 3(6 − 6) − 2(6 − 6) + 5(3 − 3) = 0 . So, ρ ( A) < 3.
3 3 6
Next consider the second-order minors of A .
3 2
We find that the second order minor = 3 − 2 = 1 ≠ 0 . So ρ ( A) = 2 .
1 1
 4 3 1 −2 
(ii) Let A =  −3 −1 −2 4  . Then A is a matrix of order 3 × 4 . So ρ ( A) ≤ min {3, 4} = 3 .
 6 7 −1 2 
The highest order of minors of A is 3 . We search for a non-zero third-order minor of A . But
we find that all of them vanish. In fact, we have
4 3 1 4 3 −2 4 1 −2 3 1 −2
−3 −1 −2 = 0 ; −3 −1 4 = 0; −3 −2 4 = 0; −1 −2 4 = 0.
6 7 −1 6 7 2 6 −1 2 7 −1 2
So, ρ ( A) < 3. Next, we search for a non-zero second-order minor of A .
4 3
We find that = −4 + 9 = 5 ≠ 0 . So, ρ ( A) = 2 .
−3 −1
Remark
Finding the rank of a matrix by searching a highest order non-vanishing minor is quite tedious
when the order of the matrix is quite large. There is another easy method for finding the rank of a
matrix even if the order of the matrix is quite high. This method is by computing the rank of an
equivalent row-echelon form of the matrix. If a matrix is in row-echelon form, then all entries below
the leading diagonal (it is the line joining the positions of the diagonal elements a11 , a22 , a33 ,. of the
matrix) are zeros. So, checking whether a minor is zero or not, is quite simple.

Example 1.16
Find the rank of the following matrices which are in row-echelon form :
6 0 −9 
 2 0 −7   −2 2 −1 0
  0 5 1 2 0 
(i)  0 3 1  (ii)
  (iii) 
0 0 0
 0 0 1   0 0 0   
0 0 0
Solution
 2 0 −7 
Let A =  0 3 1  . Then A is a matrix of order 3 × 3 and ρ ( A) ≤ 3
(i)
 0 0 1 
2 0 −7
The third order minor A = 0 3 1 = (2)(3)(1) = 6 ≠ 0 . So, ρ ( A) = 3 .
0 0 1
Note that there are three non-zero rows.
 −2 2 −1
(ii) Let A =  0 5 1  . Then A is a matrix of order 3 × 3 and ρ ( A) ≤ 3.
 0 0 0 
−2 2 −1
The only third order minor is A = 0 5 1 = (−2)(5)(0) = 0 . So ρ ( A) ≤ 2 .
0 0 0
There are several second order minors. We find that there is a second order minor, for
−2 2
example, = (−2)(5) = −10 ≠ 0 . So, ρ ( A) = 2 .
0 5

Note that there are two non-zero rows. The third row is a zero row.
6 0 −9 
0 2 0 
(iii) Let A =  . Then A is a matrix of order 4 × 3 and ρ ( A) ≤ 3.
0 0 0
 
0 0 0
The last two rows are zero rows. There are several second order minors. We find that there
6 0
is a second order minor, for example, = (6)(2) = 12 ≠ 0 . So, ρ ( A) = 2 .
0 2

Note that there are two non-zero rows. The third and fourth rows are zero rows.

We observe from the above example that the rank of a matrix in row echelon form is equal
to the number of non-zero rows in it. We state this observation as a theorem without proof.
Theorem 1.11
The rank of a matrix in row echelon form is the number of non-zero rows in it.
The rank of a matrix which is not in a row-echelon form, can be found by applying the following
result which is stated without proof.

Theorem 1.12
The rank of a non-zero matrix is equal to the number of non-zero rows in a row-echelon form
of the matrix.
Example 1.17
1 2 3 
Find the rank of the matrix  2 1 4  by reducing it to a row-echelon form.
 3 0 5 
Solution
1 2 3
Let A =  2 1 4  . Applying elementary row operations, we get
 3 0 5 
1 2 3 
R2 → R2 − 2 R1 1 2 3 
  → 0 −3 −2  .
R3 → R3 − 3 R1 R3 → R3 − 2 R2
A 
→ 0 −3 −2  
0 −6 −4  0 0 0 

The last equivalent matrix is in row-echelon form. It has two non-zero rows. So, ρ ( A) = 2.
Example 1.18
 2 −2 4 3 
Find the rank of the matrix  −3 4 −2 −1 by reducing it to an echelon form.
 6 2 −1 7 
Solution
Let A be the matrix. Performing elementary row operations, we get
 2 −2 4 3   2 −2 4 3  R2 → R2 + 3R1  2 −2 4 3 
A =  −3 4 −2 −1 →  −6 8 −4 −2  
  →  0 2 8 7  .
R2 → 2 R2 R3 → R3 − 3 R1
 6 2 −1 7   6 2 −1 7   0 8 −13 −2 

 2 −2 4 3   2 −2 4 3 
 7  →  0 2 8 7  .

R3 → R3 − 4 R2 R3 → R3 ÷ ( −15) 
→ 0 2 8

 0 0 −45 −30   0 0 3 2 
The last equivalent matrix is in row-echelon form. It has three non-zero rows. So, ρ ( A) = 3 .
Elementary row operations on a matrix can be performed by pre-multiplying the given matrix by
a special class of matrices called elementary matrices.
Definition 1.7
An elementary matrix is defined as a matrix which is obtained from an identity matrix by
applying only one elementary transformation.
Remark
If we are dealing with matrices with three rows, then all elementary matrices are square matrices
of order 3 which are obtained by carrying out only one elementary row operations on the unit
matrix I3. Every elementary row operation that is carried out on a given matrix A can be obtained by
pre-multiplying A with elementary matrix. Similarly, every elementary column operation that is
carried out on a given matrix A can be obtained by post-multiplying Awith an elementary matrix. In
the present chapter, we use elementary row operations only.

 a11 a12 a13 
For instance, let us consider the matrix A =  a21 a22 a23  .
 a31 a32 a33 
Suppose that we do the transformation R2 → R2 + λ R3 on A, where λ ≠ 0 is a constant. Then, we get

 a11 a12 a13 

R2 → R2 + λ R3
→  a21 + λ a31 a22 + λ a32
A  a23 + λ a33  .
….(1)
 a31 a32 a33 
1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0 
The matrix 0 1 λ  is an elementary matrix, since we have → 0 1 λ  .
→ R2 + λ R3 
0 1 0  R
 
2
0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 
1 0 0 
Pre-multiplying A by 0 1 λ  , we get
0 0 1 
1 0 0   a11 a12 a13   a11 a12 a13 

0 1 λ   a
   21 a22 a23  =  a21 + λ a31 a22 + λ a32 a23 + λ a33  . ... (2)
0 0 1   a31 a32 a33   a31 a32 a33 

1 0 0 
→ 0 1 λ  A.
From (1) and (2), we get R2 → R2 + λ R3
A 
0 0 1 
So, the effect of applying the elementary transformation R2 → R2 + λ R3 on A is the same as that
1 0 0 
of pre-multiplying the matrix A with the elementary matrix 0 1 λ  .
0 0 1 
Similarly, we can show that

(i) the effect of applying the elementary transformation R2 ↔ R3 on A is the same as that of
1 0 0 
pre-multiplying the matrix A with the elementary matrix 0 0 1  .
0 1 0 
(ii) the effect of applying the elementary transformation R2 → λ R2 on A is the same as that of
1 0 0 
pre-multiplying the matrix A with the elementary matrix 0 λ 0  .
0 0 1 
We state the following result without proof.

Theorem 1.13
Every non-singular matrix can be transformed to an identity matrix, by a sequence of elementary
row operations.
 2 −1
As an illustration of the above theorem, let us consider the matrix A =  .
3 4 
Then, A = 12 + 3 = 15 ≠ 0.So, A is non-singular. Let us transform A into I 2 by a sequence of
elementary row operations. First, we search for a row operation to make a11 of A as 1. The elementary
1 
1  0
row operation needed for this is R1 →   R1.The corresponding elementary matrix is E1 = 2 .
2  
 0 1
1   −1 
 0  2 −1 1
Then, we get E1 A = 2 3 4  =  2 .
    3 4
 0 1  
Next, let us make all elements below a11 of E1 A as 0. There is only one element a21 .
The elementary row operation needed for this is R2 → R2 + (−3) R1.
 1 0
The corresponding elementary matrix is E2 =  .
 −3 1 
 1
 1  1 − 
 1 0  1 −  2 .
Then, we get E2 ( E1 A ) =   2 = 
 −3 1  3 4  0 11 
  
 2 
Next, let us make a22 of E2 ( E1 A ) as 1. The elementary row operation needed for this is
2
R2 →   R2 .
 11 
1 0 
The corresponding elementary matrix is 3 
E = 2  .
0
 11 
 1
1 0  1 −   1
2 = 1 −  .
Then, we get E3 ( E2 ( E1 A ) ) =     2
0 2   11   
 11  0  0 1 
 2 
Finally, let us find an elementary row operation to make a12 of E3 ( E2 ( E1 A ) ) as 0. The elementary
1
row operation needed for this is R1 → R1 +   R2 .The corresponding elementary matrix is
2
 1
 1
E4 = 2.
 
0 1 

 1  1
1 1 −  1 0 
(
Then, we get E4 E3 ( E2 ( E1 A ) ) = 

) 2 

 2 = =I .
 0 1  2
0 1  0 1 
We write the above sequence of elementary transformations in the following manner:
1 1 − 1  2 1

 R → 11  R 1 −  R → R +  2  R 1 0 
 −1  1
 2 −1 R → 2  R 1 R → R + ( −3) R  2
2   → 2  
1 1 2 2 1 1 2
A=    
→ →   → 
2 2 1
3 4     11    0 1 
3 4 0  0 1 
 2 
Example 1.19
3 1 4 
Show that the matrix  2 0 −1 is non-singular and reduce it to the identity matrix by
 5 2 1 
elementary row transformations.
Solution
3 1 4 
Let A =  2 0 −1 . Then, A = 3(0 + 2) − 1(2 + 5) + 4(4 − 0) = 6 − 7 + 16 = 15 ≠ 0. So, A is
 5 2 1 
non-singular. Keeping the identity matrix as our goal, we perform the row operations sequentially on
A as follows:
 1 4   1 4 
 1 4 1 3 1
1 3  3 3 
 3 1 4  R→ R 
1 3 3    3
R → −  R  
 2 0 −1 3 → 2  R → R − 2 R , R → R −5R  2 11  11 
→  0
 2
1 1 2 2
 0 −1 → 0 −
2 2 1 3 3 1
− 1
   3 3  2 
 5 2 1  5 2 1    
  1 17 1 17
  0 −  0 − 
 3 3   3 3 
 1  1
1 0 − 2  1 0 − 2 
1 1
R1 → R1 − R2 , R3 → R3 − R2   R3 → − 2  R3   1 11 1 0 0 
11 11  R1 → R1 + 2 R3 , R2 → R2 − 2 R3 
   → 0 1 0  .
3 3  15 
→ 0 1  → 0 1
 2   2 
  0 0 1  0 0 1 
0 0 − 15   
 2   
1.3.4 Gauss-Jordan Method

Let A be a non-singular square matrix of order n . Let B be the inverse of A.
Then, we have AB
= BA
= I n . By the property of I n , we have=
A I=
nA AI n .
Consider the equation A = I n A …(1)

Since A is non-singular, pre-multiplying by a sequence of elementary matrices (row operations)
on both sides of (1), A on the left-hand-side of (1) is transformed to the identity matrix I n and the
same sequence of elementary matrices (row operations) transforms I n of the right-hand-side of (1) to
a matrix B. So, equation (1) transforms to I n = BA.Hence, the inverse of A is B. That is, A−1 = B.

Note
If E1 , E2 , , Ek are elementary matrices (row operations) such that ( Ek  E2 E1 ) A = I n , then
A−1 = Ek  E2 E1.
Transforming a non-singular matrix A to the form I n by applying elementary row operations, is

called Gauss-Jordan method. The steps in finding A−1 by Gauss-Jordan method are given below:
Step 1
Augment the identity matrix I n on the right-side of A to get the matrix [ A | I n ] .
Step 2
Obtain elementary matrices (row operations) E1 , E2 , , Ek such that ( Ek  E2 E1 ) A = I n .
Apply E1 , E2 , , Ek on [ A | I n ] . Then ( Ek  E2 E1 ) A | ( Ek  E2 E1 ) I n  .That is,  I n | A−1  .
Example 1.20
 0 5
Find the inverse of the non-singular matrix A =   , by Gauss-Jordan method.
 −1 6 
Solution
Applying Gauss-Jordan method, we get
 0 5 1 0  R1 ↔ R2  −1 6 0 1  R1 →( −1) R1 1 −6 0 −1
[ A | I 2 ] =  −1 6 0 1
  →  →  
  0 5 1 0 0 5 1 0
1
R2 → R2
5 → 1 −6 0 −1 R1 → R1 + 6 R2 1 0 (6 / 5) −1
    → .
0 1 (1 / 5) 0  0 1 (1 / 5) 0 
(6 / 5) −1 1 6 −5

So, we get A−1 =  =  .
 (1 / 5) 0  5 1 0 
Example 1.21
2 1 1
Find the inverse of A =  3 2 1  by Gauss-Jordan method.
 2 1 2 
Solution
Applying Gauss-Jordan method, we get
2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 (1 / 2) (1 / 2) (1 / 2) 0 0 
 R1 → 2 R1 
[ A | I3 ] =  3 2 1 0 1 0  →  3 2 1 0 1 0

 2 1 2 0 0 1   2 1 2 0 0 1 

1 (1 / 2) (1 / 2)
R2 → R2 − 3 R1 (1 / 2) 0 0  1 (1 / 2) (1 / 2) (1 / 2) 0 0 

R3 → R3 − 2 R1  R2 → 2 R2  
→  0 (1 / 2) −(1 / 2)
 −(3 / 2) 1 0  → 0 1 −1 −3 2 0 
 0 0 1 −1 0 1  0 0 1 −1 0 1 


1 1 0 1 2 −1 0  R1 → R1 − R3 1 0 0 3 −1 −1
R1 → R1 − R2
 2 →  0 1 −1  R2 → R2 + R3 
−3 2 0   → 0 1 0

−4 2 1  .

0 0 1 −1 0 1  0 0 1 −1 0 1 

 3 −1 −1
So, A =  −4 2 1  .
−1
 −1 0 1 
EXERCISE 1.2
1. Find the rank of the following matrices by minor method:
 −1 3 1 −2 3  0 1 2 1 
 2 −4   1 −2 −1 0 
(i)  

(ii)  4 −7  (iii)   (iv)  2 4 −6  (v) 0 2 4 3
 
 −1 2   3 −4  3 −6 −3 1   5 1 −1 8 1 0 2
2. Find the rank of the following matrices by row reduction method:
1 2 −1
1 1 1 3  3 −1 2   3 −8 5 2 
 
(i)  2 −1 3 4  (ii)   (iii)  2 −5 1 4 
1 −2 3   
 5 −1 7 11   
 −1 2 3 −2 
1 −1 1 
3. Find the inverse of each of the following by Gauss-Jordan method:
1 −1 0   1 2 3
 2 −1    2 5 3
(i)   (ii)  1 0 −1 (iii)  
 5 −2  6 −2 −3 1 0 8
1.4 Applications of Matrices: Solving System of Linear Equations

One of the important applications of matrices and determinants is solving of system of linear
equations. Systems of linear equations arise as mathematical models of several phenomena occurring
in biology, chemistry, commerce, economics, physics and engineering. For instance, analysis of
circuit theory, analysis of input-output models, and analysis of chemical reactions require solutions
of systems of linear equations.
1.4.1 Formation of a System of Linear Equations
The meaning of a system of linear equations can be understood by formulating a mathematical
model of a simple practical problem.
Three persons A, B and C go to a supermarket to purchase same brands of rice and sugar. Person A
buys 5 Kilograms of rice and 3 Kilograms of sugar and pays ` 440. Person B purchases 6 Kilograms of rice
and 2 Kilograms of sugar and pays ` 400. Person C purchases 8 Kilograms of rice and 5 Kilograms of
sugar and pays ` 720. Let us formulate a mathematical model to compute the price per Kilogram of rice
and the price per Kilogram of sugar. Let x be the price in rupees per Kilogram of rice and y be the price
in rupees per Kilogram of sugar. Person A buys 5 Kilograms of rice and 3 Kilograms sugar and pays
` 440 . So, 5 x + 3 y = 440 . Similarly, by considering Person B and Person C, we get 6 x + 2 y = 400 and
8 x + 5 y = 720 . Hence the mathematical model is to obtain x and y such that
5 x + 3 y = 440, 6 x + 2 y = 400, 8 x + 5 y = 720 .

Note
In the above example, the values of x and y which satisfy one equation should also satisfy all
the other equations. In other words, the equations are to be satisfied by the same values of x and y
simultaneously. If such values of x and y exist, then they are said to form a solution for the system
of linear equations. In the three equations, x and y appear in first degree only. Hence they are said
to form a system of linear equations in two unknowns x and y . They are also called simultaneous
linear equations in two unknowns x and y . The system has three linear equations in two unknowns
x and y .
The equations represent three straight lines in two-dimensional analytical geometry.
In this section, we develop methods using matrices to find solutions of systems of linear equations.
1.4.2 System of Linear Equations in Matrix Form

A system of m linear equations in n unknowns is of the following form:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 +  + a1n xn = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 +  + a2 n xn = b2 ,
… (1)
     
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + am 3 x3 +  + amn xn = bm ,
where the coefficients
= aij , i 1,=2, , m; j 1, 2, , n and bk , k = 1, 2, , m are constants. If all the
bk 's are zeros, then the above system is called a homogeneous system of linear equations. On the
other hand, if at least one of the bk 's is non-zero, then the above system is called a non-homogeneous
system of linear equations. If there exist values α1 , α 2 ,  , α n for x1 , x2 ,  , xn respectively which
satisfy every equation of (1), then the ordered n − tuple (α1 , α 2 ,  , α n ) is called a solution of (1).
The above system (1) can be put in a matrix form as follows:
 a11 a12 a13  a1n 
 
a a22 a23  a2 n 
Let A =  21 be the m × n matrix formed by the coefficients of
    
 
 am1 am 2 am 3  amn 
x1 , x2 , x3 ,  , xn . The first row of A is formed by the coefficients of x1 , x2 , x3 ,  , xn in the same
order in which they occur in the first equation. Likewise, the other rows of A are formed. The first
column is formed by the coefficients of x1 in the m equations in the same order. The other columns
are formed in a similar way.
 x1 
x 
Let X =  2  be the n ×1 order column matrix formed by the unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 ,  , xn .
 
 
 xn 
b1 
b 
Let B =  2  be the m ×1 order column matrix formed by the right-hand side constants
 
 
bm 
b1 , b2 , b3 ,  , bm .

Then we get
 a11 a12 a13 a1n   x1   a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + + a1n xn  b1 

   x  a x + a x + a x + 
a a22 a23 a2 n  + a2 n xn  b2 
AX =  21  2  =  21 1 22 2 23 3 = = B.
       
       
 am1 am 2 am 3 amn   xn   am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + am 3 x3 + + amn xn  bm 
Then AX = B is a matrix equation involving matrices and it is called the matrix form of the
system of linear equations (1). The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the system and the
a11 a12 a13 a1n b1
a21 a22 a23 a2 n b2
matrix is called the augmented matrix of the system. We denote the

am1 am 2 am 3 amn bm
augmented matrix by [ A | B ].
As an example, the matrix form of the system of linear equations

 2 3 −5  x   −7 
2 x + 3 y − 5 z + 7 = 0, 7 y + 2 z − 3 x = 17, 6 x − 3 y − 8 z + 24 = 0 is  −3 7 2   y  =  17  .
 6 −3 −8  z   −24 
1.4.3 Solution to a System of Linear equations

The meaning of solution to a system of linear equations can be understood by considering the
following cases :
y
Case (i)
Consider the system of linear equations
2x − y = 5 , ... (1)
5
6
y=
x + 3 y = 6 . ... (2)
2x −
These two equations represent a pair of straight 4

lines in two dimensional analytical geometry (see the 3 (4, 3)
Fig. 1.2). Using (1), we get 2
(0, 2)
x+3
5+ y y=
6
x = . ... (3) 1
(3,1)
2
x' (6, 0)
x
Substituting (3) in (2) and simplifying, we get y = 1. O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1 (2, −1)
Substituting y = 1 in (1) and simplifying, we
y'
get x = 3 .
Fig.1.2
Both equations (1) and (2) are satisfied by x = 3 and y = 1.
That is, a solution of (1) is also a solution of (2).

So, we say that the system is consistent and has unique solution (3,1) .
The point (3,1) is the point of intersection of the two lines 2 x − y = 5 and x + 3 y = 6 .

Case (ii) y
Consider the system of linear equations
3 x + 2 y = 5 , ... (1)
5
6 x + 4 y = 10 ... (2) 4
Using equation (1), we get 3
3x
5− 2y
+2
2
x = ... (3)
y=
3
1
5
(1,1)
x' x
Substituting (3) in (2) and simplifying, we get 0 = 0 . –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
This informs us that equation (2) is an elementary –2 (3, −2)
transformation of equation (1). In fact, by dividing equation
(2) by 2, we get equation (1). It is not possible to find
uniquely x and y with just a single equation (1).
y'
Fig.1.3
So we are forced to assume the value of one unknown, say y = t , where t is any real number.
5 − 2t
Then, x = . The two equations (1) and (2) represent one and only one straight line (coincident
3
lines) in two dimensional analytical geometry (see Fig. 1.3) . In other words, the system is consistent (a
solution of (1) is also a solution of (2)) and has infinitely many solutions, as t can assume any real value.
y
Case (iii)
Consider the system of linear equations 5 (1, 5)
4x + y = 6 , ... (1) y = 18
4
8x + 2
3
8 x + 2 y = 18 .
=6
... (2)
4x + y
2 (1, 2)
Using equation (1), we get
1 (2,1)
6− y
x = ... (3) x' x
4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Substituting (3) in (2) and simplifying, we get 12 = 18 .

–1
–2
(2, −2)
This is a contradicting result, which informs us y'

that equation (2) is inconsistent with equation (1). So, Fig.1.4
a solution of (1) is not a solution of (2).
In other words, the system is inconsistent and has no solution. We note that the two equations
represent two parallel straight lines (non-coincident) in two dimensional analytical geometry (see Fig.
1.4). We know that two non-coincident parallel lines never meet in real points.
Note
(1) Interchanging any two equations of a system of linear equations does not alter the solution
of the system.
(2) Replacing an equation of a system of linear equations by a non-zero constant multiple of
itself does not alter the solution of the system.
(3) Replacing an equation of a system of linear equations by addition of itself with a non-zero
multiple of any other equation of the system does not alter the solution of the system.

Definition 1.8
A system of linear equations having at least one solution is said to be consistent. A system
of linear equations having no solution is said to be inconsistent.
Remark
If the number of the equations of a system of linear equations is equal to the number of unknowns
of the system, then the coefficient matrix A of the system is a square matrix. Further, if A is a
non-singular matrix, then the solution of system of equations can be found by any one of the following
methods : (i) matrix inversion method, (ii) Cramer’s rule, (iii) Gaussian elimination method.
1.4.3 (i) Matrix Inversion Method

This method can be applied only when the coefficient matrix is a square matrix and non-singular.
Consider the matrix equation
AX = B , … (1)
where A is a square matrix and non-singular. Since A is non-singular, A exists and A A = AA−1 = I .
−1 −1
( )
Pre-multiplying both sides of (1) by A−1 , we get A−1 ( AX ) = A−1 B. That is, A−1 A X = A−1 B.
Hence, we get X = A−1 B.
Example 1.22
Solve the following system of linear equations, using matrix inversion method:
5 x + 2 y = 3, 3 x + 2 y = 5 .
Solution
5 2  x 3
The matrix form of the system is AX = B , where A =   , X =  ,B =   .
3 2   y 5 
5 2 1  2 −2 
We find A = = 10 − 6 = 4 ≠ 0 .So, A−1 exists and A−1 =  .
3 2 4  −3 5 
Then, applying the formula X = A−1 B, we get
 −4 
 x  1  2 −2  3 1  6 − 10  1  −4   4   −1
 y  = 4  −3 5  5 = 4  −9 + 25 = 4 16  =  16  =  4  .
            
 4 
So the solution is ( x = −1, y = 4 ) .
Example
1.23
Solve the following system of equations, using matrix inversion method:
2 x1 + 3 x2 + 3 x3 = 5, x1 − 2 x2 + x3 = − 4, 3 x1 − x2 − 2 x3 = 3.

Solution
The matrix form of the system is AX = B, where
2 3 3   x1  5
A = 1 −2 1  , X =  x2  , B =  − 4  .
   
 3 −1 −2   x3   3 

2 3 3
We find A = 1 −2 1 = 2(4 + 1) − 3(−2 − 3) + 3(−1 + 6) = 10 + 15 + 15 = 40 ≠ 0 .
3 −1 −2
So, A−1 exists and
T
 +(4 + 1) −(−2 − 3) +(−1 + 6)  5 3 9
1 1  1 
−1
A = (adj A) = 
−(−6 + 3) +(−4 − 9) −(−2 − 9)  = 5 −13 1 
A 40  40 
 +(3 + 6) −(2 − 3) +(−4 − 3)  5 11 −7 
Then, applying X = A−1 B , we get

 x1  5 3 9  5   25 − 12 + 27   40   1 
  1     1   1    
 x2  = 40 5 −13 1   −4  = 40  25 + 52 + 3  = 40  80  =  2  .
 x3  5 11 −7   3   25 − 44 − 21  −40   −1
So, the solution is ( x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = −1) .
Example 1.24
 −4 4 4  1 −1 1 
If A =  −7 1 3  and B = 1 −2 −2  , find the products AB and BA and hence solve the
 
 5 −3 −1  2 1 3 
system of equations x − y + z = 4, x − 2 y − 2 z = 9, 2 x + y + 3 z = 1.
Solution
 −4 4 4  1 −1 1   −4 + 4 + 8 4 − 8 + 4 −4 − 8 + 12  8 0 0 
We find AB =  −7 1 3  1 −2 −2  =  −7 + 1 + 6 7 − 2 + 3 −7 − 2 + 9  = 0 8 0  = 8 I 3
 5 −3 −1  2 1 3   5 − 3 − 2 −5 + 6 − 1 5 + 6 − 3  0 0 8 
1 −1 1   −4 4 4   −4 + 7 + 5 4 − 1 − 3 4 − 3 − 1  8 0 0 
and BA = 1 −2 −2   −7 1 3  =  −4 + 14 − 10 4 − 2 + 6 4 − 6 + 2  = 0 8 0  = 8 I 3 .
 2 1 3   5 −3 −1  −8 − 7 + 15 8 + 1 − 9 8 + 3 − 3  0 0 8 
1  1  1
So, we get AB
= BA = 8 I 3 .That is,  A  B = B  A  = I 3 .Hence, B −1 = A.
8  8  8
Writing the given system of equations in matrix form, we get
1 −1 1   x  4  x  4
         
1 −2 −2   y  = 9  . That is, B  y  = 9  .

 2 1 3   z  1   z  1 
 x 4 4  −4 4 4   4   −16 + 36 + 4   24   3 

 1  1 1 1
So,  y  = B −1 9  =  A  9  =  −7 1 3  9  =  −28 + 9 + 3  =  −16  =  −2  .
8  8 8 8
 z  1  1   5 −3 −1 1   20 − 27 − 1   −8   −1
Hence, the solution is ( x = 3, y = −2, z = −1).

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Solve the following system of linear equations by matrix inversion method:
(i) 2 x + 5 y = −2, x + 2 y = −3 (ii) 2 x − y = 8, 3x + 2 y = −2
(iii) 2 x + 3 y − z = 9, x + y + z = 9, 3 x − y − z = −1
(iv) x + y + z − 2 = 0, 6x − 4 y + 5 z − 31 = 0, 5x + 2 y + 2 z = 13
 −5 1 3  1 1 2
2. If A =  7 1 −5 and B =  3 2 1  , find the products AB and BA and hence solve the
 
 1 −1 1   2 1 3 
system of equations x + y + 2 z = 1, 3 x + 2 y + z = 7, 2 x + y + 3 z = 2.
3. A man is appointed in a job with a monthly salary of certain amount and a fixed amount of
annual increment. If his salary was ` 19,800 per month at the end of the first month after 3
years of service and ` 23,400 per month at the end of the first month after 9 years of service,
find his starting salary and his annual increment. (Use matrix inversion method to solve the
problem.)
4. Four men and 4 women can finish a piece of work jointly in 3 days while 2 men and 5 women
can finish the same work jointly in 4 days. Find the time taken by one man alone and that of
one woman alone to finish the same work by using matrix inversion method.
5. The prices of three commodities A, B and C are ` x, y and z per units respectively. A person
P purchases 4 units of B and sells two units of A and 5 units of C . Person Q purchases 2
units of C and sells 3 units of A and one unit of B . Person R purchases one unit of A and
sells 3 unit of B and one unit of C . In the process, P, Q and R earn ` 15,000, ` 1,000 and
` 4,000 respectively. Find the prices per unit of A, B and C . (Use matrix inversion method to
solve the problem.)
1.4.3 (ii) Cramer’s Rule

This rule can be applied only when the coefficient matrix is a square matrix and non-singular. It
is explained by considering the following system of equations:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 ,
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3 ,
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13

 
where the coefficient matrix  a21 a22 a23  is non-singular. Then a21 a22 a23 ¹ 0.
 a31 a32 a33  a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a13
Let us put D = a21 a22 a23 . Then, we have
a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a13 a11 x1 a12 a13 a11 x1 +a12 x2 +a13 x3 a12 a13 b1 a12 a13
x1D = x1 a21 a22 a23 = a21 x1 a22 a23 = a21 x1 +a22 x2 +a23 x3 a22 a23 = b2 a22 a23 = ∆1
a31 a32 a33 a31 x1 a32 a33 a31 x1 +a32 x2 +a33 x3 a32 a33 b3 a32 a33

∆
Since D ¹ 0 , we get x1 = 1 .
∆
a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1
∆2 ∆3
Similarly, we get x2 = , x3 = , where ∆ 2 = a21 b2 a23 , ∆ 3 = a21 a22 b2 .
∆ ∆
a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
∆1 ∆ ∆
Thus, we have the Cramer’s rule x1 = , x2 = 2 , x3 = 3 ,
∆ ∆ ∆
a11 a12 a13 b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1
where D = a21 a22 a23 , ∆1 = b2 a22 a23 , ∆ 2 = a21 b2 a23 , ∆ 3 = a21 a22 b2
a31 a32 a33 b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
Note
Replacing the first column elements a11 , a21 , a31 of D with b1 , b2 , b3 respectively, we get D1.
Replacing the second column elements a12 , a22 , a32 of D with b1 , b2 , b3 respectively, we get D2 .
Replacing the third column elements a13 , a23 , a33 of D with b1 , b2 , b3 respectively, we get D3 .
If ∆ = 0, Cramer’s rule cannot be applied.
Example 1.25
Solve, by Cramer’s rule, the system of equations
x1 − x2 = 3, 2 x1 + 3 x2 + 4 x3 = 17, x2 + 2 x3 = 7.

Solution
First we evaluate the determinants
1 −1 0 3 −1 0 1 3 0 1 −1 3
∆ = 2 3 4 = 6 ≠ 0, ∆1 = 17 3 4 = 12, ∆ 2 = 2 17 4 = −6, ∆ 3 = 2 3 17 = 24.
0 1 2 7 1 2 0 7 2 0 1 7
∆ 1 12 ∆ −6 24
By Cramer’s rule, we get x1 = = = 2, x2 = 2 = = −1, x3 = = 4.
∆ 6 ∆ 6 6
So, the solution is ( x1 = 2, x2 = −1, x3 = 4) .
Example 1.26
In a T20 match, a team needed just 6 runs to win with 1 ball left to go in
the last over. The last ball was bowled and the batsman at the crease hit it high
up. The ball traversed along a path in a vertical plane and the equation of the
path is y = ax 2 + bx + c with respect to a xy -coordinate system in the vertical
plane and the ball traversed through the points (10, 8), (20,16), (40, 22) , can
you conclude that the team won the match?
Justify your answer. (All distances are measured in metres and the meeting point of the plane of
the path with the farthest boundary line is (70, 0).)
Solution
The path y = ax 2 + bx + c passes through the points (10, 8), (20,16), (40, 22) . So, we get the
system of equations 100a + 10b + c = 8, 400a + 20b + c = 16,1600a + 40b + c = 22. To apply Cramer’s
rule, we find

100 10 1 1 1 1
D = 400 20 1 = 1000 4 2 1 = 1000[ −2 + 12 − 16] = −6000 ,
1600 40 1 16 4 1
8 10 1 4 1 1
D1 = 16 20 1 = 20 8 2 1 = 20[ −8 + 3 + 10] = 100 ,
22 40 1 11 4 1
100 8 1 1 4 1
D2 = 400 16 1 = 200 4 8 1 = 200 [ −3 + 48 − 84] = −7800 ,
1600 22 1 16 11 1
100 10 8 1 1 4
D3 = 400 20 16 = 2000 4 2 8 = 2000 [−10 + 84 − 64] = 20000 .
1600 40 22 16 4 11
∆1 1 ∆ 7800 78 13 ∆ 20000 20 10
By Cramer’s rule, we get a = = − ,b = 2 = = = ,c = 3 = − =− =− .
∆ 60 ∆ 6000 60 10 ∆ 6000 6 3
1 2 13 10
So, the equation of the path is y = − x + x− .
60 10 3
When x = 70, we get y = 6. So, the ball went by 6 metres high over the boundary line and it is
impossible for a fielder standing even just before the boundary line to jump and catch the ball. Hence
the ball went for a super six and the team won the match.
EXERCISE 1.4
1. Solve the following systems of linear equations by Cramer’s rule:
(i) 5 x − 2 y + 16 = 0, x + 3 y − 7 = 0
3 2
(ii) x + 2 y = 12, x + 3 y = 13
(iii) 3 x + 3 y − z = 11, 2 x − y + 2 z = 9, 4x + 3 y + 2 z = 25
3 4 2 1 2 1 2 5 4
(iv) − − − 1 = 0, + + − 2 = 0, − − + 1 = 0
x y z x y z x y z
1
2. In a competitive examination, one mark is awarded for every correct answer while mark is
4
deducted for every wrong answer. A student answered 100 questions and got 80 marks. How
many questions did he answer correctly ? (Use Cramer’s rule to solve the problem).
3. A chemist has one solution which is 50% acid and another solution which is 25% acid. How
much each should be mixed to make 10 litres of a 40% acid solution ? (Use Cramer’s rule to
solve the problem).
4. A fish tank can be filled in 10 minutes using both pumps A and B simultaneously. However,
pump B can pump water in or out at the same rate. If pump B is inadvertently run in reverse,
then the tank will be filled in 30 minutes. How long would it take each pump to fill the tank by
itself ? (Use Cramer’s rule to solve the problem).

5. A family of 3 people went out for dinner in a restaurant. The cost of two dosai, three idlies
and two vadais is ` 150. The cost of the two dosai, two idlies and four vadais is ` 200. The
cost of five dosai, four idlies and two vadais is ` 250. The family has ` 350 in hand and they
ate 3 dosai and six idlies and six vadais. Will they be able to manage to pay the bill within the
amount they had ?
1.4.3 (iii) Gaussian Elimination Method

This method can be applied even if the coefficient matrix is singular matrix and rectangular
matrix. It is essentially the method of substitution which we have already seen. In this method, we
transform the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations into row-echelon form and then by
back-substitution, we get the solution.
Example 1.27
Solve the following system of linear equations, by Gaussian elimination method :
4 x + 3 y + 6 z = 25, x + 5 y + 7 z = 13, 2x + 9 y + z = 1.
Solution
Transforming the augmented matrix to echelon form, we get
4 3 6 25 1 5 7 13  R → R − 4 R , 1 5 7 13 
  R1 ↔ R2   R32 → R32 − 2 R11  
1 5 7 13  →  4 3 6 25  → 0 −17 −22 −27 
 2 9 1 1   2 9 1 1  0 −1 −13 −25 
1 5 7
R2 → R2 ÷( −1),
13  1 5 7 13 

R3 → R3 ÷( −1)  R3 →17 R3 − R2  
 → 0 17 22 27   → 0 17 22 27  .
0 1 13 25  0 0 199 398
The equivalent system is written by using the echelon form:
x + 5 y + 7 z = 13 , … (1)
17 y + 22 z = 27 , … (2)
199z = 398 . … (3)
398
From (3), we get=z = 2.
199
27 − 22 × 2 −17
Substituting z = 2 in (2), we get y = = = −1.
17 17
Substituting z = 2, y = −1 in (1), we get x = 13 − 5 × (−1) − 7 × 2 = 4 .
So, the solution is ( x = 4, y = −1, z = 2) .
Note. The above method of going from the last equation to the first equation is called the method
of back substitution.
Example 1.28
The upward speed v(t ) of a rocket at time t is approximated by
v(t ) = at 2 + bt + c, 0 £ t £ 100 where a, b, and c are constants. It has been
t 3=
found that the speed at times= , t 6 , and t = 9 seconds are respectively,
64, 133, and 208 miles per second respectively. Find the speed at time
t = 15 seconds. (Use Gaussian elimination method.)

Solution
Since = v(3) 64
=, v(6) 133, and v(9) = 208 , we get the following system of linear equations
9a + 3b + c = 64 ,
36a + 6b + c = 133 ,
81a + 9b + c = 208 .
We solve the above system of linear equations by Gaussian elimination method.
Reducing the augmented matrix to an equivalent row-echelon form by using elementary row
operations, we get
9 3 1 64  9 3 1 64  9 3 1 64 

[ A | B ] = 36 6 1
 R → R − 4 R , R → R −9 R
2 2 1 3 
133 → 0 −6 −3 −123  3 1  R → R ÷( −3), R → R ÷( −2 )
2 2 3 3
→  0 2 1 41

    
 81 9 1 208 0 −18 −8 −368  0 9 4 184 
9 3 1 64  9 3 1 64  9 3 1 64 
R →2 R
  
3 3
→ 0 2 1
 R → R −9 R
41  3 3 
→ 0 2 1 2  R →( −1) R
41  →  0 2 1 41 .
3 3
    
 0 18 8 368  0 0 −1 −1  0 0 1 1 
Writing the equivalent equations from the row-echelon matrix, we get
9a + 3b + c = 64, 2b + c = 41, c = 1.
(41 − c) (41 − 1) 64 − 3b − c 64 − 60 − 1 1
By back substitution, we get c = 1, b = = = 20, a = = = .
2 2 9 9 3
1 1
So, we get v(t ) = t 2 + 20t + 1. Hence, v(15) = (225) + 20(15) + 1 = 75 + 300 + 1 = 376.
3 3
EXERCISE 1.5
1. Solve the following systems of linear equations by

Gaussian elimination method:
(i) 2 x − 2 y + 3z = 2, x + 2 y − z = 3, 3x − y + 2 z = 1
(ii) 2 x + 4 y + 6 z = 22, 3x + 8 y + 5 z = 27, − x + y + 2 z = 2
2. If ax 2 + bx + c is divided by x + 3, x − 5 , and x −1, the remainders are 21, 61 and 9
respectively. Find a, b and c. (Use Gaussian elimination method.)
3. An amount of ` 65,000 is invested in three bonds at the rates of 6%, 8% and 9% per annum
respectively. The total annual income is ` 4,800. The income from the third bond is ` 600
more than that from the second bond. Determine the price of each bond. (Use Gaussian
elimination method.)
4. A boy is walking along the path y = ax 2 + bx + c through the points (−6, 8),(−2, −12) , and (3, 8) . He
wants to meet his friend at P(7, 60) . Will he meet his friend? (Use Gaussian elimination
method.)

1.5 Applications of Matrices: Consistency of System of
Linear Equations by Rank Method
In section 1.3.3, we have already defined consistency of a system of linear equation. In this
section, we investigate it by using rank method. We state the following theorem without proof:
Theorem 1.14 (Rouché - Capelli Theorem)
A system of linear equations, written in the matrix form as AX = B, is consistent if and only if the
rank of the coefficient matrix is equal to the rank of the augmented matrix; that is, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]).
We apply the theorem in the following examples.
1.5.1 Non-homogeneous Linear Equations

Example 1.29
Test for consistency of the following system of linear equations and if possible solve:
x + 2 y − z = 3, 3 x − y + 2 z = 1, x − 2 y + 3 z = 3, x − y + z + 1 = 0 .
Solution
Here the number of unknowns is 3.
1 2 −1 3
3  x 
−1 2 1
A =  , X =  y  , B =   .
1 −2 3 3
   z   
1 −1 1  −1
1 2 −1 3
 
3 −1 2 1
The augmented matrix is [ A | B] =  .
1 −2 3 3
 
1 −1 1 −1
Applying Gaussian elimination method on [ A | B], we get
1
R2 → R2 − 3 R1 , 2 −1 3  R2 →( −1) R2 , 1 2 −1 3

R3 → R3 − R1 ,  R →( −1) R ,  
0
R4 → R4 − R1 , −7 5 −8 R34 →( −1) R34 0 7 −5 8
→
[ A | B]   →
0 −4 4 0 0 4 −4 0
   
0 −3 2 −4  0 3 −2 4 
1 2 −1 3  1 2 −1 3 1 2 −1 3

R3 → 7 R3 − 4 R2 ,     
0
R4 → 7 R4 − 3 R2 7 −5 8  R3 → R3 ÷( −8) 0 7 −5 8  R4 → R4 − R3 0 7 −5 8
→   → →
0 0 −8 −32  0 0 1 4 0 0 1 4
     
0 0 1 4  0 0 1 4  0 0 0 0 
There are three non-zero rows in the row-echelon form of [ A | B]. So, ρ ([ A | B]) = 3.
1 2 −1
0 7 −5
So, the row-echelon form of A is  . There are three non-zero rows in it. So ρ ( A) = 3.
0 0 1
 
0 0 0

Hence, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) = 3.
From the echelon form, we write the equivalent system of equations
x + 2 y − z = 3, 7 y − 5 z = 8, z = 4, 0 = 0.
The last equation 0 = 0 is meaningful. By the method of back substitution, we get
z = 4
7 y − 20 = 8 ⇒ y =4,
x = 3−8+ 4 ⇒ x = −1 .
So, the solution is ( x = −1, y = 4, z = 4). (Note that A is not a square matrix.)
Here the given system is consistent and the solution is unique.
Example 1.30
4 x − 2 y + 6 z = 8, x + y − 3 z = −1, 15x − 3 y + 9 z = 21.
Solution
 4 −2 6  x 8
A =  1 1 −3 , X =  y  , B =  −1 .
   
15 −3 9   z   21
Applying elementary row operations on the augmented matrix[ A | B], we get
 4 −2 6 8 1 1 −3 −1 R2 → R2 − 4 R1 , 1 1 −3−1
  R1 ↔ R2   R3 → R3 −15 R1  
[ A | B] =  1 1 −3 −1  →  4 −2 6 8   → 0 −6 18 12 
15 −3 9 21 15 −3 9 21 0 −18 54 36 
R2 → R2 ÷ ( −6), 1 1 −3 −1 1 1 −3 −1
R3 → R3 ÷ ( −18)   R3 → R3 − R2  
→ 0 1 −3 −2  → 0 1 −3 −2  .
0 1 −3 −2  0 0 0 0 
So, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B ]) = 2 < 3. From the echelon form, we get the equivalent equations
x + y − 3 z = −1, y − 3 z = −2 , 0 = 0 .
The equivalent system has two non-trivial equations and three unknowns. So, one of the unknowns
should be fixed at our choice in order to get two equations for the other two unknowns. We fix z
arbitrarily as a real number t , and we get y = 3t − 2, x = −1 − (3t − 2) + 3t = 1 . So, the solution is
( x = 1, y = 3t − 2, z = t ) , where t is real . The above solution set is a one-parameter family of solutions.
Here, the given system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions which form a one parameter
family of solutions.
Note
In the above example, the square matrix A is singular and so matrix inversion method cannot be
applied to solve the system of equations. However, Gaussian elimination method is applicable and we
are able to decide whether the system is consistent or not. The next example also confirms the
supremacy of Gaussian elimination method over other methods.

Example 1.31
x − y + z = −9, 2x − 2 y + 2 z = −18, 3x − 3 y + 3 z + 27 = 0.
Solution
1 −1 1   x  −9 
A =  2 −2 2  , X =  y  , B =  −18  .
 3 −3 3   z   −27 
Applying elementary row operations on the augmented matrix[ A | B], we get
1 −1 1 −9  R2 → R2 − 2 R1 , 1 −1 1 −9 
  R3 → R3 −3R1  
[ A | B] =  2 −2 2 −18   → 0 0 0 0 .
 3 −3 3 −27  0 0 0 0 

So, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B ]) = 1 < 3.
From the echelon form, we get the equivalent equations x − y + z = −9, 0 = 0, 0 = 0.
The equivalent system has one non-trivial equation and three unknowns.
Taking= y s= , z t arbitrarily, we get x − s + t = −9; or x = −9 + s − t.
So, the solution is ( x = −9 + s − t , y = s, z = t ) , where s and t are parameters.
The above solution set is a two-parameter family of solutions.
Here, the given system of equations is consistent and has infinitely many solutions which form a
two parameter family of solutions.
Example 1.32
Test the consistency of the following system of linear equations
x − y + z = −9, 2x − y + z = 4, 3x − y + z = 6, 4 x − y + 2 z = 7.
Solution
The matrix form of the system of equations is AX = B, where
1 −1 1   −9 
 2 −1 1   x 4
A =    
, X =  y , B =   .
 3 −1 1  6
   z   
 4 −1 2  7
Applying elementary row operations on the augmented matrix [ A | B], we get
1 −1 1 −9  R2 → R2 − 2 R1 , 1 −1 1 −9 
  R → R −3R ,  
2 −1 1 4  R34 → R34 − 4 R11 0 1 −1 22 
[ A | B] =   →
3 −1 1 6 0 2 −2 33 
   
 4 −1 2 7  0 3 −2 43 
1 −9 
−1 1 1 −1 1 −9 

R3 → R3 − 2 R2 ,   
0
R4 → R4 − 3 R2 1 −1
22  R3 ↔ R4 0 1 −1 22 
→
  →
0 0 −11
0 0 0 1 −23
   
0 0 1
−23 0 0 0 −11
So, ρ ( A) = 3 and ρ ([ A | B ]) = 4. Hence ρ ( A) ≠ ρ ([ A | B ]).

If we write the equivalent system of equations using the echelon form, we get
x − y + z = −9, y − z = 22, z = −23, 0 = −11.

The last equation is a contradiction.
So the given system of equations is inconsistent and has no solution.
By Rouché - Capelli theorem, we have the following rule:
• If there are n unknowns in the system of equations and ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) = n, then the
system AX = B, is consistent and has a unique solution.
• If there are n unknowns in the system AX = B, and ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) = n − k , k ≠ 0 then the
system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions and these solutions form a
k − parameter family. In particular, if there are 3 unknowns in a system of equations and
ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) = 2, then the system has infinitely many solutions and these solutions
form a one parameter family. In the same manner, if there are 3 unknowns in a system of
equations and ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) = 1, then the system has infinitely many solutions and these
solutions form a two parameter family.
• If ρ ( A) ≠ ρ ([ A | B]), then the system AX = B is inconsistent and has no solution.
Example 1.33
Find the condition on a, b and c so that the following system of linear equations has one
parameter family of solutions: x + y + z = a, x + 2 y + 3 z = b, 3x + 5 y + 7 z = c.
Solution
1 1 1   x a 
The matrix form of the system is AX = B, where A = 1 2 3  , X =  y  , B =  b  .
   
3 5 7   z   c 
1 1 1 a  R2 → R2 − R1 , 1 1 1 a 
  R3 → R3 −3R1  
[ A | B] = 1 2 3 b   → 0 1 2
 b−a 
3 5 7 c  0 2 4 c − 3a 
1 1 1 a  1 1 1 a 

R3 → R3 − 2 R2   
→ 0 1 2
 b−a  = 0 1 2 b − a .

0 0 0 (c − 3a ) − 2(b − a )  0 0 0 (c − 2b − a ) 
In order that the system should have one parameter family of solutions, we must have
ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A, B]) = 2. So, the third row in the echelon form should be a zero row.
So, c − 2b − a = 0 ⇒ c = a + 2b.
Example 1.34
Investigate for what values of λ and μ the system of linear equations
x + 2 y + z = 7, x + y + λ z = µ , x + 3 y − 5 z = 5
has (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.

Solution
1 2 1   x 7
The matrix form of the system is AX = B, where A = 1 1 λ  , X =  y  , B =  µ  .
   
1 3 −5  z   5 
1 2 1 7 1 2 1 7
  R2 ↔ R3  
[ A | B] = 1 1 λ µ   → 1 3 −5 5
1 3 −5 5  1 1 λ µ 

1 2 1R2 → R2 − R1 , 7  1 2 1 7 
 R3 → R3 − R1  R3 → R3 + R2  
→ 0 1 −6 −2  → 0 1 −6 −2  .
0 −1 λ − 1 µ − 7  0 0 λ − 7 µ − 9 

(i) If λ = 7 and m ¹ 9 , then ρ ( A) = 2 and ρ ([ A | B ]) = 3. So ρ ( A) ≠ ρ ([ A | B ]). Hence the

given system is inconsistent and has no solution.
(ii) If λ ≠ 7 and m is any real number, then ρ ( A) = 3 and ρ ([ A | B ]) = 3.

So ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B ]) = 3 = Number of unknowns. Hence the given system is consistent and
has a unique solution.
(iii) If λ = 7 and µ = 9, then ρ ( A) = 2 and ρ ([ A | B ]) = 2.

So, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B ]) = 2 < Number of unknowns. Hence the given system is consistent and has
infinite number of solutions.
EXERCISE 1.6
1. Test for consistency and if possible, solve the following systems of equations by rank method.
(i) x − y + 2 z = 2, 2 x + y + 4 z = 7, 4x − y + z = 4
(ii) 3x + y + z = 2, x − 3 y + 2 z = 1, 7x − y + 4z = 5
(iii) 2 x + 2 y + z = 5, x − y + z = 1, 3 x + y + 2 z = 4
(iv) 2 x − y + z = 2, 6 x − 3 y + 3 z = 6, 4x − 2 y + 2z = 4
2. Find the value of k for which the equations kx − 2 y + z = 1, x − 2ky + z = −2, x − 2 y + kz = 1

have
(i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) infinitely many solution
3. Investigate the values of λ and m the system of linear equations 2 x + 3 y + 5 z = 9 ,

7 x + 3 y − 5 z = 8, 2 x + 3 y + λ z = µ , have
(i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.

1.5.2 Homogeneous system of linear equations
We recall that a homogeneous system of linear equations is given by
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 +  + a1n xn = 0,
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 +  + a2 n xn = 0,
... (1)
     
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + am 3 x3 +  + amn xn = 0,
where the coefficients= aij , i 1,=
2, , m; j 1, 2, , n are constants. The above system is always
, x2 0, , xn = 0. This solution is called the trivial solution of (1). In other words,
x1 0=
satisfied by=
the system (1) always possesses a solution.
The above system (1) can be put in the matrix form AX = Om × 1 , where
 a11 a12 a13 a1n   x1  0 

    0 
a a22 a23 a2 n  x2 
A =  21 ,X =  ,O =  .
    m × 1  
     
 am1 am 2 am 3 amn   xn  0 
We will denote Om × 1 simply by the capital letter O.Since O is the zero column matrix, it is
always true that ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) ≤ m. So, by Rouché - Capelli Theorem, any system of
homogeneous linear equations is always consistent.
Suppose that m < n, then there are more number of unknowns than the number of equations. So
ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) < n. Hence, system (1) possesses a non-trivial solution.
Suppose that m = n, then there are equal number of equations and unknowns:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 +  + a1n xn = 0,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 +  + a2 n xn = 0,
... (2)
     
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + an 3 x3 +  + ann xn = 0,
Two cases arise.

Case (i)
If ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) = n, then system (2) has a unique solution and it is the trivial solution.
Since ρ ( A) = n, A ¹ 0. So for trivial solution | A | ¹ 0 .
Case (ii)
If ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) < n, then system (2) has a non-trivial solution. Since ρ ( A) < n, A = 0. In
other words, the homogeneous system (2) has a non-trivial solution if and only if the determinant
of the coefficient matrix is zero.
Suppose that m > n, then there are more number of equations than the number of unknowns.
Reducing the system by elementary transformations, we get ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) ≤ n.

Example 1.35
Solve the following system:
x + 2 y + 3 z = 0, 3 x + 4 y + 4 z = 0, 7 x + 10 y + 12 z = 0.
Solution
Here the number of equations is equal to the number of unknowns.
Transforming into echelon form (Gaussian elimination method), the augmented matrix becomes
1 2 3 0  R2 → R2 −3R1 , 1 2 3 0  R2 → R2 ÷( −1), 1 2 3 0
  R3 → R3 − 7 R1   R3 → R3 ÷( −1)  
3 4 4 0   → 0 −2 −5 0   → 0 2 5 0
7 10 12 0 
0 −4 −9 0   0 4 9 0 
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 
R3 → R3 − 2 R2   R3 → R3 ÷( −1)  
 → 0 2 5 0   → 0 2 5 0 .
0 0 −1 0  0 0 1 0 
So, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) = 3 = Number of unknowns.
Hence, the system has a unique solution. Since

= x 0=
, y 0, z = 0 is always a solution of the
homogeneous system, the only solution is the trivial solution
= x 0=
, y 0, z = 0.
Note
In the above example, we find that
1 2 3
A = 3 4 4 = 1(48 − 40) − 2(36 − 28) + 3(30 − 28) = 8 − 16 + 6 = −2 ≠ 0.
7 10 12

Example 1.36
Solve the system: x + 3 y − 2 z = 0, 2 x − y + 4 z = 0, x − 11 y + 14 z = 0.
Solution
Transforming into echelon form (Gaussian elimination method), the augmented matrix becomes
 1 3 −2 0 R → R − 2 R , 1 3 −2
2 2 1
0 R → R ÷ ( −1), 1 3 −2
2 2
0 1 3 −2 0
 2 −1 4    →  0 7 −8  →  0 7 −8 
R →R −R R → R ÷ ( −2) R →R −R
0 → 0 −7 8
3 3 1
0  3 3
0  3 3 2
0 .
     
 1 −11 14 0   0 −14 16 0   0 7 −8 0   0 0 0 0 
So, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) = 2 < 3 = Number of unknowns.

Hence, the system has a one parameter family of solutions.
Writing the equations using the echelon form, we get
x + 3 y − 2 z = 0, 7y − 8 z = 0, 0 = 0.
Taking z = t , where t is an arbitrary real number, we get by back substitution,

z = t,
8t
7 y − 8t = 0 ⇒ y = ,
7
 8t  24t − 14t 10t
x + 3   − 2t = 0 ⇒ x + =0 ⇒ x=− .
7 7 7
 10t 8t 
So, the solution is  x = − , y = , z = t  , where t is any real number.
 7 7 
Example 1.37
Solve the system: x + y − 2 z = 0, 2 x − 3 y + z = 0, 3 x − 7 y + 10 z = 0, 6 x − 9 y + 10 z = 0.
Solution
Here the number of equations is 4 and the number of unknowns is 3. Reducing the augmented
matrix to echelon-form, we get
1 1 −2 0  R2 → R2 − 2 R1 , 1 1 −2 0 1 1 −2 0
  R → R −3R ,   R2 → R2 ÷( −5),  
2 −3 1 0  R34 → R34 − 6 R11 0 −5 5 0  R3 → R3 ÷( −2) 0 1 −1 0
[ A | O] =   →  →
 3 −7 10 0 0 −10 16 0 0 5 −8 0
     
 6 −9 10 0  0 −15 22 0  0 −15 22 0 
1 1 −2 0 1 1 −2 0 1 1 −2 0

R3 → R3 − 5 R2 ,  R3 → R3 ÷( −3),    
0
R4 → R4 +15 R2 1 −1 0  R4 → R4 ÷7 0 1 −1 0  R4 → R4 − R3 0 1 −1 0
→
    → →
0 0 −3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
     
0 0 7 0  0 0 1 0  0 0 0 0 

So, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | O]) = 3 = Number of unknowns.

Hence the system has trivial solution only.
Example 1.38
Determine the values of λ for which the following system of equations
(3λ − 8) x + 3 y + 3z = 0, 3x + (3λ − 8) y + 3z = 0, 3x + 3 y + (3λ − 8) z = 0
has a non-trivial solution.
Solution
Here the number of unknowns is 3. So, if the system is consistent and has a non-trivial solution,
then the rank of the coefficient matrix is equal to the rank of the augmented matrix and is less than 3.
So the determinant of the coefficient matrix should be 0.
Hence we get
3λ − 8 3 3 3λ − 2 3λ − 2 3λ − 2
3 3λ − 8 3 = 0 or 3 3λ − 8 3 = 0 (by applying R1 → R1 + R2 + R3 )
3 3 3λ − 8 3 3 3λ − 8
1 1 1
or (3λ − 2) 3 3λ − 8 3 = 0 (by taking out (3λ − 2) from R1 )
3 3 3λ − 8

1 1 1
or (3λ − 2) 0 3λ − 11 0 = 0 (by applying R2 → R2 − 3R1 , R3 → R3 − 3R1 )
0 0 3λ − 11
2 11
or (3λ − 2)(3λ − 11) 2 0 . So λ = and λ = .
3 3
We now give an application of system of linear homogeneous equations to chemistry. You are
already aware of balancing chemical reaction equations by inspecting the number of atoms present on
both sides. A direct method is explained as given below.
Example 1.39
By using Gaussian elimination method, balance the chemical reaction equation:
C5 H 8 + O2 → CO2 + H 2O.
(The above is the reaction that is taking place in the burning of organic compound called isoprene.)
Solution
We are searching for positive integers x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 such that
x1C5 H 8 + x2O2 = x3CO2 + x4 H 2O . .. (1)

The number of carbon atoms on the left-hand side of (1) should be equal to the number of carbon
atoms on the right-hand side of (1). So we get a linear homogenous equation
5 x1 = x3 ⇒ 5 x1 − x3 = 0 . ... (2)

Similarly, considering hydrogen and oxygen atoms, we get respectively,
8 x1 = 2 x4 ⇒ 4x1 − x4 = 0 , ... (3)
2 x2 = 2 x3 + x4 ⇒ 2 x2 − 2 x3 − x4 = 0 . ... (4)
Equations (2), (3), and (4) constitute a homogeneous system of linear equations in four unknowns.
 5 0 −1 0 0
 
The augmented matrix is [ A | B] =  4 0 0 −1 0 .
 0 2 −2 −1 0 
By Gaussian elimination method, we get
 4 0 0 −1 0  4 0 0 −1 0

R1 ↔ R2  R2 ↔ R3  
[ A | B] 
→  5 0 −1 0 0   →  0 2 −2 −1 0
 0 2 −2 −1 0   5 0 −1 0 0 
 4 0 0 −1 0 

R3 → 4 R3 − 5 R1 
  →  0 2 −2 −1 0  .
 0 0 −4 5 0 

Therefore, ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) = 3 < 4 = Number of unknowns.
The system is consistent and has infinite number of solutions.
Writing the equations using the echelon form, we get 4 x1 − x4 = 0, 2 x2 − 2 x3 − x4 = 0, −4 x3 + 5 x4 = 0.
So, one of the unknowns should be chosen arbitrarily as a non-zero real number.
5t 7t t
Let us choose x4 = t , t ≠ 0. Then, by back substitution, we get
= x3 = , x2 , x1 = .
4 4 4

Since x1 , x2 , x3 , and x4 are positive integers, let us choose t = 4.
x1 1,=
Then, we get = x2 7, x3 =5 and x4 =4.
So, the balanced equation is C5 H 8 + 7O2 → 5CO2 + 4 H 2O.
Example 1.40
If the system of equations px + by + cz = 0, ax + qy + cz = 0, ax + by + rz = 0 has a non-trivial
p q r
solution and p ¹ a, q ¹ b, r ¹ c, prove that + + = 2.
p −a q −b r −c
Solution
Assume that the system px + by + cz = 0, ax + qy + cz = 0, ax + by + rz = 0 has a non-trivial
solution.
p b c
So, we have a q c = 0. Applying R2 → R2 − R1 and R3 → R3 − R1 in the above equation,
a b r
we get
p b c p b c
a − p q −b 0 = 0. That is, −( p − a ) q − b 0 = 0.
a− p 0 r −c −( p − a ) 0 r −c
p b c
p−a q −b r −c
Since p ¹ a, q ¹ b, r ¹ c, we get ( p − a )(q − b)(r − c) −1 1 0 =0.
−1 0 1
p b c
So, we have
−1 1 0 = 0.
−1 0 1
p b c
Expanding the determinant, we get + + = 0.
p q − ( q − b) r − ( r − c ) p q r
That is, + + =0 ⇒ + + = 2.
p−a q −b r −c p −a q −b r −c
EXERCISE 1.7
1. Solve the following system of homogenous equations.
(i) 3x + 2 y + 7 z = 0, 4 x − 3 y − 2 z = 0, 5 x + 9 y + 23z = 0
(ii) 2 x + 3 y − z = 0, x − y − 2 z = 0, 3x + y + 3z = 0
2. Determine the values of λ for which the following system of equations
x + y + 3 z = 0, 4x + 3 y + λ z = 0, 2x + y + 2 z = 0 has
(i) a unique solution (ii) a non-trivial solution.
3. By using Gaussian elimination method, balance the chemical reaction equation:
C2 H 6 + O2 → H 2O + CO2

EXERCISE 1.8
Choose the Correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives :
1. If | adj(adj A) |=| A |9 , then the order of the square matrix A is
(1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 2 (4) 5
2. If A is a 3 × 3 non-singular matrix such that AA = A A and B = A A , then BBT =
T T −1 T
(1) A (2) B (3) I 3 (4) BT

3 5  | adj B |
3. If A =   , B = adj A and C = 3 A , then =
1 2  |C |
1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4) 1
3 9 4
1 −2   6 0 
4. If A   =  , then A =
1 4  0 6 
1 −2   1 2  4 2  4 −1
(1)  (2)  −1 4  (3)  −1 1  (4)  2 1 
1  4       
7 3
5. If A =   , then 9 I 2 − A =
4 2
A−1
(1) A−1 (2) (3) 3 A−1 (4) 2 A−1
2
2 0 1 4
6. If A =   and B =  2 0  then | adj ( AB ) |=
1 5   
(1) −40 (2) −80 (3) −60 (4) −20
1 x 0 
7. If P = 1 3 0  is the adjoint of 3 × 3 matrix A and | A | = 4 , then x is
 2 4 −2 
(1) 15 (2) 12 (3) 14 (4) 11
 3 1 −1  a11 a12 a13 

8. If A =  2 −2 0  and A =  a21
  −1
a22 a23  then the value of a23 is
1 2 −1  a31 a32 a33 
(1) 0 (2) −2 (3) −3 (4) −1

9. If A, B and C are invertible matrices of some order, then which one of the following is not
true?
(1) adj A = | A | A−1 (2) adj( AB) = (adj A)(adj B)
(3) det A−1 = (det A) −1 (4) ( ABC ) −1 = C −1 B −1 A−1
 12 −17   1 −1
10. If ( AB) −1 =   and A−1 =   , then B −1 =
 −19 27   −2 3 
2 −5 8 5   3 1  8 −5
(1)  (2) 3 2  (3)  2 1 (4)  −3 2 
 −3 8       

11. If AT A−1 is symmetric, then A2 =
(1) A−1 (2) ( AT ) 2 (3) AT (4) ( A−1 ) 2
5 3
12. If A is a non-singular matrix such that A−1 = 
 , then ( A ) =
T −1
 −2 −1
 −5 3 5 3  −1 −3 5 −2 
(1)   (2)   (3)   (4) 3 −1
 2 1  −2 −1 2 5  
3 4
 
13. If A =  5 5  and AT = A−1 , then the value of x is
x 3
 5 
−4 −3 3 4
(1) (2) (3) (4)
5 5 5 5
 θ
 1 tan 
2 and AB = I , then B =
14. If A =   2
 − tan θ 1 
 2 
 θ  θ  θ
(1)  cos 2  A (2)  cos 2  AT (3) (cos 2 θ ) I (4)  sin 2  A
 2  2  2
 cos θ sin θ  k 0
15. If A =   and A(adj A) =  0 k  , then k =
 − sin θ cos θ   
(1) 0 (2) sin θ (3) cosθ (4) 1
2 3
16. If A =   be such that λ A = A , then λ is
−1
 5 −2 
(1) 17 (2) 14 (3) 19 (4) 21
2 3   1 −2 
17. If adj A =   and adj B =   then adj ( AB ) is
 4 −1  −3 1 
 −7 −1  −6 5   −7 7   −6 −2 
(1)  (2)  −2 −10  (3)  −1 −9  (4)  5 −10 
7 −9       
1 2 3 4
18. The rank of the matrix  2 4 6 8  is
 −1 −2 −3 −4 
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 3

m b a m a b
19. If x a y b = e m , x c y d = e n , ∆1 = , ∆2 = , ∆3 = , then the values of x and y
n d c n c d
are respectively,
(1) e( D2 / D1 ) , e( D3 / D1 ) (2) log(D1 / D3 ), log(D2 / D3 )

(3) log(D 2 / D1 ), log(D3 / D1 ) (4) ) e
( D1 / D3 )
, e(D2 /D3 )

20. Which of the following is/are correct?
(i) Adjoint of a symmetric matrix is also a symmetric matrix.
(ii) Adjoint of a diagonal matrix is also a diagonal matrix.
(iii) If A is a square matrix of order n and λ is a scalar, then adj(λ A) = λ n adj( A) .
(iv) A=
(adjA) (=
adjA) A | A | I
(1) Only (i) (2) (ii) and (iii) (3) (iii) and (iv) (4) (i), (ii) and (iv)
21. If ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B]) , then the system AX = B of linear equations is
(1) consistent and has a unique solution (2) consistent
(3) consistent and has infinitely many solution (4) inconsistent
22. If 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and the system of equations x + (sin θ ) y − (cos θ ) z = 0,(cos θ ) x − y + z = 0,
(sin θ ) x + y − z = 0 has a non-trivial solution then θ is
2p 3p 5p p
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3 4 6 4
1 2 7 3 

23. The augmented matrix of a system of linear equations is 0 1 4 6  . The system
0 0 λ − 7 µ + 5
has infinitely many solutions if
(1) λ = 7, µ ≠ −5 (2) λ = −7, µ = 5 (3) λ ≠ 7, µ ≠ −5 (4) λ = 7, µ = −5
 2 −1 1   3 1 −1
24. Let A = −1 2 −1 and 4 B =  1 3 x  . If B is the inverse of A , then the value of x is
 
 1 −1 2  −1 1 3 
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 3 (4) 1

 3 −3 4 
25. If A =  2 −3 4  , then adj(adj A) is
 0 −1 1 
 3 −3 4   6 −6 8   −3 3 −4   3 −3 4 
   
(1)  2 −3 4  (2)  4 −6 8  (3)  −2 3 −4  (4)  0 −1 1 
 
 0 −1 1   0 −2 2   0 1 −1  2 −3 4 
SUMMARY
(1) Adjoint of a square matrix A = Transpose of the cofactor matrix of A .
(2) A=
(adj A) (=
adj A) A A In .
1
(3) A−1 = adj A.
A
1 1 −1
( ) ( )
−1 T
(iii) ( λ A ) =
−1
(4) (i) A−1 = (ii) AT = A−1 A , where λ is a non-zero scalar.
A λ

(5) (i) ( AB ) −1 = B −1 A−1. (ii) ( A−1 )−1 = A
(6) If A is a non-singular square matrix of order n , then
1
( adj A) = adj A−1 =
(i)
−1
( ) A
adj A =| A |n −1
A (ii)
adj ( adj A ) = | A |n − 2 A
(iii) (iv) adj(λ A) = λ n −1adj( A), λ is a nonzero scalar
(v)
adj (adj A) = A ( n −1)2
( )
(vi) (adj A)T = adj AT
(vii) adj ( AB ) = (adj B)(adj A)

1 1
(7) (i) A−1 = ± adj A. (ii) A = ± adj ( adj A ) .
adj A adj A
(8) (i) A matrix A is orthogonal if AAT = AT A = I

(ii) A matrix A is orthogonal if and only if A is non-singular and A−1 = AT
(8) Methods to solve the system of linear equations AX = B
(i) By matrix inversion method X = A−1 B, | A | ≠ 0
∆1 ∆ ∆
(ii) By Cramer’s rule x = , y = 2 , z = 3 ,∆ ≠ 0 .
∆ ∆ ∆
(iii) By Gaussian elimination method
(9) (i) If ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B ]) = number of unknowns, then the system has unique solution.
(ii) If ρ ( A) = ρ ([ A | B ]) < number of unknowns, then the system has infinitely many
solutions.
(iii) If ρ ( A) ≠ ρ ([ A | B ]) then the system is inconsistent and has no solution.
(10) The homogenous system of linear equations AX = 0

(i) has the trivial solution, if | A | ¹0 .
(ii) has a non trivial solution, if | A | = 0 .
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Chapter
2 Complex Numbers
“Imaginary numbers are a ﬁne and wonderful refuge of the divine spirit
almost an amphibian between being and non-being. ”
- Gottfried Leibniz
Many mathematicians contributed to the full development of complex

numbers. The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of
complex numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli.
Rafael Bombelli He is generally regarded as the first person to develop an algebra of complex
(1526-1572) numbers. In honour of his accomplishments, a moon crater was named Bombelli.
Real Life Context
Complex numbers are useful in representing a phenomenon that has two parts varying at the
same time, for instance an alternating current. Engineers, doctors, scientists, vehicle designers and
others who use electromagnetic signals need to use complex numbers for strong signal to reach its
destination. Complex numbers have essential concrete applications in signal processing, control
theory, electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, cartography, and vibration analysis.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to:

● perform algebraic operations on complex numbers
● plot the complex numbers in Argand plane
● find the conjugate and modulus of a complex number
● find the polar form and Euler form of a complex number
● apply de Moivre theorem to find the n th roots of complex numbers.
2.1 Introduction to Complex Numbers

Before introducing complex numbers, let us try to answer the question “Whether there exists
a real number whose square is negative?” Let’s look at simple examples to get the answer for it.
Consider the equations 1 and 2.
Equation 1 Equation 2
x2 1 0 x2 1 0
x 1 x 1
x 1 x ?
52
Chapter 2 Complex Numbers.indd 52 31-01-2020 17:26:47

y y
3 3
2 2
x' x
1
x' x
1
-2 -1 O 1 2
-2 -1 O 1 2
-1
-1
y' y'
f ( x ) = x2 + 1
f ( x) = x −1
2
Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2

Equation 1 has two real solutions, By the same logic, equation 2 has no real
f x x 1 does
2
x 1 and x = 1 . We know that solving an solutions since the graph of
equation in x is equivalent to finding the not cross the x -axis; we can see this by looking
at the graph of f x x 1 .
2
x -intercepts of a graph of f x x 1
2
crosses the x -axis at (−1, 0) and (1, 0) .

This is because, when we square a real number it is impossible to get a negative real number.
If equation 2 has solutions, then we must create an imaginary number as a square root of −1. This
imaginary unit −1 is denoted by i .The imaginary number i tells us that i 2 1. We can use this fact
to find other powers of i .
2.1.1 Powers of imaginary unit i

0 4
i = 1, i 1 = i i 2 1 i 3 i 2i i i
= 2 2
i=i 1
1 i
i
1
2 i i
2
1 i
3
i i
4
1 i4
i i
We note that, for any integer n , i n has only four possible values: they correspond to values of
n when divided by 4 leave the remainders 0, 1, 2, and 3.That is when the integer n 4 or n 4 ,
using division algorithm, n can be written as n 4q k , 0 k 4, k and q are integers and we
write
i i (i ) 4 q i (i ) 4 i 1 i i
n 4qk k q k q k k
Example 2.1
Simplify the following
102
(i) i (ii) i 7 1729
(iii) i −1924
+i 2018
(iv) in1
n
(v) i i 2 i 3  i 40
Solution
i i i i ;
7 43 3 1729 1728 1
(i) (ii) i
= i= i i
i i i (i ) 2016 2 i (i ) 2 1 1 0
1924 2018 1924 0 0
(iii)
53 Complex Numbers

102
(iv) i i
n1
n 1

i 2 i 3 i 4 i 5 i 6 i 7 i8  i 97 i 98 i 99 i100 i101 i102
= i1 i 2 i 3 i 4 i i
1 2
i 3 i 4  i1 i 2 i 3 i 4 i1 i 2
= i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1 … i 1 i 1 i 1
= 0 0 0 i 1
= 1 i (What is this number?)
40 x 41
2 3 40 1 2 3 40
(v) i i i  i i i 2 i 820 i 0 1 .
Result: Sum of four consecutive powers of i is zero. That is i n + i n+1 + i n+2 + i n+3 = 0 ∀n∈ 
Note
(i) ab = a b valid only if at least one of a, b is non-negative.
For example, 6 36 (4)(9) (4) (9) = (2i )(3i ) 6i 2 6 , a contradiction.
Since we have taken (4)(9) (4) (9) , we arrived at a contradiction.
Therefore ab = a b valid only if at least one of a, b is non-negative.
Complex Numbers
(ii) For y ∈  , y 2 ≥ 0 Imaginary

Numbers Real Numbers
2 2
Therefore, (1)( y ) ( y )(1) Rational Irrational
Numbers Numbers
5i 2
0.25
(1) ( y 2 ) ( y 2 ) (1)
7 Integers
2 4i . . ., 3, 2, 1 0.3 2
i 3 17
iy = yi. 4 1
2i
Whole Numbers
0
Natural
EXERCISE 2.1 Numbers

1, 2, 3, . . .
Simplify the following:

12
1. i 1947 + i 1950 2. i 1948 − i −1869 3.
n1
in
1 10
4. i 59 +
i 59
5. i i 2i 3  i 2000 6. i
n 1
n 50
2.2 Complex Numbers

We have seen that the equation x 2 1 0 does not have a solution in real number system.
In general there are polynomial equations with real coefficient which have no real solution.
We enlarge the real number system so as to accommodate solutions of such polynomial equations.
This has triggered the mathematicians to define complex number system.
In this section, we define
(i) Complex numbers in rectangular form
(ii) Argand plane
(iii) Algebraic operations on complex numbers
The complex number system is an extension of real number system with imaginary unit i .
The imaginary unit i with the property i 2 1 , is combined with two real numbers x and y
by the process of addition and multiplication, we obtain a complex number x + iy. The symbol '+ '
is treated as vector addition. It was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855).

2.2.1 Rectangular form
Definition 2.1 (Rectangular form of a complex number)

A complex number is of the form x + iy (or x + yi ) , where x and y are real numbers.
x is called the real part and y is called the imaginary part of the complex number.
If x = 0 , the complex number is said to be purely imaginary. If y = 0 , the complex number is

said to be real. Zero is the only number which is at once real and purely imaginary. It is customary to
denote the standard rectangular form of a complex number x + iy as z and we write x = Re( z ) and
y = Im( z ) . For instance, Re 5 i 7 5 and Im 5 i 7 7 .
The numbers of the form i , 0 are called imaginary (non real complex) numbers.
The equality of complex numbers is defined as follows.
Definition 2.2
Two complex numbers z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 are said to be equal if and only if
That is x1 = x==
Re( z1 ) = Re( z2 ) and Im( z1 ) = Im( z2 ) .= 2 and y1 y2 .
For instance, if i 7 3i , then 7 and 3 .
2.2.2 Argand plane

A complex number z x iy is uniquely determined by an ordered pair of real numbers x, y .
The numbers 3 − 8i, 6 and −4i are equivalent to 3, 8 , 6, 0 , and 0, 4 respectively. In this
way we are able to associate a complex number z x iy with a point x, y in a coordinate plane.
If we consider x axis as real axis and y axis as imaginary axis to represent a complex number, then
the xy -plane is called complex plane or Argand plane. It is named after the Swiss mathematician Jean
Argand (1768 – 1822).
A complex number is represented not only by a point, but also by a position vector pointing from
the origin to the point. The number, the point, and the vector will all be denoted by the same letter z .
As usual we identify all vectors which can be obtained from each other by parallel displacements. In this
chapter,  denotes the set of all complex numbers. Geometrically, a complex number can be viewed as
either a point in  2 or a vector in the Argand plane.
Im Im Im
iβ
α + iβ α + iβ
β
α+
Re Re Re
O α O O
Complex number Complex number by a position vector Complex number
as a point pointing from the origin to the point as a vector
Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5
Illustration 2.1

Here are some complex numbers: 2 + i, 1 2i, 3 - 2i, 0 − 2i, 3 2 , −2 − 3i , cos i sin ,
6 6
and 3 + 0i. Some of them are plotted in Argand plane.
55 Complex Numbers

Im Im
4 4
3 3
-1+2i -1+2i
2 2
2+i 2+i
1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 Re -4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 Re
-1 -1
-2 -2
3-2i
-3 3-2i -3
-2-3i -4 -2-3i -4
Complex numbers as points Complex numbers as vectors
Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7
2.2.3 Algebraic operations on complex numbers

In this section, we study the algebraic and geometric structure of the complex number system.
We assume various corresponding properties of real numbers to be known.
(i) Scalar multiplication of complex numbers:
If z x iy and k ∈  , then we define
k z kx k y i .

In particular 0 z = 0 , 1z = z and (1) z z .
1
The diagram below shows k z for k = 2, , −1
2
Im 2z Im Im
z z
z
1z
-
2
O Re O 1
Re O Re
k= - k = -1
k=2 2 -z
Fig. 2.8 Fig. 2.9 Fig. 2.10
(ii) Addition of complex numbers:
If z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 , where x1 , x2 , y1 , and y2 ∈  , then we define
z1 + z2 = x1 iy1 x2 iy2 z1 + z 2
or
= x1 x2 i y1 y2 Im ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
z1 + z2 = x1 x2 i y1 y2 . z2
We have already seen that vectors are characterized by length
and direction, and that a given vector remains unchanged under
translation. When z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 then by the
parallelogram law of addition, the sum z1 + z2 = x1 x2 i y1 y2
z1
O Re
corresponds to the point x1 x2 , y1 y2 . It also corresponds to a
Fig. 2.11
vector with those coordinates as its components. Hence the points
z1 , z2 , and z1 + z2 in complex plane may be obtained vectorially as shown in the adjacent Fig. 2.11.

(iii) Subtraction of complex numbers
Similarly the difference z1 − z2 can also be drawn as a position vector whose initial point is
the origin and terminal point is x1 x2 , y1 y2 . We define Im z2 z

1
z1 − z2 = z1 + ( − z2 ) z2
z1
= ( x1 + iy1 ) + ( − x2 − iy2 )
O Re
= x1 x2 i y1 y2 . z1 z 2
z1 − z2 = x1 x2 i y1 y2 . - z2
Fig. 2.12
It is important to note here that the vector representing the difference of the vector z1 − z2 may
also be drawn joining the end point of z2 to the tip of z1 instead of the origin. This kind of representation
does not alter the meaning or interpretation of the difference operator. The difference vector joining
the tips of z1 and z2 is shown in (green) dotted line.
(iv) Multiplication of complex numbers
The multiplication of complex numbers z1 and z2 is defined as
z1 z2 = ( x1 + iy1 )( x2 + iy2 )
= ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i ( x1 y2 x2 y1 )
z1 z2 ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) i ( x1 y2 x2 y1 ) .
Although the product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is itself a complex number represented
by a vector, that vector lies in the same plane as the vectors z1 and z2 . Evidently, then, this product is
neither the scalar product nor the vector product used in vector algebra. Im z
iz
Remark π
Multiplication of complex number z by i 2
If z = x + iy , then o Re
iz = i ( x + iy )
i2 z i3 z
= y ix .
p
The complex number iz is a rotation of z by 90 or radians in the Fig. 2.13
2
counter clockwise direction about the origin. In general, multiplication of a complex number z
by i successively gives a 90° counter clockwise rotation successively about the origin.
Illustration 2.2
Let z1 6 7i and z2 3 5i . Then z1 + z2 and z1 − z2 are
(i) (3 5i ) (6 7i ) = (3 6) (5 7)i 9 2i
6 7i 3 5i = 6 3 7 (5) i 3 12i .
Let z1 2 3i and z2 4 7i . Then z1 z2 is
(ii) (2 + 3i )(4 + 7i ) = ( 2 × 4 − 3 × 7 ) + i ( 2 × 7 + 3 × 4)
= (8 21) (14 12)i 13 26i .
57 Complex Numbers

Example 2.2
Find the value of the real numbers x and y, if the complex number (2 i ) x (1 i ) y 2i 3
and x (1 2i ) y 1 i are equal
Solution
Let z1 = (2 i ) x (1 i ) y 2i 3 2 x y 3 i x y 2 and
z2 = x (1 2i ) y 1 i x y 1 i 2 y 1 .
Given that z1 = z2 .
Therefore 2 x y 3 i x y 2 x y 1 i 2 y 1 .
Equating real and imaginary parts separately, gives

2 x y 3 = x y 1 x 2y 4 .
x y 2 = 2 y + 1 x 3 y 1 .
Solving the above equations, gives
x = 2 and y = 1.
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Evaluate the following if z 5 2i and w 1 3i

z − i w (iii)
(i) z + w (ii) 2 z + 3w
z w .
2 2 2
(iv) z w (v) z + 2 zw + w (vi)
2. Given the complex number z 2 3i , represent the complex numbers in Argand diagram.
(i) z , iz , and z + iz (ii) z , − iz , and z − iz .
3. Find the values of the real numbers x and y, if the complex numbers
(3 i ) x (2 i ) y 2i 5 and 2 x (1 2i ) y 3 2i are equal.
2.3 Basic Algebraic Properties of Complex Numbers

The properties of addition and multiplication of complex numbers are the same as for real
numbers. We list here the basic algebraic properties and verify some of them.
2.3.1 Properties of complex numbers

The complex numbers satisfy the following The complex numbers satisfy the following
properties under addition. properties under multiplication.
(i) Closure property (i) Closure property
For any two complex numbers For any two complex numbers
z1 and z2 , the sum z1 + z2 z1 and z2 , the product z1 z2
is also a complex number. is also a complex number.

(ii) The commutative property (ii) The commutative property
For any two complex numbers For any two complex numbers
z1 and z2 z1 and z2
z1 + z 2 = z 2 + z1 . z1z 2 = z 2 z1 .
(iii) The associative property (iii) The associative property
For any three complex numbers For any three complex numbers
z1 , z2 , and z3 z1 , z2 , and z3
z1 + z 2 + z3 = z1 + z 2 + z3 . z1z 2 z3 = z1 z 2 z3 .
(iv) The additive identity (iv) The multiplicative identity
There exists a complex number There exists a complex number
0 0 0i such that, for every 1 = 1+0i such that, for every complex
complex number z , number z ,
z 0 0 z z z=
1 1=z z
The complex number 0 0 0i is known The complex number 1 1 0i is known as
as additive identity. multiplicative identity.
(v) The additive inverse (v) The multiplicative inverse
For any nonzero complex number z,
z
For every complex number there exists there exists a complex number w such
a complex number −z such that, that,
z ( z ) ( z ) z 0. z w = w z =1.

w is called the multiplicative inverse of z .
−z is called the additive inverse of z .
w is denoted by z −1 .
(vi) Distributive property (multiplication distributes over addition)
For any three complex numbers z1 , z2 , and z3
z1 ( z2 z3 ) z1 z2 z1 z3 and ( z1 z2 ) z3 z1 z3 z2 z3 .
Let us now prove some of the properties.
Property
The commutative property under addition
For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 , we have z1 z2 z2 z1 .
Proof
Let z1 x1 iy1 , z2 x2 iy2 , and x1 , x2 , y1 , and y2 ∈  ,
z1 + z2 = x1 iy1 x2 iy2
= x1 x2 i y1 y2
= x2 x1 i y2 y1 (since x1 , x2 , y1 , and y2 ∈  )
= x2 iy2 x1 iy1
= z2 + z1 .
Property
Inverse Property under multiplication
Prove that the multiplicative inverse of a nonzero complex number z x iy is
x −y
2 2
+i 2
x +y x + y2 .
59 Complex Numbers

Proof
The multiplicative inverse is less obvious than the additive one.
Let z 1 u iv be the inverse of z x iy
We have z z −1 = 1
That is x iy u iv = 1
xu yv i( xv uy ) = 1 + i0
Equating real and imaginary parts we get
xu − yv = 1and xv uy 0 .
Solving the above system of simultaneous equations in u and v

x y
we get u 2 2
and v 2 2
. ( z is non-zero ⇒ x 2 y 2 0 )
x y x y
x y
If z x iy , then z 1 2 2
i 2 2
. ( z −1 is not defined when z = 0 ).
x y x y
Note that the above example shows the existence of z −1 of the complex number z . To compute
1
the inverse of a given complex number, we conveniently use z 1 . If z1 and z2 are two complex
z
1 z
numbers where z2 ¹ 0 , then the product of z1 and is denoted by 1 . Other properties can be
z2 z2
verified in a similar manner. In the next section, we define the conjugate of a complex number. It
would help us to find the inverse of a complex number easily.
Complex numbers obey the laws of indices

zm
(iii) z m z mn (iv) z1 z2 z1m z2 m
n m
(i) z m z n z m n (ii) n
z mn , z ¹ 0
z
EXERCISE 2.3
1. If z1 1 3i, z2 4i , and z3 = 5 , show that
(i) z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3 (ii)
z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3 .
2. If z1 3, z2 7i, and z3 5 4i , show that
(i) z1 ( z2 z3 ) z1 z2 z1 z3 (ii)
( z1 z2 ) z3 z1 z3 z2 z3 .
3. If z1 2 5i, z2 3 4i, and z3 1 i , find the additive and multiplicative inverse of

z1 , z2 , and z3 .
2.4 Conjugate of a Complex Number

In this section, we study about conjugate of a complex number, its geometric representation, and
properties with suitable examples.
Definition 2.3
The conjugate of the complex number x + iy is defined as the complex number x − iy .

The complex conjugate of z is denoted by z. To get the conjugate of the complex number z ,
simply change i by −i in z. For instance 2 − 5i is the conjugate of 2 + 5i.The product of a complex
number with its conjugate is a real number.
x iy x iy x 2 iy x 2 y 2
2
For instance, (i)
(ii) 1 3i 1 3i 1 3i 1 9 10 .
2 2
Geometrically, the conjugate of z is obtained by reflecting z on the real axis.
2.4.1 Geometrical representation of conjugate of a complex number

Im Im
-2+3i 4 4
3
x+iy
3
2 2
1 1
-4-3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3 4 Re -4 -3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3 4
Re
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3 x-iy
-3
-2-3i -4 -4
conjugate of a complex number conjugate of a complex number
Fig. 2.14 Fig. 2.15
Note
Two complex numbers x + iy and x − iy are conjugates to each other. The conjugate is useful
in division of complex numbers. The complex number can be replaced with a real number in the
denominator by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
This process is similar to rationalising the denominator to remove surds.
2.4.2 Properties of Complex Conjugates

zz
z1 z2 z1 z2 (6)
(1) Im( z )
2i
z n z , where n is an integer
n
z1 z2 z1 z2 (7)
(2)
z1 z2 = z1 z2 (8)
(3) z is real if and only if z = z
z1 z1
(4) z is purely imaginary if and only if z z
, z2 0 (9)
z2 z2
zz
(5)
Re(z ) (10) z=z
2
Let us verify some of the properties.
Property
Proof
Let z1 x1 iy1 , z2 x2 iy2 , and x1 , x2 , y1 , and y2 ∈ 
z1 + z2 = x1 iy1 x2 iy2
61 Complex Numbers

= x1 x2 i y1 y2 x1 x2 i y1 y2
= x1 iy1 x2 iy2
= z1 + z2 .
It can be generalized by means of mathematical induction to sums involving any finite number of

terms: z1 z2 z3  zn z1 z2 z3  zn .
Property
z1 z2 = z1 z2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , and y2 ∈ 
Proof
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 .
Then, z1 z2 = x1 iy1 x2 iy2 x1 x2 y1 y2 i x1 y2 x2 y1 .
Therefore, z1 z2 = x1 x2 y1 y2 i x1 y2 x2 y1 x1 x2 y1 y2 i x1 y2 x2 y1 ,
and z1 z2 = x1 iy1 x2 iy2 x1 x2 y1 y2 i x1 y2 x2 y1 .
Therefore, z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
Property
A complex number z is purely imaginary if and only if z z
Proof
Let z = x + iy . Then by definition z x iy
Therefore, z = −z
⇔ x + iy = −( x − iy )
⇔ 2x = 0 x 0
⇔ z is purely imaginary.
Similarly, we can verify the other properties of conjugate of complex numbers.
Example 2.3
3 4i
Write in the x + iy form, hence find its real and imaginary parts.
5 12i
Solution
3 4i
To find the real and imaginary parts of , first it should be expressed in the rectangular form
5 12i
x + iy .To simplify the quotient of two complex numbers, multiply the numerator and denominator by
the conjugate of the denominator to eliminate i in the denominator.

3 4i
=
3 4i 5 12i
5 12i 5 12i 5 12i
=
15 48 20 36 i
52 122
33 56i 33 56
= i .
169 169 169

3 4i 33 56
Therefore, = i . This is in the x + iy form.
5 12i 169 169
33 56
Hence real part is − and imaginary part is .
169 169
Example 2.4
3 3
1 i 1 i
Simplify . into rectangular form
1 i 1 i
Solution
1 i 1 i 1 i 1 2i 1 2i i
We consider = ,
1 i 1 i 1 i 1 1 2
1
1 i 1 i 1
and = i .
1 i 1 i i
3 3
1 i 1 i 3 3
Therefore, = i (i ) i i 2i .
1 i 1 i
Example 2.5
z 3 1 4i
If , find the complex number z in the rectangular form
z 5i 2
Solution
z 3 1 + 4i
We have =
z 5i 2
⇒ 2( z + 3) = 1 4i z 5i
⇒ 2 z + 6 = 1 4i z 20 5i
⇒ 2 1 4i z = 20 − 5i − 6
14 5i 14 5i 1 4i 34 51i
⇒ z = 2 3i .
1 4i 1 4i 1 4i 17
Example 2.6
z1
If z1 3 2i and z2 6 4i , find in the rectangular form
z2
Solution
z1 3 2i 3 2i 6 4i
Using the given value for z1 and z2 the value of =
z2 6 4i 6 4i 6 4i
(18 8) i (12 12) 10 24i 10 24i

=
62 42 52 52 52
5 6
= − i.
26 13
63 Complex Numbers

Example 2.7
Find z −1 , if z 2 3i 1 i .
Solution
We have z = 2 3i 1 i (2 3) (3 2)i 5 i
1 1
⇒ z −1 = .
z 5i
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator, we get
z −1 =
5 i 5 i
5
i
1
5 i 5 i 52 12 26 26
5 1
⇒ z −1 = −i .
26 26
Example 2.8
15 15
19 9i 8 i
2 i 3
10 10
Show that (i) 2 i 3 is real and (ii) is purely imaginary.
5 3i 1 2i
Solution
2 i 3
10 10
(i) Let z = 2 i 3 . Then, we get
2 i 3
10 10
z = 2 i 3
2 i 3
10 10
= 2 i 3 (  z1 z2 z1 z2 )

10 10
 zn z
n
= 2 i 3 2i 3
2 i 3
10 10
= 2 i 3 z
z = z ⇒ z is real.
15 15
19 9i 8 i
(ii) Let z = .
5 3i 1 2i
19 9i 19 9i 5 3i
Here, =
5 3i 5 3i 5 3i
=
95 27 i 45 57 68 102i
52 32 34
= 2 + 3i . (1)
and
8+i
=
8 i 1 2i
1 + 2i 1 2i 1 2i
=
8 2 i 1 16 10 15i
12 22 5
= 2 - 3i . (2)

15 15
19 9i 8 i
Now z =
5 3i 1 2i
z = 2 3i 2 3i .
15 15
⇒ (by (1) and (2))
Then by definition, z = 2 3i 15

2 3i
15

2 3i
15 15
= 2 3i (using properties of conjugates)
= 2 3i 2 3i 2 3i 2 3i
15 15
15 15

⇒ z = −z .
15 15
19 9i 8 i
Therefore, z = is purely imaginary.
5 3i 1 2i
EXERCISE 2.4
1. Write the following in the rectangular form:

10 5i 1
(i) (5 9i ) (2 4i ) (ii) (iii) 3i
6 2i 2i
2. If z x iy , find the following in rectangular form.
1
(i) Re (ii) Re (i z ) (iii) Im(3 z 4 z 4i )
z
z
3. If z1 2 i and z2 4 3i , find the inverse of z1 z2 and 1 .
z2
1 1 1
4. The complex numbers u , v , and w are related by .
u v w
If v 3 4i and w 4 3i , find u in rectangular form.
5. Prove the following properties:
zz zz
(i) z is real if and only if z = z (ii) Re( z ) and Im( z )
2 2i

n
6. Find the least value of the positive integer n for which 3 i
(i) real (ii) purely imaginary.
2 i 3
10 10
7. Show that (i) 2 i 3 is purely imaginary
12 12
19 7i 20 5i
(ii) is real.
9i 7 6i
65 Complex Numbers

2.5 Modulus of a Complex Number Im P(x, y)
Just as the absolute value of a real number measures the distance
2
of that number from origin along the real number line, the modulus
y

2
of a complex number measures the distance of that number from the y
x
origin in the complex plane. Observe that the length of the line from
the origin along the radial line to z x iy is simply the hypotenuse
of a right triangle, with one side of length x and the other side of x
O M Re
length y .
Fig. 2.16
Definition 2.4
If z x iy , then the modulus of z , denoted by z , is defined by z = x2 + y2
For instance (i) i 02 12 1
12i 02 12 12
2
(ii)
12 5i 122 5 169 13
2
(iii)
Note
If z x iy , then z x iy , then z z x iy x iy x iy x 2 y 2 = z .
2 2 2

| z |2 = z z .
2.5.1 Properties of Modulus of a complex number

z1 z
(1) z = z (5) 1 , z2 0
z2 z2
n
(2) z1 z2 z1 z2 (Triangle inequality) (6) z n = z , where n is an integer
Re z z
(3) z1 z2 = z1 z2 (7)
Im z z
(4) z1 z2 z1 z2 (8)
Let us prove some of the properties.
Property Triangle inequality

Proof
2
Using z1 + z2 = ( z1 + z2 )( z1 + z2 ) ( | z |2 = z z )
= ( z1 + z2 )( z1 + z2 )
( z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 )
= z1 z1 + ( z1 z2 + z1 z2 ) + z2 z2

= z1 z1 z1 z2 z1 z2 z2 z2
 z z

2 2
= | z1 | +2 Re( z1 z2 )+ | z2 |
( 2 Re( z ) z z )
£ z1 + 2 z1 z2 + z2

2 2
( Re( z ) £| z |)
2 2
= z1 + 2 z1 z2 + z2
(| z1 z2 | | z=
= 1 || z 2 | and | z | | z |)
z1 + z2 £ z1 z2
2 2
⇒
z1 z2 £ z1 + z2 .
Geometrical interpretation
Now consider the triangle shown in figure with vertices O, z1 Im z1 z1 + z2
z2
or z2 , and z1 + z2 .We know from geometry that the length of the side
of the triangle corresponding to the vector z1 + z2 cannot be greater z2
z2 z2
than the sum of the lengths of the remaining two sides. This is the z 1
+
reason for calling the property as "Triangle Inequality". z1

z1
It can be generalized by means of mathematical induction to finite
number of terms: O Re
z1 z2 z3  zn z1 z2 z3  zn for n = 2, 3, . Fig. 2.17

Property The distance between the two points z1 and z2 in complex plane is | z1 − z2 |
If z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 , then
z1 − z2 = x1 x2 y1 y2 i
= x1 x2 y1 y2 .
2 2

Remark
The distance between the two points z1 and z2 in complex plane is z1 − z2 .
If we consider origin, z1 and z2 as vertices of a triangle, by the similar argument we have
Im z2
z1 z2 z1 z2
z1 - z2
z2
z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 and
z1
z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 . z1

O Re
Fig. 2.18
Property Modulus of the product is equal to product of the moduli.

For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 , we have z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
Proof
2
We have z1 z2 = ( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) ( | z |2 = z z )
= z1 z2 z1 z
2  z1 z2 z1 z2
67 Complex Numbers

= z1 z1 z z z
2 2 1
2
z2
2
(by commutativity z2 z1 = z1 z2 )
Therefore, z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
Note
It can be generalized by means of mathematical induction to any finite number of terms:

z z z  zn = z1 z2 z3  zn
1 2 3
That is the modulus value of a product of complex numbers is equal to the product of the moduli
of complex numbers.
Similarly we can prove the other properties of modulus of a complex number.
Example 2.9
If z1 3 4i, z2 5 12i, and z3 6 8i , find z1 , z2 , z3 , z1 z2 , z2 z3 , and z1 z3 .
Solution
Using the given values for z1,z2 and z3 we get z1 = 3 4i 32 42 5
z2 = 5 12i 52 (12) 2 13
z3 = 6 8i 62 82 10
z1 + z2 = 3 4i 5 12i 8 8i 128 8 2
z2 − z3 = 5 12i 6 8i 1 20i 401

z1 + z3 = 3 4i 6 8i 9 12i 225 15
Note that the triangle inequality is satisfied in all the cases.
z1 z3 z1 z3 15 (why?)

Example 2.10
2i i ( 2 + i )3
Find the following (i) (ii) (1 i )(2 3i )(4i 3) (iii)
1 2i (1 + i ) 2
Solution
2i 2i 22 12 z1 z
(i) = 1 .  1 , z2 0
1 2i 1 2i z2 z2
1
2
22
(ii) (1 i )(2 3i )(4i 3) = (1 i ) 2 3i 4i 3  z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3

= 1 i 2 3i 3 4i  z z
= 12 12 22 32 (3) 2 42
= 2 13
25 5 26 .

3
3
i (2 + i ) i ( 2 i )3 1 2i
3
4 1 z1 z
(iii) =  1 , z2 0
2 z2 z2
2 2
(1 + i ) 2 (1 i ) 2 1 i
5
3
5 5
= .
2 2

Example 2.11
Which one of the points i, 2 i , and 3 is farthest from the origin?
Solution
The distance between origin to z i, 2 i, and 3 are Im
| z | = | i | = 1
−2 + i
| z | = | 2 i | (2) 2 12 5 i
| z | = | 3 | = 3
-2 -1 O 1 2 3 Re
Since 1 < 5 < 3 , the farthest point from the origin is 3 .
Fig. 2.19
Example 2.12
If z1 , z2 , and z3 are complex numbers such that z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3 1 ,
1 1 1
find the value of + + .
z1 z2 z3
Solution
Since, z1 = z=
2 z=
3 1,
2
z1 = 1 z1 z1 1,| z2 |2 1 z2 z2 1 , and | z3 |3 1 z3 z3 1
1 1 1
Therefore, z1 = , z2 = , and z3 = and hence
z1 z2 z3
1 1 1
+ + = z1 + z2 + z3
z1 z2 z3
= z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3 1 .

Example 2.13
If z = 2 show that 3 z 3 4i 7
Im O
Solution 
3    Re


z 3 4i z 3 4i 2 5 7  



r=2

z 3 4i 7 (1) 7
(–3,–4)
z 3 4i z 3 4i 2 5 3 

z 3 4i 3 (2)

From (1) and (2), we get 3 z 3 4i 7 . Fig. 2.20
Note
To find the lower bound and upper bound use z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 .
69 Complex Numbers

Example 2.14
1 3 −1 3
Show that the points 1, i , and −i are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
2 2 2 2
Solution
It is enough to prove that the sides of the triangle are equal.
1 3 1 3
Let z1 = 1, z2 i , and z3 i . Im
2 2 2 2
−1 3
The length of the sides of the triangles are +i
2 2
1 3 3 3 9 3 2 3
z1 − z2 = 1 i i 3
2 2 2 2 4 4 2 O 1 Re
1 3 1 3
3 −1 3
2
z2 − z3 = i i 3 −i
2 2 2 2 2 2
Fig. 2.21
1 3 3 3 9 3
z3 − z1 = i 1 i 3
2 2 2 2 4 4
Since the sides are equal, the given points form an equilateral triangle.
Example 2.15
Let z1 , z2 , and z3 be complex numbers such that z1 z2 z3 r 0 and z1 z2 z3 0 .
z1 z2 z2 z3 z3 z1
Prove that r.
z1 z2 z3
Solution
Given that z1 = z2 z3 r z1 z1 z2 z2 z3 z3 r 2
r2 r2 r2
⇒ z1 = = , z2 = , z3
z1 z2 z3
r2 r2 r2
Therefore z1 + z2 + z3 = + +
z1 z2 z3
z z zz zz
= r 2 2 3 1 3 1 2
z1 z2 z3
z2 z3 + z1 z3 + z1 z2
z1 + z2 + z3 = | r 2 | ( z1 z 2 z1 z2 )
z1 z2 z3
z2 z3 + z1 z3 + z1 z2
= r 2 ( | z | = | z | and | z1 z2 z3 | = | z1 | | z2 | | z3 |)
z1 z2 z3
z2 z3 z1 z3 z1 z2 z z zz zz
z1 + z2 + z3 = r 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
r r

z2 z3 + z1 z3 + z1 z2
⇒ = r . (given that z1 z2 z3 0 )
z1 + z2 + z3
z2 z3 + z1 z3 + z1 z2
Thus, = r .
z1 + z2 + z3
Example 2.16
Show that the equation z 2 = z has four solutions.
Solution
We have, z 2 = z .
2
⇒ | z | = z
⇒ | z | z 1 = 0 ,
⇒ | z | = 0, or | z | = 1.
1
| z | = 0 z 0 is a solution, | z | = 1 zz 1 z .
z
1
Given z 2 = z ⇒ z 2 = ⇒ z 3 = 1.
z
It has 3 non-zero solutions. Hence including zero solution, there are four solutions.
2.5.2 Square roots of a complex number

Let the square root of a + ib be x + iy
That is a + ib = x + iy where x, y ∈ 
a + ib = x iy x 2 y 2 i 2 xy
2

Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
x 2 − y 2 = a and 2xy = b
x y 2 = x 2 y 2 4 x 2 y 2 a 2 b 2
2 2 2

x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b 2 , since x 2 + y 2 is positive
Solving x 2 − y 2 = a and x 2 y 2 a 2 b 2 , we get
a 2 b2 a a 2 b2 a
x = ; y .
2 2
Since 2xy = b it is clear that both x and y will have the same sign when b is positive, and x
and y have different signs when b is negative.
z a b z a
Therefore a + ib =

i , where b ¹ 0 .  Re(z ) z
2 b 2
Formula for finding square root of a complex number

z a b z a , where z a ib and b ¹ 0 .
a ib i
2 b 2

71 Complex Numbers

Note
b
If b is negative, 1, x and y have different signs.
b
b
If b is positive, = 1, x and y have same sign.
b
Example 2.17
Find the square root of 6 − 8i .
Solution
We compute 6 − 8i = 62 8 10
2

and applying the formula for square root, we get
10 6 10 6 b

6 - 8i = i ( b is negative, 1)
2 2 b
= 8 i 2
= 2 2 i 2 .
EXERCISE 2.5
1. Find the modulus of the following complex numbers
2i 2 i 1 2i
(i) (ii) (iii) (1 − i )10 (iv) 2i (3 − 4i )(4 − 3i ) .
3 + 4i 1 i 1 i
2. For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 , such that z=
1 z=
2 1 and z1 z2 1 , then show that
z1 + z2
is a real number.
1 + z1 z2
3. Which one of the points 10 − 8i , 11 + 6i is closest to1+ i .
4. If | z |= 3 , show that 7 ≤| z + 6 − 8i | ≤13 .
5. If z = 1, show that 2 z 2 3 4 .
6. If | z | = 2, show that 8 ≤| z + 6 + 8i | ≤12 .
7. If z1 , z2 , and z3 are three complex numbers such that=

z1 1,=
z2 2, z3 = 3 and
z1 z2 z3 1 , show that 9 z1 z2 4 z1 z3 z2 z3 6 .
8. If the area of the triangle formed by the vertices z , iz , and z + iz is 50 square units, find the
value of z .
9. Show that the equation z 3 2 z 0 has five solutions.
10. Find the square roots of (i) 4 + 3i (ii) 6 8i (iii) −5 − 12i .

2.6 Geometry and Locus of Complex Numbers
In this section let us study the geometrical interpretation of complex number z in complex plane
and the locus of z in Cartesian form.
Example 2.18
Given the complex number z 3 2i , represent the complex numbers z , iz , and z + iz in
one Argand plane. Show that these complex numbers form the vertices of an isosceles right
triangle.
Solution Im B
Given that z 3 2i. 5
4
z+iz
Therefore, iz i 3 2i 2 3i
C 3
z iz 3 2i i 3 2i 1 5i iz 2 A

1 z
Let A, B, and C be z , z + iz , and iz respectively.
-4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 Re
2
AB z iz z 2 3i 13
2 2
-1
2
BC iz z iz 3 2i 13
2 2
-2
2 2
CA2 z iz 5 i 26 Fig. 2.22

Since AB 2 BC 2 CA2 and AB = BC , DABC is an isosceles right triangle.
Definition 2.5 (circle)

A circle is defined as the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its distance from a
fixed point in that plane is always a constant. The fixed point is the centre and the constant distant
is the radius of the circle.
Equation of Complex Form of a Circle

Im
The locus of z that satisfies the equation z z0 r where z0 is z
a fixed complex number and r is a fixed positive real number consists r
of all points z whose distance from z0 is r .
z0
Therefore z z0 r is the complex form of the equation of a
circle. (see Fig. 2.23)
(i) z z0 r represents the points interior of the circle. O Re
(ii) z z0 r represents the points exterior of the circle. Fig. 2.23
Illustration 2.3
z r x2 y 2 r

x 2 y 2 r 2 , represents a circle centre at the origin with radius r units.

73 Complex Numbers

Example 2.19
Show that 3 z 5 i 4 represents a circle, and, find its centre and radius.
Solution Im
The given equation 3 z 5 i 4 can be written as
O z0 Re Re
r= 4
5−i 5 i 4
3 z − = 4 Þ z = . 5 1 3
3 3 3 3  ,− 
3 3
z
It is of the form z z0 r and so it represents a circle,
5 1 4
whose centre and radius are , and respectively.
3 3 3 Fig. 2.24
Example 2.20
Show that z 2 i 2 represents interior points of a circle. Find its centre and radius.
Solution
Im
Consider the equation | z + 2 − i | = 2 . z
r=2
This can be written as | z − (−2 + i ) | = 2 .
z0 = −2 + i
The above equation represents the circle with centre z0 2 i and

O Re
radius r = 2. Therefore z 2 i 2 represents all points inside the
circle with centre at 2 i and radius 2 as shown in figure. Fig. 2.25
Example 2.21
Obtain the Cartesian form of the locus of z in each of the following cases.
(i) z = z − i (ii) 2 z 3 i 3
Solution
(i) we have | z | = z − i
Þ x + iy = x iy i
Þ x 2 + y 2 = x 2 ( y 1) 2
Þ x 2 + y 2 = x 2 y 2 2 y 1
Þ 2 y − 1 = 0 .
(ii) we have 2 z − 3 − i = 3
2 x iy 3 i = 3 .
Squaring on both sides, we get
2
2 x 3 2 y 1 i = 9
2 x 3 2 y 1
2 2
Þ = 9
Þ 4 x 2 4 y 2 12 x 4 y 1 = 0 , the locus of z in Cartesian form.


EXERCISE 2.6
z 4i
1. If z x iy is a complex number such that 1
z 4i
show that the locus of z is real axis.
2z 1
2. If z x iy is a complex number such that Im 0 , show that the locus of z is
iz 1
2 x 2 2 y 2 x 2 y 0.
3. Obtain the Cartesian form of the locus of z x iy in each of the following cases:
2
(i) Re iz 3 (ii) Im[(1 i ) z 1] 0 (iii) z i z 1 (iv) z z 1 .
4. Show that the following equations represent a circle, and, find its centre and radius.
(i) z 2 i 3 (ii) 2 z 2 4i 2 (iii) 3 z 6 12i 8 .
5. Obtain the Cartesian equation for the locus of z x iy in each of the following cases:
2 2
(i) z 4 16 (ii) z 4 z 1 16 .
2.7 Polar and Euler form of a Complex Number

When performing addition and subtraction of complex numbers, we use rectangular form. This is
because we just add real parts and add imaginary parts; or subtract real parts, and subtract imaginary
parts. When performing multiplication or finding powers or roots of complex numbers, use an alternate
form namely, polar form, because it is easier to compute in polar form than in rectangular form.
2.7.1 Polar form of a complex number

Polar coordinates form another set of parameters that characterize the vector from the origin to
the point z x iy , with magnitude and direction. The polar coordinate system consists of a fixed point
O called the pole and the horizontal half line emerging from the pole called the initial line (polar axis). If
r is the distance from the pole to a point P and q is an angle of inclination measured from the initial line
in the counter clockwise direction to the line OP, then r and q of the ordered pair (r , θ ) are called the
polar coordinates of P. Superimposing this polar coordinate system on the rectangular coordinate
system, as shown in diagram, leads to
y P(x,y) P(x,y)
P(r, θ ) 2
y
+
iy
2
x
x+ r= y = r sin θ
r
θ θ
O x O x = r cos θ M
O
Superimpose polar coordinates
Rectangular coordinates Polar coordinates on rectangular coordinates
Fig. 2.26 Fig. 2.27 Fig. 2.28

x = r cos θ ...(1)
y = r sin θ . ...(2)
Any non-zero complex number z x iy can be expressed as z r cos i r sin .
75 Complex Numbers

Definition 2.6
Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point P ( x, y ) that corresponds to a non-zero
complex number z x iy . The polar form or trigonometric form of a complex number P is
z r (cos i sin ) .
For convenience, we can write polar form as

z x iy r cos i sin r cis .
The value r represents the absolute value or modulus of the complex number z . The angle θ is
called the argument or amplitude of the complex number z denoted by arg z .
(i) If z = 0 , the argument θ is undefined; and so it is understood that z ¹ 0 whenever polar
coordinates are used.
(ii) If the complex number z x iy has polar coordinates (r , θ ) , its conjugate z x iy has
polar coordinates (r , ) .
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), and taking square root, the value of r is given by r z x 2 y 2 .
r sin y y
Dividing (2) by (1), tan .
r cos x x
Case (i) The real number θ represents the angle, measured in radians, that z makes with the positive real
axis when z is interpreted as a radius vector. The angle θ has an infinitely
z = r (cos θ + isin θ )
many possible values, including negative ones that differ by integral Im
multiples of 2p . Those values can be determined from the equation r
y
tan θ = where the quadrant containing the point corresponding to z
x θ
must be specified. Each value of q is called an argument of z, and the o Re
set of all such values is obtained by adding multiple of 2p to q , and it is
denoted by arg z. Fig. 2.29
Case (ii) There is a unique value of θ which satisfies the condition − < ≤ .
This value is called a principal value of θ or principal argument of z
and is denoted by Arg z.
Note that, Arg( z ) or
Principal Argument of a complex number

I-Quadrant II-Quadrant III-Quadrant IV-Quadrant
y y y y
θ=α θ = π −α θ =α − π θ = -α
z z
α α θ
O
O x O x α x O x
θ α
z z
θ=α θ = π −α θ = α −π θ = -α
Fig. 2.30 Fig. 2.31 Fig. 2.32 Fig. 2.33

The capital A is important here to distinguish the principal value from the general value.
y
Evidently, in practice to find the principal angle θ, we usually compute tan 1 and adjust
x
for the quadrant problem by adding or subtracting with appropriately.
arg z Arg z 2n , n .

Some of the properties of arguments are
arg z1 z2 arg z1 arg z2
(1)
z
arg 1 arg z1 arg z2
(2)
z2
arg z n n arg z
(3)
(4) The alternate forms of cos q + i sin q are cos( 2k π + θ ) + i sin(2k π + θ ), k ∈  .

For instance the principal argument and argument of 1, i, −1 , and −i are shown below:-
Im
z 1 i −1 −i i
p p
Arg ( z ) 0 p −
2 2 -1 O 1 Re
p p -i
arg z 2np 2np + 2np + p 2np −
2 2 Fig. 2.34
Illustration
Plot the following complex numbers in complex plane Im
2π π
5 cos i sin
(i) 4 cis 3 5cis
4 4 4
2 2
(ii) 4 cos i sin
3 3 1 2 3 4
O 5 Re
−π
2cis
5 5 3 cis
− 5π 6
(iii) 3 cos i sin 6
6 6

(iv) 2 cos isin .
6 6
Fig. 2.35
2.7.2 Euler’s Form of the complex number

The following identity is known as Euler’s formula
ei cos i sin
Euler formula gives the polar form z r ei
Note
When performing multiplication or finding powers or roots of complex numbers, Euler form
can also be used.
77 Complex Numbers

Example 2.22
Find the modulus and principal argument of the following complex numbers.
(i) 3 + i (ii) 3 i (iii) − 3 − i (iv) 3 − i
Solution
Im
(i) 3 + i
3
2
Modulus = x2 y 2 12 3 1 2 2 3 +i
r=
a=q
1 y 1 O Re
α = tan tan 1
x 3 6
Since the complex number 3 + i lies in the first quadrant,

Fig. 2.36
has the principal value

θ = .
6
p
Therefore, the modulus and principal argument of 3 + i are 2 and respectively.
6
(ii) 3 i
Im
Modulus = 2 and − 3 +i
r=
1 y 1 2
q = p −a
α = tan tan 1 α
x 3 6 O Re
Since the complex number 3 i lies in the second quadrant
has the principal value Fig. 2.37

5
θ = = .
6 6
5p
Therefore the modulus and principal argument of 3 i are 2 and respectively.
6
Im
(iii) − 3 − i

r = 2 and .
6 O
α Re
Since the complex number − 3 − i lies in the third quadrant, θ =α − π
r =2
− 3 −i
has the principal value,
5 Fig. 2.38
θ = = .
6 6
5
Therefore, the modulus and principal argument of − 3 − i are 2 and respectively.
6
Im
(iv) 3 − i

r = 2 and
.
6
Since the complex number lies in the fourth quadrant, O θ = −α Re
r=
2
has the principal value, 3 −i

θ =
6
Fig. 2.39

Therefore, the modulus and principal argument of

3 − i are 2 and .
6
In all the four cases, modulus are equal, but the arguments are depending on the quadrant in
which the complex number lies.
Example 2.23
Represent the complex number (i) −1 − i (ii) 1 + i 3 in polar form.

Solution
(i) Let −1 − i = r (cos i sin )
We have r = x 2 y 2 12 12 1 1 2
y
α = tan 1 tan 1 1 .
x 4
Since the complex number −1 − i lies in the third quadrant, it has the principal value,
3
θ = =
4 4
3 3
Therefore, −1 − i = 2 cos i sin
4 4
3 3
= 2 cos i sin .
4 4
3 3
−1 − i = 2 cos 2k i sin 2 k , k Î  .
4 4
Note
Depending upon the various values of k , we get various alternative polar forms.
1+ i 3
(ii)
3
2
r = z 12 2
1
θ = tan 1
3 3
p
Hence arg z = .
3
Therefore, the polar form of 1 + i 3 can be written as

1 + i 3 = 2 cos i sin
3 3

= 2 cos 2k i sin 2k , k  .
3 3
79 Complex Numbers

Example 2.24
2
Find the principal argument Arg z , when z .
1 i 3
Solution
2
arg z = arg Im
1 i 3 2π 2 1+ i 3
z

3
= arg 2 arg 1 i 3
( arg 1 arg z1 arg z2 ) 1 π
z2
π
3
0 3 -2 -1 O 1 2 Re
tan 1 tan 1
2 1

Fig. 2.40
2
=
3 3
2p
This implies that one of the values of arg z is .
3
2p 2p
Since lies between and p , the principal argument Arg z is .
3 3
Properties of polar form

1
Property 1 If z r cos i sin , then z 1 cos i sin .
r
z
Proof Im
1 1 r
z −1 =
z r cos i sin
θ
cos i sin O -θ

= Re
r cos i sin cos i sin 1
- z -1
r

=
cos i sin Fig. 2.41
r cos 2 sin 2
1
z −1 = cos i sin .
r
Property 2
If z1 r1 cos 1 i sin 1 and z2 r2 cos 2 i sin 2 ,
Im
then z1 z2 = r1r2 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 . z1
z2 r1
r2
Proof
θ2
2
θ1 +
z1 = r1 cos 1 i sin 1 and 1

z1 z 2 O Re
z2 = r2 cos 2 i sin 2
r1 r 2
Þ z1 z2 = r1 cos 1 i sin 1 r2 cos 2 i sin 2 Fig. 2.42

= r1r2 cos 1 cos 2 - sin 1 sin 2 i sin 1 cos 2 sin 2 cos 1

z1 z2 = r1r2 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 .
Note
arg z1 z2 = 1 2 arg z1 arg z2 .
Property 3
z1 r1
If z1 r1 cos 1 i sin 1 and z2 r2 cos 2 i sin 2 , then cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 .
z2 r2
Proof: Using the polar form of z1and z2, we have

z1 r cos 1 i sin 1 Im
= 1
z2 r2 cos 2 i sin 2
)
θ1
1,
(r
z1
)
r cos 1 i sin 1 cos 2 i sin 2
θ2 2,
= 1
)
(r
z2
r2 cos 2 i sin 2 cos 2 i sin 2 -θ
2
r1 , θ 1
z1 ( -r2
r cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 i sin 1 cos 2 sin 2 cos 1 -z 2
= 1

r2 cos 2 sin 2 O Re
z1 r
= 1 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 . Fig. 2.43
z2 r2
Note
z
arg 1 = 1 2 arg z1 arg z2 .
z2
Example 2.25
3 5 5
Find the product cos i sin 6 cos i sin in rectangular from.
2 3 3 6 6
Solution:
3 5 5
The Product cos i sin 6 cos i sin
2 3 3 6 6
3 5 5
= (6) cos
i sin
2 3 6 3 6
7 7
= 9 cos
i sin
6 6

= 9 cos i sin

6 6
81 Complex Numbers

= 9 cos i sin

6 6
3 i 9 3 9i
= 9 , Which is in rectangular form.
2 2 2 2
Example 2.26
9 9
2 cos i sin
4 4
Find the quotient in rectangular form.
3 3
4 cos i sin
2 2
Solution
9 9
2 cos i sin
4 4

3 3
4 cos i sin
2 2
1 9 3 9 3
= cos
i sin
2 4 2 4 2
1 9 3 9 3
= cos
i sin
2 4 2 4 2
1 15 15 1
= cos
i sin cos 4 i sin 4
2 4 4 2 4 4
1 1 1 1
= cos i sin i
2 4 4 2 2 2
9 9
2 cos i sin
4 4 1 1 2 2
= i i . Which is in rectangular form.
3 3 2 2 2 2 4 4
4 cos i sin
2 2
Example 2.27
z 1 p 2 2
If z x iy and arg , show that x y 1 .
z 1 2
Solution
z 1 x iy 1 ( x 1) iy x 1 iy ( x 1) iy
Now, = =
z 1 x iy 1 ( x 1) iy ( x 1) iy ( x 1) iy
z 1 ( x 2 y 2 1) i (2 y )
⇒ = .
z 1 ( x 1) 2 y 2
z 1 p 1 2y p
Since, arg = Þ tan 2 2 =
z 1 2 x y 1 2
2y p
⇒ 2 2
= tan ⇒ x 2 + y 2 − 1 = 0
x y 1 2
x 2 y 2 = 1.

EXERCISE 2.7
1. Write in polar form of the following complex numbers
i 1
(i) 2 + i 2 3 (ii) 3 − i 3 (iii) −2 − i 2 (iv) .

cos i sin
2. Find the rectangular form of the complex numbers 3 3

cos i sin

(i) cos i sin cos i sin (ii) 6 6 .
6 6 12 12
2 cos i sin
3 3
3. If x1 iy1 x2 iy2 x3 iy3  xn iyn a ib , show that

(i) x12 y12 x2 2 y2 2 x32 y32  xn 2 yn 2 a 2 b 2
n
y b
(ii) tan 1 r tan 1 2k , k ∈  .
r 1 xr a
1 z
4. If cos 2 i sin 2 , show that z i tan .
1 z
5. If cos cos cos sin sin sin 0, show that
(i) cos 3 cos 3 cos 3 3 cos and
(ii) sin 3 sin 3 sin 3 3 sin .
z i p
6. If z x iy and arg , show that x y 3 x 3 y 2 0 .
2 2
z 2 4
2.8 de Moivre’s Theorem and its Applications

Abraham de Moivre (1667–1754) was one of the mathematicians to use
complex numbers in trigonometry.
The formula (cos i sin ) n (cos n i sin n ) known by his name, was
instrumental in bringing trigonometry out of the realm of geometry and into that of
analysis.
de Moivre
1667–1754
2.8.1 de Moivre's Theorem
de Moivre’s Theorem
Given any complex number cos i sin and any integer n,
(cos i sin )n cos n i sin n .
Corollary
(1) (cos i sin ) n cos n i sin n (2)
(cos i sin ) n cos n i sin n
(3) n
(cos i sin ) cos n i sin n (4) sin i cos i cos i sin .
Now let us apply de Moivre’s theorem to simplify complex numbers and to find solution of
equations.
83 Complex Numbers

Example 2.28
1 1
If z cos i sin , show that z n n
2 cos n and z n n 2i sin n .
z z
Solution
Let z cos i sin .
By de Moivre’s theorem ,
z n = cos i sin cos n i sin n

n

1
= z n cos n i sin n
zn
1
Therefore, z n + n = cos n i sin n cos n i sin n
z
1
z n + n = 2 cos nθ .
z
Similarly,
1
z n − n = cos n i sin n cos n i sin n
z
1
zn − = 2i sin nθ .
zn
Example 2.29
18

Simplify sin i cos .
6 6
Solution

We have, sin i cos = i cos i sin .
6 6 6 6
Raising to the power 18 on both sides gives,
18 18
18
sin i cos = i cos i sin

6 6 6 6
18 18
= 1 cos i sin
6 6
= cos 3 i sin 3 1 0i .
18

Therefore, sin i cos = 1.
6 6
Example 2.30
30
1 cos 2 i sin 2
Simplify .
1 cos 2 i sin 2
Solution
Let z = cos 2 i sin 2 .
1
|2 zz
As | z | = | z= = 1 , we get z cos 2 i sin 2 .
 z

1 cos 2 i sin 2 1 z 1 z z
Therefore, = z.
1 cos 2 i sin 2 1 z 1
1
30
z
1 cos 2 i sin 2
= z cos 2 i sin 2
30 30
Therefore,
1 cos 2 i sin 2
= cos 60 i sin 60 .
Example 2.31
Simplify (i) (1 + i )18 (ii) ( 3 3i )31 .
Solution
(i) (1 + i )18
Let 1+ i = r cos i sin . Then, we get
1
r = 12 12 2 ; tan 1 ,
1 4

θ = ( 1+ i lies in the first Quadrant)
4

Therefore 1+ i = 2 cos i sin
4 4
Raising to power 18 on both sides,
18 18
18 18
(1 + i ) = 2 cos i sin 2 cos i sin .
4 4 4 4
By de Moivre’s theorem,
18 18
(1 + i )18 = 29 cos i sin
4 4

= 29 cos 4 i sin 4 29 cos i sin

2 2 2 2
(1 + i )18 = 29 (i ) = 512 i .
( 3 3i )31
(ii)
Let 3 3i = r cos i sin . Then, we get

2
r = 3 32 12 2 3 ,
3
α = tan 1 tan 1 3 ,
3 3
2
θ = ( 3 3i lies in II Quadrant)
3 3
2 2
Therefore, 3 3i = 2 3 cos i sin .
3 3
85 Complex Numbers

Raising power 31 on both sides,
31
2 2

31
cos ( 3 3i )31 = 2 3
i sin
3 3
31 2 2

= 2 3 cos 20
3

i sin 20
3
2 2

31
= 2 3 cos i sin
3 3
31

3

= 2 3 cos i sin
3

1 3

31 31
= 2 3 cos i sin 2 3 i .
3 3 2 2
2.8.2 Finding nth roots of a complex number

de Moivre’s formula can be used to obtain roots of complex numbers. Suppose n is a positive
integer and a complex number ω is n th root of z denoted by z1/ n , then we have
ω n = z . ...(1)
Let ω = cos i sin and
z = r cos i sin r cos 2k i sin 2k , k 
Since w is the nth root of z , then

ωn = z
⇒ n cos i sin = r cos 2k i sin 2k , k 
n
By de Moivre’s theorem,
n cos n i sin n = r cos 2k i sin 2k , k 
Comparing the moduli and arguments, we get
ρ n = r and n 2k , k 
2k
ρ = r1/ n and ,k .
n
2 k 2k
Therefore, the values of ω are r1/ n cos i sin , k .
n n
Although there are infinitely many values of k , the distinct values of ω are obtained when
k 0,1, 2, 3, , n 1 . When k n, n 1, n 2, we get the same roots at regular intervals (cyclically).
Therefore the nth roots of complex number z r cos i sin are
2 k 2 k
z1/ n r1/ n cos i sin , k 0,1, 2, 3, , n 1 .
n n

i 2 k Im
If we set re n n
, the formula for the n th
roots of a
m
ω
complex number has a nice geometric interpretation, as shown in P
n r
Figure. Note that because | | r the n roots all have the same
n
ω
Re
modulus n
r they all lie on a circle of radius n r with centre at the O ω n −1
θ
origin. Furthermore, the n roots are equally spaced along the
ω n −2
2π
circle, because successive n roots have arguments that differ by θ = n
nth root of a complex number
2p
.
n Fig. 2.44
Remark
(1) General form of de Moivre's Theorem
If x is rational, then cos x i sin x is one of the values of (cos i sin ) x .

(2) Polar form of unit circle
Let z = ei cos i sin . Then, we get

2 2
z = cos i sin
2
⇒ x + iy = cos 2 sin 2 1
⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Therefore, z = 1 represents a unit circle (radius one) centre at the origin.

2.8.3 The nth roots of unity
The solutions of the equation z n = 1 , for positive values of integer n , are the n roots of the unity.
In polar form the equation z n = 1 can be written as
z n = cos ( 0 + 2k π ) + i sin ( 0 + 2k π ) = ei 2 k p , k = 0, 1, 2, .

Using deMoivre’s theorem, we find the n th roots of unity from the equation given below:
i 2kπ
  2k π   2k π  
z =  cos  + i sin = e n
, k = 0,1, 2, 3, , n − 1 . … (1)
  n   
n  
Given a positive integer n , a complex number z is called an n th root of unity if and only if z n = 1.
If we denote the complex number by ω , then

2 i
2 i 2 i
ω = e n
cos i sin
n n
n
2 i
⇒ ω = e n e 2 i 1 .
n

87 Complex Numbers

Therefore ω is an n th root of unity. From equation (1), the Im
i 2π
complex numbers 1, , 2 , , n1 are n th roots of unity. The θ= n
complex numbers 1, , 2 , , n1 are the points in the complex ωm Q
plane and are the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed P

θ ω
in a unit circle as shown in Fig 2.45. Note that because the n th
Re
-1 O 1
roots all have the same modulus 1, they will lie on a circle of ω n −1
radius 1 with centre at the origin. Furthermore, the n roots are ω n −2

equally spaced along the circle, because successive n th roots have
2p -i
arguments that differ by . nth roots of unity
n
Fig. 2.45
The n th roots of unity 1, , 2 , , n1 are in geometric
progression with common ratio ω .
1 n
0 since 1 and ω ¹1 .
n
Therefore 1 2  n 1
1
The sum of all the nth roots of unity is

1 2  n 1 0 .
The product of n, n th roots of unit is

( n 1) n
2 n1 0 1 2 3 ( n 1)
1  = 2
( n 1) ( n 1)
= n e i 2 ei
n 1
2 2 (1) n 1
The product of all the nth roots of unity is

1 2  n1 (−1) n −1 .
Since | | 1, we have | |2 1 ; hence 1 ( ) k k , 0 k n 1
n k n k k ( ) k , 0 k n 1
n k k , 0 k n 1.
k
Therefore,
Note
(1) All the n roots of n th roots unity are in Geometrical Progression
(2) Sum of the n roots of n th roots unity is always equal to zero.
(3) Product of the n roots of n th roots unity is equal to (−1) n −1 .
(4) All the n roots of n th roots unity lie on the circumference of a circle whose centre is at the
origin and radius equal to 1 and these roots divide the circle into n equal parts and form a
polygon of n sides.

Example 2.32
Find the cube roots of unity.
Solution
1 3 Im
− +i
1 1
3
We have to find 1 . Let z = 1 then z = 1 .
3 3
2 2
In polar form, the equation z 3 = 1 can be written as
z 3 = cos(0 + 2k p ) + i sin(0 + 2k p ) = ei 2 k p , k = 0, 1, 2, .
2kπ
 2k π   2k π  i O 1 Re
Therefore, z = cos   + i sin   =e 3
, k = 0, 1, 2 .
 3   3 
Taking k = 0,1, 2 , we get,
1 3
− −i
k = 0, z = cos 0 i sin 0 1 . 2 2
Cube roots of unity
2p 2p p p Fig. 2.46
k = 1, z = cos i sin cos p i sin p
3 3 3 3
p p 1 3
= cos
i sin i .
3 3 2 2
4p 4p p p
k = 2 , z = cos i sin cos p i sin p
3 3 3 3
p p 1 3

= cos i sin i .
3 3 2 2
Therefore, the cube roots of unity are
2
−1 + i 3 −1 −i 3 2
i 1 i 3
1, , Þ 1, ω , and ω , where e 3 .
2 2 2
Example 2.33
Find the fourth roots of unity.
Solution
1 1
We have to find 14 . Let z = 14 . Then z 4 = 1 . Im

i
In polar form, the equation z 4 = 1 can be written as
z 4 = cos 0 2k i sin 0 2k ei 2 k , k 0, 1, 2, .
2 k
2 k 2 k i
herefore, z = cos i sin e
4
T , k = 0,1, 2 ,3. -1 O 1 Re
4 4
Taking k = 0,1, 2, 3 , we get

-i
k = 0, z = cos 0 i sin 0 1 . Fourth roots of unity
Fig. 2.47

k = 1, z = cos i sin i .
2 2
89 Complex Numbers

k = 2, z = cos i sin 1.
3 3
k = 3, z = cos i sin cos i sin i .
2 2 2 2
2
i
2 3
Fourth roots of unity are 1, i, − 1, − i Þ 1, ω , ω , and ω , where e 4
i.
Note
In this chapter the letter ω is used for n th roots of unity. Therefore the value of ω is depending
(i)
on n as shown in following table.
value of n 2 3 4 5  k
2p 2p 2p
value of ω
2p 2p
i i i i  i
e 2
e 3
e 4
e 5
e k
(ii) The complex number z eiθ is a rotation of z by θ radians in the counter clockwise direction
about the origin.
Example 2.34
Solve the equation z 3 8i 0 , where z ∈  .
Solution
Let z 3 8i 0 . Then, we get
z 3 = −8i

= 8(i ) 8 cos 2k i sin 2k , k  .
2 2
4k 4k
Therefore, z = 3 8 cos i sin , k = 0,1, 2 .
6 6
Taking k = 0,1, 2 , we get,
1 3 31 1 3 3 1
k =2 0,cos
z = 2 2 isin i 22 ii 32 i i 3 i
i sincos
6 6 6 2 62 22 22 2 2

k = 1, z = 2 cos i sin 2 2 0 i 0 2i 2i .
2 2
7 7
k = 2, z = 2 cos i sin 2 cos i sin
6 6 6 6
3 1
= 2 cos i sin 2 i 3 i .
6 6 2 2
The values of z are 3 − i, 2i, and − 3 − i .

Example 2.35
Find all cube roots of 3 + i .
Solution
( )
1
( ) . Let z = 3 + i . Then, z 3 = 3 i r cos i sin .

1 3
We have to find 3+i
3

Then, r = 3 1 2, and
( 3 + i lies in the first quadrant)
6

Therefore, z 3 = 3 i 2 cos i sin
6 6
12k 12k
z = 3 2 cos
Þ i sin , k 0,1, 2 .
18 18
Taking k = 0,1, 2 , we get
1
 p p
k = 0, z = 2 3 cos + i sin  ;
 18 18 
1
 13p 13p 
k = 1, z = 2 3 cos + i sin ;
 18 18 
1 1
 25p 25p   7p 7p 
k = 2, z = 2 3 cos + i sin 
 = 2 3
 − cos − i sin  .
 18 18   18 18 
Example 2.36
Suppose z1 , z2 , and z3 are the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle
z = 2. If z1 1 i 3 , then find z2 and z3 .
Solution
z = 2 represents the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
Let A, B, and C be the vertices of the given triangle. Since the vertices z1 , z2 , and z3 form an
equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle z = 2 , the sides of this triangle AB, BC, and CA
2p
subtend radians (120 degree) at the origin (circumcenter of the triangle).
3
(The complex number z eiθ is a rotation of z by θ radians in the counter clockwise direction
about the origin.)
2p 4p
Therefore, we can obtain z2 and z3 by the rotation of z1 by and respectively.
3 3
Im
Given that OA = z1 1 i 3 ; A
z1 = 1 + i 3
2 2

i i
2π
OB = z1e 3
1 i 3 e 3
3
z2 = −2
2 2
3 cos
B O 2 Re
= 1 i i sin 2π
3 3 3
z3 = 1 − i 3
1 3

C
= 1 i 3 i 2 ;
2 2 Fig. 2.48
91 Complex Numbers

i
4
i
2
i
2
OC = z1e 3
z 2 e 3
2e 3
2 2
= 2 cos i sin
3 3
1 3
= 2 i 1 i 3 .
2 2
Therefore, z2 = 2, and z3 1 i 3 .
EXERCISE 2.8
a b c 2 a b c 2
1. If 1is a cube root of unity, show that 1.
b c a 2 c a b 2
5 5
3 i 3 i
2. Show that 3 .
2 2 2 2
10

1 sin 10 i cos 10
3. Find the value of .
1 sin i cos
10 10
1 1
4. If 2 cos x and 2 cos y , show that
x y
x y 1
(i) 2 cos (ii) xy 2i sin
y x xy
xm y n 1
(iii) n m 2i sin m n (iv)
x m y n m n 2 cos m n .
y x x y
5. Solve the equation z 3 27 0 .
6. If 1 is a cube root of unity, show that the roots of the equation z 1 8 0 are
3
1, 1 2 , 1 2 2 .
8
2 k 2 k
7. Find the value of cos i sin .
k 1 9 9
8. If 1 is a cube root of unity, show that
(i) (1 2 )6 (1 2 )6 128.
(ii) 1 1 2 1 4 1 8  1 2 11
1.
9. If z 2 2i , find the rotation of z by θ radians in the counter clockwise direction about the
origin when
2 3
(i) (ii) (iii) .
3 3 2

EXERCISE 2.9
Choose the correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives :
1. i n + i n +1 + i n + 2 + i n +3 is
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) −1 (4) i
13
2. The value of (i n i n 1 ) is
n 1
(1) 1+ i (2) i (3) 1 (4) 0

3. The area of the triangle formed by the complex numbers z , iz , and z + iz in the
Argand’s diagram is
1 3
(1) | z |2 (2) | z |2 (3) | z |2 (4) 2 | z |2
2 2
1
4. The conjugate of a complex number is . Then, the complex number is
i−2
1 1 −1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
i+2 i2 i−2 i−2

3
3 i (3i 4) 2
5. If z , then | z | is equal to
(8 6i ) 2
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
6. If z is a non zero complex number, such that 2iz 2 = z then | z | is
1
(1) (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
2
7. If | z 2 i | 2 , then the greatest value of | z | is
(1) 3−2 (2) 3+2 (3) 5−2 (4) 5+2
3
8. If z 2 , then the least value of | z | is
z
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 5
1+ z
9. If | z | = 1, then the value of is
1+ z
1
(1) z (2) z (3) (4) 1
z
10. The solution of the equation | z | z 1 2i is
3 3 3 3
(1) − 2i (2) 2i (3) 2 − i (4) 2 + i
2 2 2 2
11. If
= | z1 | 1,=
| z2 | 2, | z3 | = 3 and | 9 z1 z2 4 z1 z3 z2 z3 | 12 , then the value of | z1 + z2 + z3 | is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
1
12. If z is a complex number such that z ∈ \ and z  , then | z | is
z
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
93 Complex Numbers

13. z1 , z3 , and z3 are complex numbers such that z1 z2 z3 0 and | =
z1 | | z=
2 | | z3 | = 1 then
z12 + z2 2 + z32 is
(1) 3 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) 0
z 1
14. If is purely imaginary, then | z | is
z 1
1
(1) (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
2
15. If z x iy is a complex number such that | z 2 | | z 2 | , then the locus of z is
(1) real axis (2) imaginary axis (3) ellipse (4) circle
3
16. The principal argument of is
1 i
−5p −2p −3p −p
(1) (2) (3) (4)
6 3 4 2
17. The principal argument of (sin 40 i cos 40)5 is
(1) 110 (2) 70 (3) 70° (4) 110°
18. If (1 i ) (1 2i ) (1 3i ) (1 ni ) x iy , then 2 5 10(1 n 2 ) is
(1) 1 (2) i (3) x 2 + y 2 (4) 1 + n 2
19. If 1 is a cubic root of unity and (1 )7 A B , then ( A, B ) equals
(1) (1, 0) (2) (−1,1) (3) (0,1) (4) (1,1)

1 i 3 is
2
20. The principal argument of the complex number

4i 1 i 3
2p p 5p p
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3 6 6 2
21. If α and β are the roots of x 2 x 1 0 , then 2020 2020 is
(1) −2 (2) −1 (3) 1 (4) 2
3
4
22. The product of all four values of cos i sin is
3 3
(1) −2 (2) −1 (3) 1 (4) 2
1 1 1
23. If 1 is a cubic root of unity and 1 1 2 3k , then k is equal to
2
1 2 7
(1) 1 (2) −1 (3) 3i (4) − 3i
10
1 3i
24. The value of is
1 3i
2p 4p 2p 4p
(1) cis (2) cis (3) −cis (4) −cis
3 3 3 3

z 1 2
2
25. If cis , then the number of distinct roots of z 2 1 0
3
2 1 z
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
SUMMARY
In this chapter we studied
Rectangular form of a complex number is x + iy (or x + yi ) , where x and y are real

numbers.
Two complex numbers z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 are said to be equal if and only if
That is x1 = x==
Re( z1 ) = Re( z2 ) and Im( z1 ) = Im( z2 ) .= 2 and y1 y2 .
The conjugate of the complex number x + iy is defined as the complex number x − iy .
Properties of complex conjugates

zz
z1 z2 z1 z2 (6)
(1) Im( z )
2i
z n z , where n is an integer
n
z1 z2 z1 z2 (7)
(2)
z1 z2 = z1 z2 (8)
(3) z is real if and only if z = z
z1 z1
(4)
, z2 0 (9) z is purely imaginary if and only if z z
z
2 z 2
zz
(5)
Re(z ) z=z
(10)
2
If z x iy , then x 2 + y 2 is called modulus of z . It is denoted by z .
Properties of Modulus of a complex number
z1 z
(1) z = z (5) 1 , z2 0
z2 z2
n
(2) z1 z2 z1 z2 (Triangle inequality) (6) z n = z , where n is an integer
Re z z
(3) z1 z2 = z1 z2 (7)
Im z z
(4) z1 z2 z1 z2 (8)
95 Complex Numbers

Formula for finding square root of a complex number
z a b z a , where z a ib and b ¹ 0 .
a ib i
2 b 2

Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point P( x, y ) that corresponds to a non-zero

complex number z x iy . The polar form or trigonometric form of a complex number P is
z r (cos i sin ) .
Properties of polar form
1
Property 1: If z r cos i sin , then z 1 cos i sin .
r
Property 2: If z1 r1 cos 1 i sin 1 and z2 r2 cos 2 i sin 2 ,
then z1 z2 = r1r2 cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 ) .
Property3: If z1 r1 cos 1 i sin 1 and z2 r2 cos 2 i sin 2 ,

z1 r1
then cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 .
z2 r2
de Moivre’s Theorem
(a) Given any complex number cos i sin and any integer n,
n
(cos i sin ) cos n i sin n
(b) If x is rational, then cos x θ + i sin x θ in one of the values of ( cos θ + i sin θ )
x
The nth roots of complex number z r cos i sin are
2 k 2 k
z1/ n r1/ n cos i sin , k 0,1, 2, 3, , n 1 .
n n
ICT CORNER

related to your text book. Click on the chapter named "Complex
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Select the work sheet "Geometrical Meaning"

Chapter
3
Theory of Equations
“It seems that if one is working from the point of
view of getting beauty in one’s equation,
and if one has really a sound insight, one is on a sure line of progress.”
- Paul Dirac
3.1 Introduction
One of the oldest problems in mathematics is solving algebraic equations, in particular, finding
the roots of polynomial equations. Starting from Sumerian and Babylonians around 2000 BC (BCE),
mathematicians and philosophers of Egypt, Greece, India, Arabia, China, and almost all parts of the
world attempted to solve polynomial equations.
The ancient mathematicians stated the problems and their solutions entirely
in terms of words. They attempted particular problems and there was no generality.
Brahmagupta was the first to solve quadratic equations involving negative numbers.
Euclid, Diophantus, Brahmagupta, Omar Khayyam, Fibonacci, Descartes, and Ruffini
were a few among the mathematicians who worked on polynomial equations. Ruffini
claimed that there was no algebraic formula to find the solutions to fifth degree
equations by giving a lengthy argument which was difficult to follow; finally in 1823, Abel
Norwegian mathematician Abel proved it. (1802-1829)
Suppose that a manufacturing company wants to pack its product into rectangular
boxes. It plans to construct the boxes so that the length of the base is six units more
than the breadth, and the height of the box is to be the average of the length and the
breadth of the base. The company wants to know all possible measurements of the
sides of the box when the volume is fixed.
If we let the breadth of the base as x , then the length is x + 6 and its height is x + 3 . Hence the
volume of the box is x( x + 3)( x + 6) . Suppose the volume is 2618 cubic units, then we must have
x3 + 9 x 2 + 18 x = 2618 . If we are able to find an x satisfying the above equation, then we can construct
a box of the required dimension.
We know a circle and a straight line cannot intersect at more than two points. But how can we
prove this? Mathematical equations help us to prove such statements. The circle with centre at origin
and radius r is represented by the equation x 2 + y 2 = r 2 , in the xy -plane. We further know that a line,
in the same plane, is given by the equation ax + by + c = 0 . The points of intersection of the circle and
the straight line are the points which satisfy both equations. In other words, the solutions of the
simultaneous equations
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 and ax + by + c = 0
give the points of intersection. Solving the above system of equations, we can conclude whether they
touch each other, intersect at two points or do not intersect each other.
97
Chapter 3 Theory of Equation.indd 97 31-01-2020 17:27:24

There are some ancient problems on constructing geometrical objects using only a compass and
a ruler (straight edge without units marking). For instance, a regular hexagon and a regular polygon
of 17 sides are constructible whereas a regular heptagon and a regular polygon of 18 sides are not
constructible. Using only a compass and a ruler certain geometrical constructions, particularly the
following three, are not possible to construct:
• Trisecting an angle (dividing a given angle into three equal angles).
• Squaring a circle (constructing a square with area of a given circle). [Srinivasa Ramanujan
has given an approximate solution in his “Note Book”]
• Doubling a cube (constructing a cube with twice the volume of a given cube).
These ancient problems are settled only after converting these geometrical problems into
problems on polynomials; in fact these constructions are impossible. Mathematics is a very nice
tool to prove impossibilities.
When solving a real life problem, mathematicians convert the problem into a mathematical
problem, solve the mathematical problem using known mathematical techniques, and then convert
the mathematical solution into a solution of the real life problem. Most of the real life problems, when
converting into a mathematical problem, end up with a mathematical equation. While discussing the
problems of deciding the dimension of a box, proving certain geometrical results and proving some
constructions impossible, we end up with polynomial equations.
In this chapter we learn some theory about equations, particularly about polynomial equations,
and their solutions; we study some properties of polynomial equations, formation of polynomial
equations with given roots, the fundamental theorem of algebra, and to know about the number of
positive and negative roots of a polynomial equation. Using these ideas we reach our goal of solving
polynomial equations of certain types. We also learn to solve some non–polynomial equations using
techniques developed for polynomial equations.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to
● form polynomial equations satisfying given conditions on roots.
● demonstrate the techniques to solve polynomial equations of higher degree.
● solve equations of higher degree when some roots are known to be complex or surd, irrational,
and rational.
● identify and solve reciprocal equations.
● determine the number of positive and negative roots of a polynomial equation using Descartes
Rule.

3.2 Basics of Polynomial Equations
3.2.1 Different types of Polynomial Equations
We already know that, for any non–negative integer n , a polynomial of degree n in one variable
x is an expression given by
P ≡ P(x)= an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 ... (1)
where ar ∈  are constants, r = 0,1, 2, , n with an ¹ 0 . The variable x is real or complex.
When all the coefficients of a polynomial P are real, we say “P is a polynomial over  ”.
Similarly we use terminologies like “P is a polynomial over  ”, “P is a polynomial over  ”, and
P is a polynomial over  ”.
The function P defined by P ( x ) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 is called a polynomial function.
The equation
an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 = 0 ... (2)

is called a polynomial equation.
If an c n + an −1c n −1 +  + a1c + a0 = 0 for some c ∈  , then c is called a zero of the polynomial (1)
and root or solution of the polynomial equation (2).
If c is a root of an equation in one variable x, we write it as“ x = c is a root”. The constants ar are
called coefficients. The coefficient an is called the leading coefficient and the term an x n is called the
leading term. The coefficients may be any number, real or complex. The only restriction we made is
that the leading coefficient an is nonzero. A polynomial with the leading coefficient 1 is called a
monic polynomial.
Remark:
We note the following:
• Polynomial functions are defined for all values of x .
• Every nonzero constant is a polynomial of degree 0 .
• The constant 0 is also a polynomial called the zero polynomial; its degree is not defined.
• The degree of a polynomial is a nonnegative integer.
• The zero polynomial is the only polynomial with leading coefficient 0 .
• Polynomials of degree two are called quadratic polynomials.
• Polynomials of degree three are called cubic polynomials.
• Polynomial of degree four are called quartic polynomials.
It is customary to write polynomials in descending powers of x . That is, we write polynomials
having the term of highest power (leading term) as the first term and the constant term as the last term.
For instance, 2 x + 3 y + 4 z = 5 and 6 x 2 + 7 x 2 y 3 + 8 z = 9 are equations in three variables
x , y , z ; x 2 − 4 x + 5 = 0 is an equation in one variable x. In the earlier classes we have solved
trigonometric equations, system of linear equations, and some polynomial equations.
99 Theory of Equations

We know that 3 is a zero of the polynomial x 2 − 5 x + 6 and 3 is a root or solution of the equation
x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0 . We note that cos x = sin x and cos x + sin x = 1 are also equations in one variable x.
However, cos x − sin x and cos x + sin x −1 are not polynomials and hence cos x = sin x and
cos x + sin x = 1 are not “polynomial equations”. We are going to consider only “polynomial equations”
and equations which can be solved using polynomial equations in one variable.
We recall that sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 is an identity on  , while sin x + cos x = 1 and sin 3 x + cos3 x = 1
are equations.
It is important to note that the coefficients of a polynomial can be real or complex numbers, but
1
the exponents must be nonnegative integers. For instance, the expressions 3 x −2 + 1 and 5 x 2 + 1 are
not polynomials. We already learnt about polynomials and polynomial equations, particularly about
quadratic equations. In this section let us quickly recall them and see some more concepts.
3.2.2 Quadratic Equations
For the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c =0, b 2 - 4ac is called the discriminant and it is usually
−b + ∆ −b − ∆
denoted by D . We know that and are roots of the ax 2 + bx + c = 0 . The two roots
2a 2a
2
−b ± b − 4ac
together are usually written as . It is unnecessary to emphasize that a ¹ 0 , since by
2a
2
saying that ax + bx + c is a quadratic polynomial, it is implied that a ¹ 0 .
We also learnt that ∆ = 0 if, and only if, the roots are equal. When a, b, c are real, we know
• ∆ > 0 if, and only if, the roots are real and distinct
• ∆ < 0 if, and only if, the quadratic equation has no real roots.
3.3 Vieta’s Formulae and Formation of Polynomial Equations

Vieta's formulae relate the coefficients of a polynomial to sums and products of its roots. Vieta
was a French mathematician whose work on polynomials paved the way for modern algebra.
3.3.1 Vieta’s formula for Quadratic Equations
Let α and β be the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 . Then
ax 2 + bx + c = a ( x − α ) ( x − β ) = ax 2 − a (α + β ) x + a (αβ ) = 0 .
Equating the coefficients of like powers, we see that
−b c
α +β = and αβ = .
a a
So a quadratic equation whose roots are α and β is x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ = 0 ; that is, a quadratic

equation with given roots is,
x 2 − (sum of the roots) x + product of the roots = 0. ... (1)
Note
The indefinite article a is used in the above statement. In fact, if P ( x) = 0 is a quadratic equation
whose roots are α and β , then cP( x) is also a quadratic equation with roots α and β for any
non-zero constant c.

In earlier classes, using the above relations between roots and coefficients we constructed a
quadratic equation, having α and β as roots. In fact, such an equation is given by (1). For instance, a
quadratic equation whose roots are 3 and 4 is given by x 2 − 7 x + 12 = 0.
Further we construct new polynomial equations whose roots are functions of the roots of a given
polynomial equation; in this process we form a new polynomial equation without finding the roots of
the given polynomial equation. For instance, we construct a polynomial equation by increasing the
roots of a given polynomial equation by two as given below.
Example 3.1
If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation17 x 2 + 43 x − 73 = 0 , construct a quadratic
equation whose roots are α + 2 and β + 2 .
Solution
−43 −73
Since α and β are the roots of 17 x 2 + 43 x − 73 = 0 , we have α + β = and αβ = .
17 17
We wish to construct a quadratic equation with roots α + 2 and β + 2 .Thus, to construct such a
quadratic equation, calculate,
−43 25
the sum of the roots = α + β + 4 = +4 = and
17 17
−73  −43  −91
the product of the roots = αβ + 2(α + β ) + 4 = + 2 +4 = .
17  17  17
25 91
Hence a quadratic equation with required roots is x 2 − x − = 0.
17 17
Multiplying this equation by 17, gives 17 x 2 − 25 x − 91 = 0
which is also a quadratic equation having roots α + 2 and β + 2 .
Example 3.2
If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation 2 x 2 − 7 x + 13 = 0 , construct a quadratic
equation whose roots are α 2 and β 2 .
Solution
7 13
Since α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation, we have α + β = and αβ = .
2 2
Thus, to construct a new quadratic equation,
−3
Sum of the roots = α 2 + β 2 = (α + β ) 2 − 2αβ = .
4
169
Product of the roots = α 2 β 2 = (αβ ) =
2

4
3 169
Thus a required quadratic equation is x 2 + x + = 0 . From this we see that
4 4
4 x 2 + 3 x + 169 = 0
is a quadratic equation with roots α 2 and β 2 .
Remark
In Examples 3.1 and 3.2, we have computed the sum and the product of the roots using the
known α + β and αβ . In this way we can construct quadratic equation with desired roots, provided
the sum and the product of the roots of a new quadratic equation can be written using the sum and the
product of the roots of the given quadratic equation. We note that we have not solved the given
equation; we do not know the values of α and β even after completing the task.

3.3.2 Vieta’s formula for Polynomial Equations
What we have learnt for quadratic polynomial, can be extended to polynomials of higher degree.
In this section we study the relations of the zeros of a polynomial of higher degree with its coefficients.
We also learn how to form polynomials of higher degree when some information about the zeros
are known. In this chapter, we use either zeros of a polynomial of degree n or roots of polynomial
equation of degree n .
3.3.2 (a) The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If a is a root of a polynomial equation P ( x) = 0 , then ( x − a ) is a factor of P ( x) . So,
deg ( P( x)) ≥ 1. If a and b are roots of P( x) = 0 then ( x − a ) ( x − b) is a factor of P ( x) and hence deg
( P( x)) ≥ 2. Similarly if P ( x) = 0 has n roots, then its degree must be greater than or equal to n. In
other words, a polynomial equation of degree n cannot have more than n roots.
In earlier classes we have learnt about “multiplicity”. Let us recall what we mean by “multiplicity”.
We know if ( x − a ) k is a factor of a polynomial equation P ( x) = 0 and ( x − a ) k +1 is not a factor of the
polynomial equation, P ( x) = 0 , then a is called a root of multiplicity k . For instance, 3 is a root of
multiplicity 2 for the equation x 2 − 6 x + 9 = 0 and x3 − 7 x 2 + 159 x − 9 = 0 . Though we are not going to
use complex numbers as coefficients, it is worthwhile to mention that the imaginary number 2 + i is
a root of multiplicity 2 for the polynomials x 2 − (4 + 2i ) x + 3 + 4i = 0 and x 4 − 8 x3 + 26 x 2 − 40 x + 25 = 0.
If a is a root of multiplicity 1 for a polynomial equation, then a is called a simple root of the
polynomial equation.
If P ( x ) = 0 has n roots counted with multiplicity, then also, we see that its degree must be
greater than or equal to n . In other words, “a polynomial equation of degree n cannot have more than
n roots, even if the roots are counted with their multiplicities”.
One of the important theorems in the theory of equations is the fundamental theorem of algebra.
As the proof is beyond the scope of the Course, we state it without proof.
Theorem 3.1 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)
Every polynomial equation of degree n ≥ 1 has at least one root in  .
Using this, we can prove that a polynomial equation of degree n has at least n roots in  when the
roots are counted with their multiplicities. This statement together with our discussion above says that
a polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots in 
when the roots are counted with their multiplicities.
Some authors state this statement as the fundamental theorem of algebra.

3.3.2(b) Vieta’s Formula
(i) Vieta’s Formula for Polynomial equation of degree 3
Now we obtain these types of relations to higher degree polynomials. Let us consider a general
cubic equation
ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 .
By the fundamental theorem of algebra, it has three roots. Let α , β , and γ be the roots. Thus we
have

ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = a ( x − α )( x − β )( x − γ )
Expanding the right hand side,

ax3 − a (α + β + γ ) x 2 + a (αβ + βγ + γα ) x − a (αβγ ) .
Comparing the coefficients of like powers, we obtain

−b c −d
α + β + γ = , αβ + βγ + γα = and αβγ = .
a a a
Since the degree of the polynomial equation is 3, we have a ¹ 0 and hence division by a is
meaningful. If a monic cubic polynomial has roots α , β , and γ , then
coefficient of x 2 = − (α + β + γ ) ,
coefficient of x = αβ + βγ + γα , and
constant term = −αβγ .

(ii) Vieta’s Formula for Polynomial equation of degree n > 3
The same is true for higher degree monic polynomial equations as well. If a monic polynomial
equation o f degree n has roots α1 , α 2 ,..., α n , then
coefficient of x n−1 = å1 = − ∑ α1

coefficient of x n−2 = å 2 = ∑α α1 2
coefficient of x n−3 = å 3 = −∑ α1α 2α 3
= ∑ n−1 = ( −1) ∑ α α ...α

n −1
coefficient of x 1 2 n −1
coefficient of x 0 = constant term = å n = ( −1) α1α 2 ...α n

n
where ∑α 1
denotes the sum of all roots, ∑α α 1 2
denotes the sum of product of all roots taken two at
a time, ∑α α α 1 2 3 denotes the sum of product of all roots taken three at a time, and so on. If α , β , γ ,
and δ are the roots of a quartic equation, then ∑α 1

is written as ∑α , ∑α α 1 2 is written as ∑ αβ
and so on. Thus we have,
∑α =α + β +γ +δ
∑ αβ = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ
∑ αβγ = αβγ + αβδ + αγδ + βγδ
∑ αβγδ = αβγδ

When the roots are available in explicit numeric form, then also we use these convenient
notations. We have to be careful when handling roots of higher multiplicity. For instance, if the roots
of a cubic equation are 1, 2, 2, then ∑ α = 5 and ∑ αβ = (1× 2) + (1× 2) + (2 × 2) = 8 .
From the above discussion, we note that for a monic polynomial equation, the sum of the roots
is the coefficient of x n−1 multiplied by ( −1) and the product of the roots is the constant term multiplied
by ( −1) .
n
Example 3.3
1
If α , β , and γ are the roots of the equation x3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 , find the value of ∑ βγ in
terms of the coefficients.

Solution
Since α , β , and γ are the roots of the equation x3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 , we have
å 1 α + β + γ = − p and å 3
αβγ = −r .
Now
1 1 1 1 α + β +γ −p p
∑ βγ = + +
βγ γα αβ
=
αβγ
= = .
−r r
3.3.2 (c) Formation of Polynomial Equations with given Roots

We have constructed quadratic equations when the roots are known. Now we learn how to form
polynomial equations of higher degree when roots are known. How do we find a polynomial equation
of degree n with roots α1 , α 2 , , α n ? One way of writing a polynomial equation is multiplication of
the factors. That is
( x − α1 ) ( x − α 2 ) ( x − α 3 )  ( x − α n ) = 0
is a polynomial equation with roots α1 , α 2 , , α n . But it is not the usual way of writing a polynomial
equation. We have to write the polynomial equation in the standard form which involves more
computations. But by using the relations between roots and coefficients, we can write the polynomial
equation directly; moreover, it is possible to write the coefficient of any particular power of x without
finding the entire polynomial equation.
A cubic polynomial equation whose roots are α , β , and γ is
x3 − (α + β + γ ) x 2 + (αβ + βγ + γα ) x − αβγ = 0 .
A polynomial equation of degree n with roots α1 , α 2 , , α n is given by
x n − ( ∑ α1 ) x n −1 + ( ∑ α1α 2 ) x n − 2 − ( ∑ α1α 2α 3 ) x n −3 +  + ( −1) α1α 2 α n = 0

n
where, ∑ α , ∑ α α , ∑ α α α , are as defined earlier.

1 1 2 1 2 3
For instance, a polynomial equation with roots 1, −2 , and 3 is given by

x3 − (1 − 2 + 3) x 2 + (1× ( −2 ) + ( −2 ) × 3 + 3 ×1) x − 1× ( −2 ) × 3 = 0
which, on simplification, becomes x3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0 . It is interesting to verify that the expansion
of ( x − 1) ( x + 2 ) ( x − 3) = 0 is x3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0 .

Example 3.4
Find the sum of the squares of the roots of ax 4 + bx3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 , a ≠ 0
Solution
Let α , β , γ , and δ be the roots of ax 4 + bx3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 .
Then, we get
b
å1 = α + β + γ + δ = − ,
a
c
å 2 = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = ,
a
d
å 3 = αβγ + αβδ + αγδ + βγδ = − ,
a
e
å 4 = αβγδ = .
a
We have to find α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 + δ 2 .
Applying the algebraic identity
(a + b + c + d ) 2 ≡ a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + d 2 + 2(ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd ) ,
we get
α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 + δ 2 = (α + β + γ + δ ) 2 − 2(αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ )
2
 b c
=  −  − 2  
 a a
b 2 − 2ac
= .
a2
Example 3.5
Find the condition that the roots of cubic equation x3 + ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are in the ratio p : q : r .
Solution
Since roots are in the ratio p : q : r , we can assume the roots as pλ , qλ and r λ .
Then, we get
å1 = pλ + qλ + r λ = −a , ….(1)
å 2 = ( pλ )(qλ ) + (qλ )(r λ ) + (r λ )( pλ ) = b , ….(2)
å 3 = ( pλ )(qλ )( r λ ) = −c , ….(3)
Now, we get a
(1) ⇒ λ = − ….(4)
p+q+r
c
(3) ⇒ λ 3 = − …..(5)
pqr
Substituting (4) in (5), we get
3
 a  c
−  =− ⇒ pqra 3 = c( p + q + r )3 .
 p+q+r  pqr
Example 3.6
Form the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of the cubic equation
x3 + ax 2 + bx + c = 0 .

Solution
Let α , β , and γ be the roots of x3 + ax 2 + bx + c = 0 .
Then, we get
å1 = α + β + γ = −a , ….(1)
å 2 = αβ + βγ + γα = b , ….(2)
å 3 = αβγ = −c . ….(3)
We have to form the equation whose roots are α 2 , β 2 , and γ 2 .
Using (1), (2) and (3), we find the following:
å1 = α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = (α + β + γ ) 2 − 2(αβ + βγ + γα ) = (−a ) 2 − 2(b) = a 2 − 2b ,
å 2 = α 2 β 2 + β 2γ 2 + γ 2α 2 = (αβ + βγ + γα ) 2 − 2((αβ )( βγ ) + ( βγ )(γα ) + (γα )(αβ ))
= (αβ + βγ + γα ) 2 − 2αβγ ( β + γ + α ) = (b) 2 − 2(−c)(−a ) = b 2 − 2ca

å 3 = α 2 β 2γ 2 = (αβγ ) 2 = (−c) 2 = c 2 .
Hence, the required equation is
x3 − (α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 ) x 2 + (α 2 β 2 + β 2γ 2 + γ 2α 2 ) x − α 2 β 2γ 2 = 0.
That is, x3 − ( a 2 − 2b ) x 2 + ( b 2 − 2ca ) x − c 2 = 0.
Example 3.7
If p is real, discuss the nature of the roots of the equation 4 x 2 + 4 px + p + 2 = 0 , in terms of p .
Solution
The discriminant ∆ = ( 4 p ) − 4 ( 4 ) ( p + 2 ) = 16 ( p 2 − p − 2 ) = 16 ( p + 1) ( p − 2 ) . So, we get
2

∆ < 0 if −1 < p < 2

∆ = 0 if p = −1 or p = 2
∆ > 0 if −∞ < p < −1 or 2 < p < ∞
Thus the given polynomial has
imaginary roots if −1 < p < 2 ;
equal real roots if p = −1 or p = 2 ;
distinct real roots if −∞ < p < −1 or 2 < p < ∞ .
EXERCISE 3.1
1. If the sides of a cubic box are increased by 1, 2, 3 units respectively to form a cuboid, then
the volume is increased by 52 cubic units. Find the volume of the cuboid.
2. Construct a cubic equation with roots
1
(i) 1, 2 , and 3 2,
(ii) 1,1, and −2 (iii) and 1.
2
3. If α , β and γ are the roots of the cubic equation x3 + 2 x 2 + 3 x + 4 = 0 , form a cubic equation
whose roots are
1 1 1
(i) 2α , 2 β , 2γ (ii) , , (iii) −α , − β , −γ
α β γ
4. Solve the equation 3 x3 − 16 x 2 + 23 x − 6 = 0 if the product of two roots is 1.
5. Find the sum of squares of roots of the equation 2 x 4 − 8 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 3 = 0 .

6. Solve the equation x3 − 9 x 2 + 14 x + 24 = 0 if it is given that two of its roots are in the
ratio 3 : 2 .
7. If α , β , and γ are the roots of the polynomial equation ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 , find the
α
value of ∑ in terms of the coefficients.
βγ
8. If α , β , γ , and δ are the roots of the polynomial equation 2 x 4 + 5 x3 − 7 x 2 + 8 = 0 , find a
quadratic equation with integer coefficients whose roots are α + β + γ + δ and αβγδ .
p q n
9. If p and q are the roots of the equation lx 2 + nx + n = 0 , show that + + = 0.
q p l
10. If the equations x 2 + px + q = 0 and x 2 + p′x + q′ = 0 have a common root, show that it must
pq′ − p′q q − q′
be equal to or .
q − q′ p′ − p
11. A 12 metre tall tree was broken into two parts. It was found that the height of the part which
was left standing was the cube root of the length of the part that was cut away. Formulate this
into a mathematical problem to find the height of the part which was left standing.
3.4 Nature of Roots and Nature of Coefficients of Polynomial Equations

3.4.1 Imaginary Roots
For a quadratic equation with real coefficients, if α + i β is a root, then α − i β is also a root. In
this section we shall prove that this is true for higher degree polynomials as well.
We now prove one of the very important theorems in the theory of equations.
Theorem 3.2 (Complex Conjugate Root Theorem)
If a complex number z0 is a root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients, then its complex
conjugate z0 is also a root.
Proof
Let P ( x ) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + ao = 0 be a polynomial equation with real coefficients.
Let z0 be a root of this polynomial equation. So, P( z0 ) = 0. Now
P ( z0 ) = an z0n + an −1 z0n −1 +  + a1 z0 + a0

= an z0 n + an −1 z0 n −1 +  + a1 z0 + a0
= an z0 n + an −1 z0 n −1 +  + a1 z0 + a0 ( ar = ar as ar is real for all r )

= an z0 n + an −1 z0 n −1 +  + a1 z0 + a0

= an z0 n + an −1 z0 n −1 +  + a1 z0 + a0 = P( z0 )= 0= 0 .
That is P( z0 ) = 0 ; this implies that whenever z0 is a root (i.e. P( z0 )=0), its conjugate z0 is also
a root .

If one asks whether 2 is a complex number, many students hesitate to say “yes”. As every integer
is a rational number, we know that every real number is also a complex number. So to clearly specify
a complex number that is not a real number, that is to specify numbers of form α + i β with β ≠ 0 ,
we use the term “non-real complex number”. Some authors call such a number an imaginary
number.
Remark 1
Let z0 = α + i β with β ≠ 0 . Then z0 = α − i β . If α + i β is a root of a polynomial equation P( x) = 0
with real coefficients, then by Complex Conjugate Root Theorem, α − i β is also a root of P( x) = 0 .
Usually the above statement will be stated as complex roots occur in pairs; but actually it means that
non-real complex roots or imaginary roots occur as conjugate pairs, being the coefficients of the
polynomial equation are real.
Remark 2
From this we see that any odd degree polynomial equation with real coefficients has at least one
real root; in fact, the number of real roots of an odd degree polynomial equation with real coefficients
is always an odd number. Similarly the number of real roots of an even degree polynomial equation
with real coefficients is always an even number.
Example 3.8
Find the monic polynomial equation of minimum degree with real coefficients having 2 − 3 i
as a root.
Solution
Since 2 − 3 i is a root of the required polynomial equation with real coefficients, 2 + 3 i is also
a root. Hence the sum of the roots is 4 and the product of the roots is 7 . Thus x 2 − 4 x + 7 = 0 is the
required monic polynomial equation.
3.4.2 Irrational Roots

If we further restrict the coefficients of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0,to
a ≠be0rational, we get
some interesting results. Let us consider a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 with a , b, and c
rational. As usual let ∆ = b 2 − 4ac and let r1 and r2 be the roots. In this case, when ∆ = 0 , we have
r1 = r2 ; this root is not only real, it is in fact a rational number.
When D is positive, then no doubt that D exists in  and we get two distinct real roots. But
D will be a rational number for certain values of a, b , and c , and it is an irrational number for
other values of a, b , and c .

If D is rational, then both r1 and r2 are rational.
If D is irrational, then both r1 and r2 are irrational.
Immediately we have a question. If ∆ > 0 , when will D be rational and when will it be
irrational? To answer this question, first we observe that D is rational, as the coefficients are rational
m
numbers. So ∆ = for some positive integers m and n with ( m, n ) = 1 where ( m, n ) denotes the
n

greatest common divisor of m and n . It is now easy to understand that D is rational if and only if
both m and n are perfect squares. Also, D is irrational if and only if at least one of m and n is not
a perfect square.
We are familiar with irrational numbers of the type p + q where p and q are rational numbers
and q is irrational. Such numbers are called surds. As in the case of imaginary roots, we can prove
that if p + q is a root of a polynomial, then p − q is also a root of the same polynomial equation,
when all the coefficients are rational numbers. Though this is true for polynomial equation of any
degree and can be proved using the technique used in the proof of imaginary roots, we state and prove
this only for a quadratic equation in Theorem 3.3.
Before proving the theorem, we recall that if a and b are rational numbers and c is an irrational
number such that a + bc is a rational number, then b must be 0 ; further if a + bc = 0 , then a and b
must be 0 .
For instance, if a + b 2 ∈  , then b must be 0 , and if a + b 2 = 0 then a= b= 0 . Now we
state and prove a general result as given below.
Theorem 3.3
Let p and q be rational numbers such that q is irrational. If p + q is a root of a quadratic
equation with rational coefficients, then p − q is also a root of the same equation.
Proof
We prove the theorem by assuming that the quadratic equation is a monic polynomial equation.
The result for non-monic polynomial equation can be proved in a similar way.
Let p and q be rational numbers such that q is irrational. Let p + q be a root of the equation
x 2 + bx + c = 0 where b and c are rational numbers.
Let α be the other root. Computing the sum of the roots, we get
α + p + q = −b
and hence α + q = −b − p ∈  . Taking −b − p as s , we have α + q = s .
This implies that
α = s − q .
Computing the product of the roots, we get
( s − q )( p + q ) = c
and hence ( sp − q ) + ( s − p ) q = c ∈  . Thus s − p = 0 . This implies that s = p and hence we get
α = p − q . So, the other root is p − q .
Remark
The statement of Theorem 3.3 may seem to be a little bit complicated. We should not be in a
hurry to make the theorem short by writing “for a polynomial equation with rational coefficients,
irrational roots occur in pairs”. This is not true.

For instance, the equation x3 − 2 = 0 has only one irrational root, namely 3 2 . Of course, the
other two roots are imaginary numbers (What are they?).
Example 3.9
Find a polynomial equation of minimum degree with rational coefficients, having 2 − 3 as a
root.
Solution
Since 2 − 3 is a root and the coefficients are rational numbers, 2 + 3 is also a root. A required
polynomial equation is given by
x 2 − (Sum of the roots) x + Product of the roots = 0
and hence
x2 − 4 x + 1 = 0
is a required equation.
Note
We note that the term “rational coefficients” is very important; otherwise, x − (2 − 3 ) = 0 will
be a polynomial equation which has 2 - 3 as a root but not 2 + 3 . We state the following result
without proof.
Theorem 3.4
Let p and q be rational numbers so that p and q are irrational numbers; further let one
of p and q be not a rational multiple of the other. If p + q is a root of a polynomial equation
with rational coefficients, then p − q , − p + q , and − p − q are also roots of the same
polynomial equation.
Example 3.10
2
Form a polynomial equation with integer coefficients with as a root.
3
Solution
2 2
Since is a root, x − is a factor. To remove the outermost square root, we take
3 3
2
x+ as another factor and find their product
3
 2  2 2
x+  x −  = x2 − .
 3  3  3
  
2
Still we didn’t achieve our goal. So we include another factor x 2 + and get the product
3
 2 2  2 2 4 2
 x −   x +  = x − .
 3  3 3
So, 3 x 4 − 2 = 0 is a required polynomial equation with the integer coefficients.
Now we identify the nature of roots of the given equation without solving the equation. The idea
comes from the negativity, equal to 0 and positivity of ∆ = b 2 − 4ac .

3.4.3 Rational Roots
If all the coefficients of a quadratic equation are integers, then D is an integer, and when it is
positive, we have, D is rational if, and only if, D is a perfect square. In other words, the equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 with integer coefficients has rational roots, if, and only if, D is a perfect square.
What we discussed so far on polynomial equations of rational coefficients holds for polynomial
equations with integer coefficients as well. In fact, multiplying the polynomial equation with rational
coefficients, by a common multiple of the denominators of the coefficients, we get a polynomial
equation of integer coefficients having the same roots. Of course, we have to handle this situation
carefully. For instance, there is a monic polynomial equation of degree 1 with rational coefficients
1
having as a root, whereas there is no monic polynomial equation of any degree with integer
2
1
coefficients having as a root.
2
Example 3.11
Show that the equation 2 x 2 − 6 x + 7 = 0 cannot be satisfied by any real values of x.
Solution
∆ = b 2 − 4ac = −20 < 0 . The roots are imaginary numbers.
Example 3.12
If x 2 + 2 ( k + 2 ) x + 9k = 0 has equal roots, find k.
Solution
Here ∆ = b 2 − 4ac = 0 for equal roots. This implies 4 ( k + 2 ) = 4 ( 9 ) k .This implies k = 4� or 1.
2

Example 3.13
Show that, if p, q, r are rational, the roots of the equation x 2 − 2 px + p 2 − q 2 + 2qr − r 2 = 0 are
rational.
Solution
The roots are rational if ∆ = b 2 − 4ac = ( −2 p ) − 4 ( p 2 − q 2 + 2qr − r 2 ) .
2

But this expression reduces to 4 ( q 2 − 2qr + r 2 ) or 4 ( q − r ) which is a perfect square. Hence the
2

roots are rational.
3.5 Applications of Polynomial Equation in Geometry

Certain geometrical properties are proved using polynomial equations. We discuss a few
geometric properties here.
Example 3.14
Prove that a line cannot intersect a circle at more than two points.
Solution
By choosing the coordinate axes suitably, we take the equation of the circle as x 2 + y 2 = r 2 and
the equation of the straight line as y = mx + c . We know that the points of intersections of the circle
and the straight line are the points which satisfy the simultaneous equations
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 ... (1)

y = mx + c ... (2)
If we substitute mx + c for y in (1), we get
x 2 + (mx + c) 2 − r 2 = 0
which is same as the quadratic equation

(1 + m 2 ) x 2 + 2mcx + (c 2 − r 2 ) = 0 . ... (3)
This equation cannot have more than two solutions, and hence a line and a circle cannot intersect
at more than two points.
It is interesting to note that a substitution makes the problem of solving a system of two equations
in two variables into a problem of solving a quadratic equation.
Further we note that as the coefficients of the reduced quadratic polynomial are real, either both roots
are real or both imaginary. If both roots are imaginary numbers, we conclude that the circle and the straight
line do not intersect. In the case of real roots, either they are distinct or multiple roots of the polynomial. If
they are distinct, substituting in (2), we get two values for y and hence two points of intersection. If we
have equal roots, we say the straight line touches the circle as a tangent. As the polynomial (3) cannot have
only one simple real root, a line cannot cut a circle at only one point.
Note
A technique similar to the one used in example 3.14 may be adopted to prove
• two circles cannot intersect at more than two points.
• a circle and an ellipse cannot intersect at more than four points.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. If k is real, discuss the nature of the roots of the polynomial equation 2 x 2 + kx + k = 0 , in
terms of k .
2. Find a polynomial equation of minimum degree with rational coefficients, having 2 + 3i as
a root.
3. Find a polynomial equation of minimum degree with rational coefficients, having 2i + 3 as a
root.
4. Find a polynomial equation of minimum degree with rational coefficients, having 5 − 3 as
a root.
5. Prove that a straight line and parabola cannot intersect at more than two points.
3.6 Roots of Higher Degree Polynomial Equations

We know that the equation P( x) = 0 is called a polynomial equation. The root or zero of a
polynomial equation and the solution of the corresponding polynomial equation are the same. So we
use both the terminologies.
We know that it is easy to verify whether a number is a root of a polynomial equation or not, just
by substitution. But when finding the roots, the problem is simple if the equation is quadratic and it is
in general not so easy for a polynomial equation of higher degree.

A solution of a polynomial equation written only using its coefficients, the
four basic arithmetic operators (addition, multiplication, subtraction and division),
and rational exponentiation (power to a rational number, such as square, cube,
square roots, cube roots and so on) is called a radical solution. Abel proved that it
is impossible to write a radical solution for general polynomial equation of degree
five or more.
We state a few results about polynomial equations that are useful in solving higher degree
polynomial equations.
• Every polynomial in one variable is a continuous function from  to  .
• For a polynomial equation P ( x) = 0 of even degree, P ( x) →∞
∞as P ( x) →±∞.
±∞Thus the graph
of an even degree polynomial start from left top and ends at right top.
• All results discussed on “graphing functions” in Volume I of eleventh standard textbook can
be applied to the graphs of polynomials. For instance, a change in the constant term of a
polynomial moves its graph up or down only.
• Every polynomial is differentiable any number of times.
• The real roots of a polynomial equation P ( x ) = 0 are the points on the x -axis where the
graph of P ( x ) = 0 cuts the x -axis.
• If a and b are two real numbers such that P ( a ) and P ( b ) are of opposite signs, then
- there is a point c on the real line for which P ( c ) = 0 .
- that is, there is a root between a and b .
- it is not necessary that there is only one root between such points; there may be 3, 5, 7,...
roots; that is the number of real roots between a and b is odd and not even.
However, if some information about the roots are known, then we can try to find the other roots.
For instance, if it is known that two of the roots of a polynomial equation of degree 6 with rational
coefficients are 2 + 3i and 4 − 5 , then we can immediately conclude that 2 − 3i and 4 + 5 are
also roots of the polynomial equation. So dividing by the corresponding factors, we can reduce the
problems into a problem of solving a second degree equation. In this section we learn some ways of
finding roots of higher degree polynomials when we have some information.
3.7 Polynomials with Additional Information

Now we discuss a few additional information with which we can solve higher degree polynomials.
Sometimes the additional information will directly be given, like, one root is 2 + 3i . Sometimes the
additional information like, sum of the coefficients is zero, have to be found by observation of the
polynomial.
3.7.1 Imaginary or Surds Roots

If α + i β is an imaginary root of a quartic polynomial with real coefficients, then α − i β is also
a root; thus ( x − (α + i β )) and ( x − (α − i β )) are factors of the polynomial; hence their product is a
factor; in other words, x 2 − 2α x + α 2 + β 2 is a factor; we can divide the polynomial with this factor
and get the second degree quotient which can be solved by known techniques; using this we can find
all the roots of the polynomial.

If 2 + 3 is a root of a quadric polynomial equation with rational coefficients, then 2 − 3 is
also a root; thus their product ( x − (2 + 3 )) ( x − (2 − 3 )) is a factor; that is x 2 − 4 x + 1 is a factor; we
can divide the polynomial with this factor and get the quotient as a second degree factor which can be
solved by known techniques. Using this, we can find all the roots of the quadric equation. This
technique is applicable for all surds taken in place of 2 + 3 .
If an imaginary root and a surd root of a sixth degree polynomial with rational coefficient are
known, then step by step we may reduce the problem of solving the sixth degree polynomial equation
into a problem of solving a quadratic equation.
Example 3.15
If 2 + i and 3 − 2 are roots of the equation
x 6 − 13 x 5 + 62 x 4 − 126 x 3 + 65 x 2 + 127 x − 140 = 0 ,
find all roots.
Solution
Since the coefficient of the equations are all rational numbers, and 2 + i and 3 − 2 are roots, we
get 2 − i and 3 + 2 are also roots of the given equation. Thus ( x − (2 + i )), ( x − (2 − i )), ( x − (3 − 2 ))
and ( x − (3 + 2 )) are factors. Thus their product
(( x − (2 + i )) ( x − (2 − i )) ( x − (3 − 2 )) ( x − (3 + 2 ))
is a factor of the given polynomial equation. That is,
( x 2 − 4 x + 5) ( x 2 − 6 x + 7)
is a factor. Dividing the given polynomial equation by this factor, we get the other factor as ( x 2 − 3 x − 4)
which implies that 4 and −1 are the other two roots. Thus
2 + i, 2 − i, 3 + 2 , 3 − 2 , −1 , and 4
are the roots of the given polynomial equation.
3.7.2 Polynomial equations with Even Powers Only

If P ( x) is a polynomial equation of degree 2n , having only even powers of x , (that is,
coefficients of odd powers are 0 ) then by replacing x 2 by y , we get a polynomial equation with
degree n in y; let y1 , y 2 , yn be the roots of this polynomial equation. Then considering the n
equations x 2 = yr , we can find two values for x for each yr ; these 2n numbers are the roots of the
given polynomial equation in x .
Example 3.16
Solve the equation x 4 − 9 x 2 + 20 = 0 .
Solution
The given equation is
x 4 − 9 x 2 + 20 = 0 .
This is a fourth degree equation. If we replace x 2 by y , then we get the quadratic equation
y 2 − 9 y + 20 = 0 .

It is easy to see that 4 and 5 as solutions for y 2 − 9 y + 20 = 0 . Now taking x 2 = 4 and x 2 = 5 ,
we get 2, −2, 5 , − 5 as solutions of the given equation.
We note that the technique adopted above can be applied to polynomial equations like
x − 17 x 3 + 30 = 0 , ax 2 k + bx k + c = 0 and in general polynomial equations of the form
6
an x kn + an −1 x k ( n −1) +  + a1 x k + a0 = 0 where k is any positive integer.
3.7.3 Zero Sum of all Coefficients

Let P ( x ) = 0 be a polynomial equation such that the sum of the coefficients is zero. What actually
the sum of coefficients is? The sum of coefficients is nothing but P(1). The sum of all coefficients is
zero means that P(1) = 0 which says that 1 is a root of P ( x) . The rest of the problem of solving the
equation is easy.
Example 3.17
Solve the equation x3 − 3 x 2 − 33 x + 35 = 0 .
Solution
The sum of the coefficients of the polynomial is 0. Hence 1 is a root of the polynomial. To find
other roots, we divide x3 − 3 x 2 − 33 x + 35 by x −1 and get x 2 − 2 x − 35 as the quotient. Solving this
we get 7 and −5 as roots. Thus 1, 7, −5 form the solution set of the given equation.
3.7.4 Equal Sums of Coefficients of Odd and Even Powers

Let P ( x ) = 0 be a polynomial equation such that the sum of the coefficients of the odd powers
and that of the even powers are equal. What does actually this mean? If a is the coefficient of an odd
degree in P ( x ) = 0 , then the coefficient of the same odd degree in P ( − x ) = 0 is −a . The coefficients
of even degree terms of both P ( x) = 0 and P (− x) = 0 are same. Thus the given condition implies that
the sum of all coefficients of P(− x) = 0 is zero and hence 1 is a root of P (− x) = 0 which says that
−1 is a root of P ( x) = 0 . The rest of the problem of solving the equation is easy.
Example 3.18
Solve the equation 2 x3 + 11x 2 − 9 x − 18 = 0 .
Solution
We observe that the sum of the coefficients of the odd powers and that of the even powers are
equal. Hence −1 is a root of the equation. To find other roots, we divide 2 x3 + 11x 2 − 9 x − 18 by x +1
3 3
and get 2 x 2 + 9 x − 18 as the quotient. Solving this we get and −6 as roots. Thus −6, −1, are the
2 2
roots or solutions of the given equation.
3.7.5 Roots in Progressions

As already noted to solve higher degree polynomial equations, we need some information about
the solutions of the equation or about the polynomial. “The roots are in arithmetic progression” and
“the roots are in geometric progression” are some of such information. Let us discuss an equation of
this type.

Example 3.19
Obtain the condition that the roots of x3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 are in A.P.
Solution
Let the roots be in A.P. Then, we can assume them in the form α − d , α , α + d .
p p
Applying the Vieta’s formula (α − d ) + α + (α + d ) = − = p ⇒ 3α = − p ⇒ α = − .
1 3
But, we note that α is a root of the given equation. Therefore, we get
3 2
 p  p  p 3
 −  + p  −  + q  −  + r = 0 ⇒ 9 pq = 2 p + 27 r .
 3   3   3 
Example 3.20
Find the condition that the roots of ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 are in geometric progression. Assume
a , b, c , d ¹ 0
Solution
Let the roots be in G.P.
α
Then, we can assume them in the form , α , αλ .
λ
Applying the Vieta’s formula, we get
1  b
å1 = α  + 1 + λ  = − … (1)
λ  a
2 1  c
å 2 = α  + 1 + λ  = … (2)
λ  a
d
å3 = α 3 = − . … (3)
a
Dividing (2) by (1), we get
c
α = − … (4)
b
3
 c d
Substituting (4) in (3), we get  −  = − ⇒ ac3 = db3 .
 b a
Example 3.21
If the roots of x3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 are in H.P. , prove that 9 pqr = 27 r 2 + 2q 3 .
Assume p, q, r ≠ 0
Solution
Let the roots be in H.P. Then, their reciprocals are in A.P. and roots of the equation
3 2
1 1 1 3 2
  + p   + q   + r = 0 ⇔ rx + qx + px + 1 = 0 . … (1)
x
  x
  x
 
Since the roots of (1) are in A.P., we can assume them as α − d , α , α + d .
Applying the Vieta’s formula, we get
q q q
å1 = (α − d ) + α + (α + d ) = − ⇒ 3α = − ⇒ α = − .
r r 3r

But, we note that α is a root of (1). Therefore, we get
3 2
 q  q  q
r  −  + q  −  + p  −  + 1 = 0 ⇒ −q 3 + 3q 3 − 9 pqr + 27 r 2 = 0 ⇒ 9 pqr = 2q 3 + 27 r 2 .
 3r   3r   3r 
Example 3.22
It is known that the roots of the equation x3 − 6 x 2 − 4 x + 24 = 0 are in arithmetic progression.
Find its roots.
Solution
Let the roots be a − d , a, a + d . Then the sum of the roots is 3a which is equal to 6 from the
given equation. Thus 3a = 6 and hence a = 2 . The product of the roots is a 3 − ad 2 which is equal to
−24 from the given equation. Substituting the value of a , we get 8 − 2d 2 = −24 and hence d = ±4 .
If we take d = 4 we get −2, 2, 6 as roots and if we take d = −4, we get 6, 2, −2 as roots (same roots
given in reverse order) of the equation.
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Solve the cubic equation : 2 x − x 2 − 18 x + 9 = 0 if sum of two of its roots vanishes.
3
2. Solve the equation 9 x3 − 36 x 2 + 44 x − 16 = 0 if the roots form an arithmetic progression.

3. Solve the equation 3 x3 − 26 x 2 + 52 x − 24 = 0 if its roots form a geometric progression.
4. Determine k and solve the equation 2 x3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x + k = 0 if one of its roots is twice the sum
of the other two roots.
5. Find all zeros of the polynomial x 6 − 3 x 5 − 5 x 4 + 22 x 3 − 39 x 2 − 39 x + 135 , if it is known that
1 + 2i and 3 are two of its zeros.
6. Solve the cubic equations : (i) 2 x3 − 9 x 2 + 10 x = 3 , (ii) 8 x3 − 2 x 2 − 7 x + 3 = 0.
7. Solve the equation : x 4 − 14 x 2 + 45 = 0 .
3.7.6 Partly Factored Polynomials

Quartic polynomial equations of the form (ax + b)(cx + d )( px + q)(rx + s) + k = 0 , k ¹ 0
which can be rewritten in the form (α x 2 + β x + λ ) (α x 2 + β x + µ) + k = 0
We illustrate the method of solving this situation in the next two examples.
Example 3.23
Solve the equation
( x − 2) ( x − 7) ( x − 3) ( x + 2) + 19 = 0 .
Solution
We can solve this fourth degree equation by rewriting it suitably and adopting a technique of
substitution. Rewriting the equation as
( x − 2) ( x − 3) ( x − 7) ( x + 2) + 19 = 0 .
the given equation becomes
( x 2 − 5 x + 6) ( x 2 − 5 x − 14) + 19 = 0 .
If we take x 2 − 5 x as y , then the equation becomes ( y + 6) ( y − 14) + 19 = 0;

that is,
y 2 − 8 y − 65 = 0 .
Solving this we get solutions y = 13 and y = −5 . Substituting this we get two quadratic equations
x 2 − 5 x − 13 = 0 and x 2 − 5 x + 5 = 0
which can be solved by usual techniques. The solutions obtained for these two equations together
5 ± 77 5 ± 5
give solutions as , .
2 2
Example 3.24
Solve the equation (2 x - 3)(6 x -1)(3 x - 2)( x - 2) - 5 = 0 .
Solution
The given equation is same as
(2 x - 3) (3 x - 2) (6 x -1) ( x - 2) - 5 = 0 .
After a computation, the above equation becomes

(6 x 2 −13 x + 6) (6 x 2 −13 x + 2) − 5 = 0 .
By taking y = 6 x 2 − 13 x, the above equation becomes,

( y + 6) ( y + 2) − 5 = 0
which is same as
y 2 + 8 y + 7 = 0 .
Solving this equation, we get y = −1and y = −7 .
Substituting the values of y in y = 6 x 2 − 13 x, we get

6 x 2 −13 x + 1 = 0
6 x 2 −13 x + 7 = 0
Solving these two equations, we get
7 13 + 145 13 − 145
x = 1, x = , x = and x =
6 12 12
as the roots of the given equation.
EXERCISE 3.4
1. Solve : (i) ( x − 5) ( x − 7 ) ( x + 6 ) ( x + 4 ) = 504 (ii) ( x − 4)( x − 7)( x − 2)( x + 1) = 16
2. Solve : (2 x − 1)( x + 3)( x − 2)(2 x + 3) + 20 = 0
3.8 Polynomial Equations with no Additional Information

3.8.1 Rational Root Theorem
We can find a few roots of some polynomial equations by trial and error method. For instance,
we consider the equation
4 x3 − 8 x 2 − x + 2 = 0 ... (1)
This is a third degree equation which cannot be solved by any method so far we discussed in this
chapter. If we denote the polynomial in (1) as P ( x) , then we see that P(2) = 0 which says that x − 2
is a factor. As the rest of the problem of solving the equation is easy, we leave it as an exercise.

Example 3.25
Solve the equation x3 − 5 x 2 − 4 x + 20 = 0 .
Solution
If P( x) denotes the polynomial in the equation, then P(2) = 0 . Hence 2 is a root of the
polynomial equations. To find other roots, we divide the given polynomial x3 − 5 x 2 − 4 x + 20 by
x − 2 and get Q(x)= x 2 − 3 x − 10 as the quotient. Solving Q(x) = 0 we get −2 and 5 as roots. Thus
2, −2, 5 are the solutions of the given equation.
Guessing a number as a root by trial and error method is not an easy task.
But when the coefficients are integers, using its leading coefficient and the
constant term, we can list certain rational numbers as possible roots. Rational Root
Theorem helps us to create such a list of possible rational roots. We recall that if
a polynomial has rational coefficients, then by multiplying by suitable numbers
we can obtain a polynomial with integer coefficients having the same roots. So
we can use Rational Root Theorem, given below, to guess a few roots of polynomial with rational
coefficient. We state the theorem without proof.
Theorem 3.5 (Rational Root Theorem)
p
,
Let an x n +  + a1 x + a0 with an ¹ 0 and a0 ¹ 0 , be a polynomial with integer coefficients. If q
with ( p, q ) = 1, is a root of the polynomial, then p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

p
When an = 1, if there is a rational root
, then as per theorem 3.5 q is a factor of an , then we
q
must have q = ±1. Thus p must be an integer. So a monic polynomial with integer coefficient cannot
have non-integral rational roots. So when an = 1, if at all there is a rational root, it must be an integer
and the integer should divide a0 . (We say an integer a divides an integer b , if b = ad for some
integer d .)
As an example let us consider the equation x 2 − 5 x − 6 = 0 . The divisors of 6 are ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6 .
From Rational Root Theorem, we can conclude that ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6 are the only possible solutions
of the equation. It does not mean that all of them are solutions. The two values −1 and 6 satisfy the
equation and other values do not satisfy the equation.
Moreover, if we consider the equation x 2 + 4 = 0 , according to the Rational Root theorem, the
possible solutions are ±1, ± 2, ± 4; but none of them is a solution. The Rational Root Theorem helps
us only to guess a solution and it does not give a solution.
Example 3.26
Find the roots of 2 x3 + 3 x 2 + 2 x + 3 = 0 .
Solution
p
According to our notations, an = 2 and a0 = 3 . If is a zero of the polynomial, then as
q
( p, q ) = 1, p must divide 3 and q must divide 2. Clearly, the possible values of p are 1, −1, 3, −3
and the possible values of q are 1, −1, 2, −2 . Using these p and q we can form only the fractions

1 1 3 3 −3
± , ± , ± , ± . Among these eight possibilities, after verifying by substitution, we get is the
1 2 2 1 2
only rational zero. To find other zeros, we divide the given polynomial 2 x3 + 3 x 2 + 2 x + 3 by 2 x + 3
and get x 2 + 1 as the quotient with zero remainder. Solving x 2 + 1 = 0 ,we get i and −i as roots. Thus
−3
, − i, i are the roots of the given polynomial equation.
2
3.8.2 Reciprocal Equations

Let α be a solution of the equation.
2 x 6 − 3 x 5 + 2 x 4 + 7 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 3 x + 2 = 0. ... (1)
Then α ¹ 0 (why?) and
2α 6 − 3α 5 + 2α 4 + 7α 3 + 2α 2 − 3α + 2 = 0.
1
Substituting for x in the left side of (1), we get
α
6 5 4 3 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
2   − 3  + 2   + 7   + 2   − 3  + 2
α  α  α  α  α  α 
2 − 3α + 2α 2 + 7α 3 + 2α 4 − 3α 5 + 2α 6 0
= 6
= 6 = 0.
α α
1
Thus is also a solution of (1). Similarly we can see that if α is a solution of the equation
α
2 x5 + 3 x 4 − 4 x3 + 4 x 2 − 3 x − 2 = 0 ... (2)
1
then is also a solution of (2).
α
1
Equations (1) and (2) have a common property that, if we replace x by in the equation and
x
write it as a polynomial equation, then we get back the same equation. The immediate question that
flares up in our mind is “Can we identify whether a given equation has this property or not just by
seeing it?” Theorem 3.6 below answers this question.
Definition 3.1
A polynomial P( x) of degree n is said to be a reciprocal polynomial if one of the following
conditions is true:
1 1
(i) P( x) = x n P   (ii) P( x) = − x n P   .
x x
1
A polynomial P( x) of degree n is said to be a reciprocal polynomial of Type I if P( x) = x n P   . is
x
called a reciprocal equation of Type I.
1
A polynomial P ( x) of degree n is said to be a reciprocal polynomial of Type II P( x) = − x n P   . is
x
called a reciprocal equation of Type II.

Theorem 3.6
A polynomial equation an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 +  + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 = 0 , (an ¹ 0) is a
reciprocal equation if, and only if, one of the following two statements is true:
(i) an = a0 , an−1 = a1 , an− 2 = a2 
(ii) a = − a , a = − a , an− 2 = −a2 , 
n 0 n−1 1
Proof
Consider the polynomial equation
P( x) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 +  + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 = 0 . … (1)
1
Replacing x by in (1), we get
x
1 a a a a a
P   = nn + nn−−11 + nn−−22 +  + 22 + 1 + a0 = 0 . … (2)
x x x x x x
Multiplying both sides of (2) by x n , we get
1
x n P   = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 +  + an − 2 x 2 + an −1 x + an = 0 . … (3)
x
1
Now, (1) is a reciprocal equation ⇔ P( x) = ± x n P   ⇔ (1) and (3) are same .
x
a a a a a a
This is possible ⇔ n = n −1 = n − 2 =  = 2 = 1 = 0 .
a0 a1 a2 an − 2 an −1 an
a a0
Let the proportion be equal to λ . Then, we get n = λ and = λ . Multiplying these
a0 an
equations, we get λ 2 = 1. So, we get two cases λ = 1and λ = −1 .
Case (i) :
λ = 1 In this case, we have an = a0 , an −1 = a1 , an − 2 = a2 ,  .
That is, the coefficients of (1) from the beginning are equal to the coefficients from the end.
Case (ii) :
λ = −1 In this case, we have an = −a0 , an −1 = −a1 , an − 2 = −a2 ,  .
That is, the coefficients of (1) from the beginning are equal in magnitude to the coefficients from
the end, but opposite in sign.
Note
Reciprocal equations of Type I correspond to those in which the coefficients from the beginning
are equal to the coefficients from the end.
For instance, the equation 6 x5 + x 4 − 43 x3 − 43 x 2 + x + 6 = 0 is of type I.
Reciprocal equations of Type II correspond to those in which the coefficients from the beginning
are equal in magnitude to the coefficients from the end, but opposite in sign.
For instance, the equation 6 x5 − 41x 4 + 97 x 3 − 97 x 2 + 41x − 6 = 0 is of Type II.
Remark
(i) A reciprocal equation cannot have 0 as a solution.
(ii) The coefficients and the solutions are not restricted to be real.

1
(iii) The statement “If P ( x) = 0 is a polynomial equation such that whenever α is a root,
α
( )
is also a root, then the polynomial equation P x = 0 must be a reciprocal equation” is
1
not true. For instance 2 x3 − 9 x 2 + 12 x − 4 = 0 is a polynomial equation whose roots are 2, 2, .
2
1
Note that x3 P   ≠ ± P(x)
± P ( x) and hence it is not a reciprocal equation. Reciprocal equations are
 x
classified as Type I and Type II according to an − r = ar or an − r = −ar , r = 0, 1, 2,...n. We state
some results without proof :

• For an odd degree reciprocal equation of Type I, x = −1 must be a solution.
• For an odd degree reciprocal equation of Type II, x = 1 must be a solution.
• For an even degree reciprocal equation of Type II, the middle term must be 0 . Further
x = 1 and x = −1 are solutions.
1 1
• For an even degree reciprocal equation, by taking x + or x − as y , we can obtain a
x x
polynomial equation of degree one half of the degree of the given equation ; solving this
polynomial equation, we can get the roots of the given polynomial equation.
As an illustration, let us consider the polynomial equation
6 x 6 − 35 x 5 + 56 x 4 − 56 x 2 + 35 x − 6 = 0
which is an even degree reciprocal equation of Type II. So 1 and −1 are two solutions of the equation
and hence x 2 − 1 is a factor of the polynomial. Dividing the polynomial by the factor x 2 − 1 , we get
6 x 4 − 35 x3 + 62 x 2 − 35 x + 6 as a factor. Dividing this factor by x 2 and rearranging the terms we get
 1   1  1
6  x 2 + 2  − 35  x +  + 62 . Setting u =  x +  it becomes a quadratic polynomial as
 x   x  x
10 5 10
6 ( u 2 − 2 ) − 35u + 62 which reduces to 6u 2 − 35u + 50 . Solving we obtain u =
, . Taking u =
3 2 3
1 5 1 1 1
gives x = 3, and taking u = gives x = 2, . So the required solutions are +1, −1, 2, , 3, .
3 2 2 2 3
Example 3.27
Solve the equation 7 x3 − 43 x 2 = 43 x − 7 .
Solution
The given equation can be written as 7 x3 − 43 x 2 − 43 x + 7 = 0 .
This is an odd degree reciprocal equation of Type I. Thus −1 is a solution and hence x +1 is a factor.
Dividing the polynomial 7 x3 − 43 x 2 − 43 x + 7 by the factor x +1,we get 7 x 2 − 50 x + 7 as a quotient.

1 1
Solving this we get 7 and as roots. Thus −1, , 7 are the solutions of the given equation.
7 7
Example 3.28
Solve the following equation: x 4 − 10 x3 + 26 x 2 − 10 x + 1 = 0 .

Solution
This equation is Type I even degree reciprocal equation. Hence it can be rewritten as
 1  1   2 1  1
x 2  x 2 + 2  − 10  x +  + 26 = 0 Since x ≠ 0 , we get  x + 2  − 10  x +  + 26 = 0
 x   x  x x
1
Let y = x + . Then, we get
x
(y 2
) 2
− 2 − 10 y + 26 = 0 ⇒ y − 10 y + 24 = 0 ⇒ ( y - 6)( y - 4) = 0 ⇒ y = 6 or y = 4
Case (i)
1
y = 6 ⇒ x+ = 6 ⇒ x = 3 + 2 2, x = 3 − 2 2 .
x
Case (ii)
1
y=4 ⇒ x+
= 4 ⇒ x = 2 + 3, x = 2 − 3
x
Hence, the roots are 3 ± 2 2 , 2± 3
3.8.3 Non-polynomial Equations
Some non-polynomial equations can be solved using polynomial equations. As an example let
us consider the equation 15 − 2 x = x . First we note that this is not a polynomial equation. Squaring
both sides, we get x 2 + 2 x − 15 = 0 . We know how to solve this polynomial equation. From the
solutions of the polynomial equation, we can analyse the given equation. Clearly 3 and −5 are
solutions of x 2 + 2 x − 15 = 0 . If we adopt the notion of assigning only nonnegative values for ·
then x = 3 is the only solution; if we do not adopt the notion, then we get x = −5 is also a solution.
Example 3.29: Find solution, if any, of the equation

2 cos 2 x − 9 cos x + 4 = 0 . ... (1)
Solution
The left hand side of this equation is not a polynomial in x . But it looks like a polynomial. In
fact, we can say that this is a polynomial in cos x . However, we can solve equation (1) by using our
knowledge on polynomial equations. If we replace cos x by y , then we get the polynomial equation
1
2 y 2 − 9 y + 4 = 0 for which 4 and are solutions.
2
1
From this we conclude that x must satisfy cos x = 4 or cos x = . But cos x = 4 is never possible,
2
1 1
if we take cos x = , then we get infinitely many real numbers x satisfying cos x = ; in fact, for all
2 2
π
n ∈  , x = 2nπ ± are solutions for the given equation (1).
3
If we repeat the steps by taking the equation cos 2 x − 9 cos x + 20 = 0, we observe that this
equation has no solution.

Remarks
We note that
• not all solutions of the derived polynomial equation give a solution for the given equation;
• there may be infinitely many solutions for non-polynomial equations though they look like
polynomial equations;
• there may be no solution for such equations.
• the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is proved only for polynomials; for non-polynomial
expressions, we cannot talk about degree and hence we should not have any confusion on the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra having non-polynomial equations in mind.
EXERCISE 3.5
1. Solve the following equations
(i) sin 2 x − 5 sin x + 4 = 0 (ii)
12 x3 + 8 x = 29 x 2 − 4
2. Examine for the rational roots of

(i) 2 x3 − x 2 − 1 = 0 (ii) x8 − 3 x + 1 = 0 .
3 −3
3. Solve : 8 x − 8 x
2n 2n
= 63
x a b 6a
4. Solve : 2 +3 = + .
a x a b
5. Solve the equations

(i) 6 x 4 − 35 x3 + 62 x 2 − 35 x + 6 = 0 (ii) x 4 + 3x3 − 3x − 1 = 0
6. Find all real numbers satisfying 4 x − 3 ( 2 x + 2 ) + 25 = 0 .
1
7. Solve the equation 6 x 4 − 5 x3 − 38 x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0 if it is known that is a solution.
3
3.9 Descartes Rule

In this section we discuss some bounds for the number of positive roots, number of negative
roots and number of nonreal complex roots for a polynomial over  . These bounds can be computed
using a powerful tool called “Descartes Rule”.
3.9.1 Statement of Descartes Rule

To discuss the rule we first introduce the concept of change of sign in the coefficients of a
polynomial.
Consider the polynomial.
2 x 7 − 3x 6 − 4 x5 + 5 x 4 + 6 x3 − 7 x + 8
For this polynomial, let us denote the sign of the coefficients using the symbols ‘ + ’ and ‘ − ’as
+, −, −, +, +, −, +

Note that we have not put any symbol corresponding to x 2 . We further note that 4 changes of
sign occurred (at x 6 , x 4 , x1 and x 0 ).
Definition 3.2
A change of sign in the coefficients is said to occur at the j th power of x in a polynomial
j−1
P( x) , if the coefficient of x j+1 and the coefficient of x j (or) also coefficient of x coefficient of
x j are of different signs. (For zero coefficient we take the sign of the immediately preceding
nonzero coefficient.)
From the number of sign changes, we get some information about the roots of the polynomial using
Descartes Rule. As the proof is beyond the scope of the book, we state the theorem without proof.
Theorem 3.7 (Descartes Rule)

If p is the number of positive zeros of a polynomial P( x) with real coefficients and s is the
number of sign changes in coefficients of P ( x), then s − p is a nonnegative even integer.
The theorem states that the number of positive roots of a polynomial P( x) cannot be more than
the number of sign changes in coefficients of P ( x) . Further it says that the difference between the
number of sign changes in coefficients of P ( x) and the number of positive roots of the polynomial
P( x) is even.
As a negative zero of P( x) is a positive zero of P (− x) we may use the theorem and conclude
that the number of negative zeros of the polynomial P ( x ) cannot be more than the number of
sign changes in coefficients of P ( − x ) and the difference between the number of sign changes in
coefficients of P ( − x ) and the number of negative zeros of the polynomial P ( x ) is even.
As the multiplication of a polynomial by x k , for some positive integer k , neither changes the
number of positive zeros of the polynomial nor the number of sign changes in coefficients, we need
not worry about the constant term of the polynomial. Some authors assume further that the constant
term of the polynomial must be non zero.
We note that nothing is stated about 0 as a root, in Descartes rule. But from the very sight of the
polynomial written in the customary form, one can say whether 0 is a root of the polynomial or not.
Now let us verify Descartes rule by means of certain polynomials.
3.9.2 Attainment of bounds

3.9.2 (a) Bounds for the number of real roots
The polynomial P ( x ) = ( x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 2)( x + i )( x − i ) has the zeros −1, 1, 2, − i, i . The
polynomial, in the customary form is x5 − 2 x 4 − x + 2 .This polynomial P ( x) has 2 sign changes,
namely at fourth and zeroth powers. Moreover,
P(− x) = − x5 − 2 x 4 + x + 2

has one sign change. By our Descartes rule, the number of positive zeros of the polynomial P( x)
cannot be more than 2; the number of negative zeros of the polynomial P ( x) cannot be more than 1.
Clearly 1 and 2 are positive zeros, and −1 is the negative zero for the polynomial, x5 − 2 x 4 − x + 2 ,
and hence the bounds 2 for positive zeros and the bound 1 for negative zeros are attained. We note
that i and −i are neither positive nor negative.
We know ( x + 2)( x + 3)( x + i )( x − i ) is a polynomial with roots −2, −3, −i, i . The polynomial, say
P( x) , in the customary form is x 4 + 5 x3 + 7 x 2 + 5 x + 6 .
This polynomial P( x) has no sign change and P(− x) = x 4 − 5 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 5 x + 6 has 4 sign
changes. By Descartes rule, the polynomial P( x) cannot have more than 0 positive zeros and the
number of negative zeros of the polynomial P ( x) cannot be more than 4 .
As another example, we consider the polynomial.
x n − n C1 x n −1 + n C2 x n − 2 − n C3 x n −3 +  + (−1) n −1 n C( n −1) x + (−1) n .
This is the expansion of ( x −1) n . This polynomial has n changes in coefficients and P (− x) has no
change of sign in coefficients. This shows that the number of positive zeros of the polynomial cannot be
more than n and the number of negative zeros of the polynomial cannot be more than 0. The statement on
negative zeros gives a very useful information that the polynomial has no negative zeros. But the statement
on positive zeros gives no good information about the positive zeros, though there are exactly n positive
zeros; in fact, it is well-known that for a polynomial of degree n , the number of zeros cannot be more than
n and hence the number of positive zeros cannot be more than n .
3.9.2 (b) Bounds for the number of Imaginary (Nonreal Complex)roots

Using the Descartes rule, we can compute a lower bound for the number of imaginary roots. Let
m denote the number of sign changes in coefficients of P ( x) of degree n; let k denote the number
of sign changes in coefficients of P(− x) . Then there are at least n − (m + k ) imaginary roots for the
polynomial P ( x) . Using the other conclusion of the rule, namely, the difference between the number
of roots and the corresponding sign changes is even, we can sharpen the bounds in particular cases.
Example 3.30
Show that the polynomial 9 x9 + 2 x 5 − x 4 − 7 x 2 + 2 has at least six imaginary roots.
Solution
Clearly there are 2 sign changes for the given polynomial P ( x) and hence number of positive
roots of P ( x ) cannot be more than two. Further, as P(− x) = −9 x9 − 2 x5 − x 4 − 7 x 2 + 2, there is one
sign change for P (− x) and hence the number of negative roots cannot be more than one. Clearly 0
is not a root. So maximum number of real roots is 3 and hence there are atleast six imaginary roots.
Remark From the above discussion we note that the Descartes rule gives only upper bounds for
the number of positive roots and number of negative roots; the Descartes rule neither gives the exact
number of positive roots nor the exact number of negative roots. But we can find the exact number
of positive, negative and nonreal roots in certain cases. Also, it does not give any method to find the
roots.

Example 3.31
Discuss the nature of the roots of the following polynomials:
x 2018 + 1947 x1950 + 15 x8 + 26 x 6 + 2019
(i) (ii) x5 − 19 x 4 + 2 x3 + 5 x 2 + 11
Solution
Let P ( x) be the polynomial under consideration.
(i) The number of sign changes for P ( x) and P (− x) are zero and hence it has no positive roots
and no negative roots. Clearly zero is not a root. Thus the polynomial has no real roots and
hence all roots of the polynomial are imaginary roots.
(ii) The number of sign changes for P ( x) and P (− x) are 2 and 1 respectively. Hence it has at
most two positive roots and at most one negative root.Since the difference between number
of sign changes in coefficients of P (− x) and the number of negative roots is even, we
cannot have zero negative roots. So the number of negative roots is 1. Since the difference
between number of sign changes in coefficient of P ( x) and the number of positive roots
must be even, we must have either zero or two positive roots. But as the sum of the
coefficients is zero, 1 is a root. Thus we must have two and only two positive roots. Obviously
the other two roots are imaginary numbers.
EXERCISE 3.6
1. Discuss the maximum possible number of positive and negative roots of the polynomial
equation 9 x9 − 4 x8 + 4 x 7 − 3 x 6 + 2 x5 + x 3 + 7 x 2 + 7 x + 2 = 0.
2. Discuss the maximum possible number of positive and negative zeros of the polynomials
x 2 − 5 x + 6 and x 2 − 5 x + 16 . Also draw rough sketch of the graphs.
3. Show that the equation x9 − 5 x5 + 4 x 4 + 2 x 2 + 1 = 0 has atleast 6 imaginary solutions.
4. Determine the number of positive and negative roots of the equation x9 − 5 x8 − 14 x 7 = 0 .
5. Find the exact number of real zeros and imaginary of the polynomial x9 + 9 x 7 + 7 x5 + 5 x3 + 3 x .
EXERCISE 3.7
1. A zero of x3 + 64 is
( 1 ) 0 ( 2 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4i ( 4 ) - 4
2. If f and g are polynomials of degrees m and n respectively,
and if h( x) = ( f  g ) ( x) , then the degree of h is
(1) mn (2) m + n (3) m n (4) n m
3. A polynomial equation in x of degree n always has
(1) n distinct roots (2) n real roots
(3) n complex roots (4) at most one root.
1
4. If α , β , and γ are the zeros of x3 + px 2 + qx + r , then ∑ is
α
q p q q
(1) − (2) − (3) (4) −
r r r p
5. According to the rational root theorem, which number is not possible rational zero of
4 x 7 + 2 x 4 − 10 x 3 − 5 ?
5 4
(1) −1 (2) (3) (4) 5
4 5

6. The polynomial x3 − kx 2 + 9 x has three real zeros if and only if, k satisfies
(1) k £ 6 (2) k = 0 (3) k > 6 (4) k ≥ 6
7. The number of real numbers in [0, 2p ] satisfying sin 4 x − 2 sin 2 x + 1 is
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3)1 (4) ¥
8. If x3 + 12 x 2 + 10ax + 1999 definitely has a positive zero, if and only if

(1) a ≥ 0 (2) a > 0 (3) a < 0 (4) a £ 0
9. The polynomial x3 + 2 x + 3 has
(1) one negative and two imaginary zeros (2) one positive and two imaginary zeros
(3) three real zeros (4) no zeros
n
10. The number of positive zeros of the polynomial ∑j =0
n
Cr (−1) r x r is
(1) 0 (2) n (3) < n (4) r
SUMMARY
In this chapter we studied
• Vieta’s Formula for polynomial equations of degree 2,3, and n>3.
• The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra : A polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 has at least one root
in  .
• Complex Conjugate Root Theorem : Imaginary (nonreal complex) roots occur as conjugate
pairs, if the coefficients of the polynomial are real.
• Rational Root Theorem : Let an x n +  + a1 x + a0 with an ¹ 0 and a0 ¹ 0 , be a polynomial
p
with integer coefficients. If , with ( p, q ) = 1, is a root of the polynomial, then p is a factor
q
of a0 and q is a factor of an .
• Methods to solve some special types of polynomial equations like polynomials having only
even powers, partly factored polynomials, polynomials with sum of the coefficients is zero,
reciprocal equations.
• Descartes Rule : If p is the number of positive roots of a polynomial P ( x) and s is the
number of sign changes in coefficients of P ( x) , then s − p is a nonnegative even integer.
ICT CORNER

related to your text book. Click on the chapter named "Theory of
Equations". You can see several work sheets related to the chapter.
Select the work sheet "Relation between roots and co-efficients"

Chapter
4
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
“The power of Mathematics is often to change one thing into another,
to change geometry into language”
- Marcus du Sautoy
4.1 Introduction
In everyday life, indirect measurement is used to obtain solutions to problems
that are impossible to solve using measurement tools. Trigonometry helps us to find
measurements like heights of mountains and tall buildings without using
measurement tools. Trigonometric functions and their inverse trigonometric
functions are widely used in engineering and in other sciences including physics.
John F.W. Herschel
They are useful not only in solving triangles, given the length of two sides of a right
triangle, but also they help us in evaluating a certain type of integrals, such as
1 1
∫ a 2 − x 2 dx and ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx . The symbol sin x denoting the inverse trigonometric function
-1
arcsine ( x) of sine function was introduced by the British mathematician John F.W.Herschel (1792-1871).
For his work along with his father, he was presented with the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical
Society in 1826.
An oscilloscope is an electronic device that converts electrical signals
into graphs like that of sine function. By manipulating the controls, we can
change the amplitude, the period and the phase shift of sine curves. The
oscilloscope has many applications like measuring human heartbeats, where
the trigonometric functions play a dominant role.
Let us consider some simple situations where inverse trigonometric functions are often used.
Illustration-1 (Slope problem)

y ( x2 , y2 )
Consider a straight line y = mx + b . Let us find the angle θ made by the line with
y = y 2 − y1
x -axis in terms of slope m . The slope or gradient m is defined as the rate of change of θ
( x1 , y1 )
x = x2 − x1
∆y ∆y
a function, usually calculated by m = . From right triangle (Fig. 4.1), tan θ = .
∆x ∆x θ x
y
Thus, tan θ = m . In order to solve for θ , we need the inverse trigonometric function Slope: m = = tan
x
called “inverse tangent function”. Fig. 4.1
129
Chapter 4 Inverse Trigonometry.indd 129 31-01-2020 17:40:25

Illustration-2 ( Movie Theatre Screens )
Suppose that a movie theatre has a screen of 7 metres tall. When someone
7m
sits down, the bottom of the screen is 2 metres above the eye level. The angle
formed by drawing a line from the eye to the bottom of the screen and a line
2m
from the eye to the top of the screen is called the viewing angle. xm
In Fig. 4.2, θ is the viewing angle. Suppose that the person sits x Fig. 4.2
metres away from the screen. The viewing angle θ is given by the function
9 2
θ ( x) = tan −1   − tan −1   . Observe that the viewing angle θ is a function of x .
x x
Illustration-3 ( Drawbridge )
Assume that there is a double-leaf drawbridge as shown in
33m
Fig.4.3. Each leaf of the bridge is 40 metres long. A ship of 33 metres
40m 40m
wide needs to pass through the bridge. Inverse trigonometric function
helps us to find the minimum angle θ so that each leaf of the bridge
should be opened in order to ensure that the ship will pass through
the bridge. Fig. 4.3
In class XI, we have discussed trigonometric functions of real numbers using unit circle, where
the angles are in radian measure. In this chapter, we shall study the inverse trigonometric functions,
their graphs and properties. In our discussion, as usual  and  stand for the set of all real numbers
and all integers, respectively. Let us recall the definition of periodicity, domain and range of six
trigonometric functions.
Learning Objectives
● define inverse trigonometric functions
● evaluate the principal values of inverse trigonometric functions
● draw the graphs of trigonometric functions and their inverses
● apply the properties of inverse trigonometric functions and evaluate some expressions
4.2 Some Fundamental Concepts

Definition 4.1 (Periodicity)
A real valued function f is periodic if there exists a number p > 0 such that for all x in the
domain of f , x + p is in the domain of f and f ( x + p ) = f ( x) .
The smallest of all such numbers, is called the period of the function f .
For instance, sin x, cos x, cosecx , sec x and eix are periodic functions with period 2p
radians, whereas tan x and cot x are periodic functions with period p radians.

Definition 4.2 (Odd and Even functions)
A real valued function f is an even function if for all x in the domain of f , -x is also in
the domain of f and f (− x) = f ( x) .
A real valued function f is an odd function if for all x in the domain of f , -x is also in
the domain of f and f (− x) = − f ( x) .
For instance, x3 , sin x, cosec x, tan x and cot x are all odd functions, whereas
x 2 , cos x and sec x are even functions.
Remark
The period of f = g ± h is lcm{period of g , period of h}, whenever they exist.
For instance, the period of y = cos 6 x + sin 4 x is p and that of y = cos x − sin x is 2p .
4.2.1 Domain and Range of trigonometric functions

The domain and range of trigonometric functions are given in the following table.
Trigonometric function sin x cos x tan x cosec x sec x cot x
 π   π 
Domain   \ (2n + 1) , n ∈  \ {nπ , n ∈ } \ (2n + 1) , n ∈  \ {nπ , n ∈ }
 2   2 
Range [ −1, 1] [ −1, 1]   \ ( −1, 1)  \ ( −1, 1) 
4.2.2 Graphs of functions

Let f :  →  be a real valued function and f ( x) be the value of the function f at a point x in
the domain. Then, the set of all points ( x, f ( x) ) , x ∈  determines the graph of the function f . In
general, a graph in xy -plane need not represent a function. However, if the graph passes the vertical
line test (any vertical line intersects the graph, if it does, atmost at one point), then the graph represents
a function. A best way to study a function is to draw its graph and analyse its properties through the
graph.
Every day, we come across many phenomena like tides, day or night cycle, which involve
periodicity over time. Since trigonometric functions are periodic, such phenomena can be studied
through trigonometric functions. Making a visual representation of a trigonometric function, in the
form of a graph, can help us to analyse the properties of phenomena involving periodicities.
To graph the trigonometric functions in the xy -plane, we use the symbol x for the independent
variable representing an angle measure in radians, and y for the dependent variable. We write
y = sin x to represent the sine function, and in a similar way for other trigonometric functions. In the
following sections, we discuss how to draw the graphs of trigonometric functions and inverse
trigonometric functions and study their properties.
4.2.3 Amplitude and Period of a graph

The amplitude is the maximum distance of the graph from the x -axis. Thus, the amplitude of a
function is the height from the x -axis to its maximum or minimum. The period is the distance required
for the function to complete one full cycle.
131 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Remark
(i) The graph of a periodic function consists of repetitions of the portion of the graph on an
interval of length of its period.
(ii) The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin and the graph of an even
function is symmetric about the y -axis.
4.2.4 Inverse functions
Remember that a function is a rule that, given one value, always gives back a unique value as its
answer. For existence, the inverse of a function has to satisfy the above functional requirement. Let
us explain this with the help of an example.
Let us consider a set of all human beings not containing identical twins. Every human being from
our set, has a blood type and a DNA sequence. These are functions, where a person is the input and
the output is blood type or DNA sequence. We know that many people have the same blood type but
DNA sequence is unique to each individual. Can we map backwards? For instance, if you know the
blood type, do you know specifically which person it came from? The answer is NO. On the other
hand, if you know a DNA sequence, a unique individual from our set corresponds to the known DNA
sequence. When a function is one-to-one, like the DNA example, then mapping backward is possible.
The reverse mapping is called the inverse function. Roughly speaking, the inverse function undoes
what the function does.
For any right triangle, given one acute angle and the length of one side, we figure out what the
other angles and sides are. But, if we are given only two sides of a right triangle, we need a procedure
that leads us from a ratio of sides to an angle. This is where the notion of an inverse to a trigonometric
function comes into play.
We know that none of the trigonometric functions is one-to-one over its entire domain. For
π 5π 13π 7π 11π
instance, given sin θ = 0.5 , we have infinitely many θ = , , , − ,− , satisfying
6 6 6 6 6
the equation. Thus, given sin θ , it is not possible to recover θ uniquely. To overcome the problem of
having multiple angles mapping to the same value, we will restrict our domain suitably before defining
the inverse trigonometric function.
To construct the inverse of a trigonometric function, we take an interval small enough such that
the function is one-to-one in the restricted interval, but the range of the function restricted to that
interval is the whole range. In this chapter, we define the inverses of trigonometric functions with
their restricted domains.
4.2.5 Graphs of inverse functions

Assume that f is a bijective function and f -1 is the inverse of f . Then, y = f ( x) if and only if
x = f −1 ( y ) . Therefore, (a, b) is a point on the graph of f if and only if (b, a ) is the corresponding
point on the graph of f -1 . This suggests that graph of the inverse function f -1 is obtained from the
graph of f by interchanging x and y axes. In other words, the graph of f -1 is the mirror image of
the graph of f in the line y = x or equivalently, the graph of f -1 is the reflection of the graph of f in
the line y = x.

4.3 Sine Function and Inverse Sine Function
Let us recall that sine function is a function with  as its domain and [-1, 1] as its range. We
write y = sin x and y = sin −1 x or y = arcsin(x) to represent the sine function and the inverse sine
function, respectively. Here, the symbol -1 is not an exponent. It denotes the inverse and does not
mean the reciprocal.
We know that sin ( x + 2π ) = sin x is true for all real numbers x . Also, sin ( x + p ) need not be
equal to sin x for 0 < p < 2π and for all x . Hence, the period of the sine function is 2p .
4.3.1 The graph of sine function

The graph of the sine function is the graph of y = sin x , where x is a real number. Since sine
function is periodic with period 2p , the graph of the sine function is repeating the same pattern in
each of the intervals,  , [ − 2π , 0] , [ 0, 2π ] , [ 2π , 4π ] , [ 4π , 6π ] ,  . Therefore, it suffices to
determine the portion of the graph for x ∈ [ 0, 2π ] . Let us construct the following table to identify
some known coordinate pairs for the points ( x, y ) on the graph of y = sin x , x ∈ [ 0, 2π ] .
p p p p 3p
x ( in radian ) 0 p 2p
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
y = sin x 0 1 0 -1 0
2 2 2
It is clear that the graph of y = sin x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π , begins at the origin. As x increases from 0 to
p p 3p
, the value of y = sin x increases from 0 to 1. As x increases from to p and then to , the
2 2 2
value of y decreases from 1 to 0 and then to -1. As x increases from 1 y y = sin x in [0, 2π ]
amplitude
3p x
to 2p , the value of y increases from -1 to 0. Plot the points listed O π π 3π 2π
2
2 2
in the table and connect them with a smooth curve. The portion of the -1
graph is shown in Fig. 4.4. Fig. 4.4

The entire graph of y = sin x , x ∈  consists of y = sin x, x ∈ 
y
repetitions of the above portion on either side of the
1
interval [ 0, 2π ] as y = sin x is periodic with period 2p . period
The graph of sine function is shown in Fig. 4.5. The x

4π 3 π 2 π π O π 2π 3π 4π
portion of the curve corresponding to 0 to 2p is called a
cycle. Its amplitude is 1. -1
Note Fig. 4.5

Observe that sin x ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ π , which corresponds to the values of the sine function in
quadrants I and II and sin x < 0 for π < x < 2π , which corresponds to the values of the sine function
in quadrants III and IV.

4.3.2 Properties of the sine function
From the graph of y = sin x , we observe the following properties of sine function:
(i) There is no break or discontinuities in the curve. The sine function is continuous.
(ii) The sine function is odd, since the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
3π π 5π
(iii) The maximum value of sine function is 1 and occurs at x =  , − , , , and the minimum
2 2 2
π 3π 7π
value is -1 and occurs at x =  , − , , , . In otherwords, −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x Î  .
2 2 2
4.3.3 The inverse sine function and its properties
The sine function is not one-to-one in the entire domain  . This is visualized from the fact that
every horizontal line y = b, − 1 ≤ b ≤ 1, intersects the graph of y = sin x infinitely many times. In
other words , the sine function does not pass the horizontal line test, which is a tool to decide the
 π π
one-to-one status of a function. If the domain is restricted to  − ,  , then the sine function
 2 2
becomes one to one and onto (bijection) with the range [-1, 1] . Now, let us define the inverse sine
 π π
function with [-1, 1] as its domain and with  − ,  as its range.
 2 2
Definition 4.3
 π π
For −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, define sin -1 x as the unique number y in  − ,  such that sin y = x . In other
 2 2
 π π 
words, the inverse sine function sin −1 : [−1, 1] →  − ,  is defined by sin −1 ( x) = y if and only if
 2 2 
 π π
sin y = x and y ∈  − ,  .
 2 2
Note
 π π
(i) The sine function is one-to-one on the restricted domain  − ,  , but not on any larger
 2 2
interval containing the origin.
 π π
(ii) The cosine function is non-negative on the interval  − ,  , the range of sin -1 x . This
 2 2
observation is very important for some of the trigonometric substitutions in Integral Calculus.
(iii) Whenever we talk about the inverse sine function, we have,
 π π  π π
sin :  − ,  → [ −1, 1] and sin −1 : [ −1, 1] →  − ,  .
 2 2  2 2
(iv) We can also restrict the domain of the sine function to any one of the intervals,
 5π 3π   3π π   π 3π   3π 5π 
… − , −  , − , −  ,  , , , … where it is one-to-one and its range is
 2 2   2 2   2 2   2 2 
[-1,1] .
 π π
(vi) The restricted domain  − ,  is called the principal domain of sine function and the values
 2 2
of y = sin −1 x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , are known as principal values of the function y = sin −1 x .

From the definition of y = sin −1 x , we observe the following:
π π
(i) y = sin −1 x if and only if x = sin y for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤ y ≤ .
2 2
(ii) sin ( sin −1 x ) = x if x ≤ 1 and has no sense if x > 1 .
π π
(iii) sin −1 ( sin x ) = x if − ≤ x ≤ . Note that sin -1 (sin 2p ) = 0 ≠ 2p .
2 2
π 3π π π
(iv) sin −1 ( sin x ) = π − x if ≤x≤ . Note that − ≤ π − x ≤ .
2 2 2 2
(v) y = sin −1 x is an odd function.
Remark
1 1
Let us distinguish between the equations sin x = and x = sin −1   . To solve the equation
2 2
1 1
sin x = , one has to find all values of x in the interval (−∞, ∞) such that sin x = . However, to
2 2
1  π π
find x in x = sin −1   , one has to find the unique value x in the interval  − ,  such that
2  2 2
1
sin x = .
2
4.3.4 Graph of the inverse sine function

 π π y
The inverse sine function, sin -1 : [ −1, 1] →  − ,  ,
x y
π
π
 2 2 −1 −
2
2
2 −π
receives a real number x in the interval [ −1, 1] as input and −
2 4 y = sin–1x
x
0 0 −1 O 1
 π π
gives a real number y in the interval  − ,  as output. As 2 π
 2 2 2 4
π
π −
usual, let us find some points ( x, y ) using the equation 1
2
2
Fig. 4.6
y = sin −1 x and plot them in the xy -plane. Observe that the
p p
value of y increases from - to as x increases from -1 to 1. By connecting these points by a
2 2
smooth curve, we get the graph of y = sin −1 x as shown in Fig. 4.6.
Note
The graph of y = sin −1 x
 π π
(i) is also obtained by reflecting the portion of the entire graph of y = sin x in the interval  − , 
 2 2
about the line y = x or by interchanging x and y axes from the graph of y = sin x .
(ii) passes through the origin.
(iii) is symmetric with respect to the origin and hence, y = sin −1 x is an odd function.

π π
We depict the graphs of both y = sin x, − ≤x≤ and y = sin −1 x, − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 together for a
2 2
better understanding.
y
y
y π
–1 x
1
2
π sin
2
y= y =x
 π π y = sin–1x y = sin x
y = sin x in  − , 
 2 2
x x x
π O π −1 O 1
− −
π O π
2 2 2 2
−1 −
π
π 2
−
2
Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9
Fig. 4.9 illustrates that the graph of y = sin −1 x is the mirror image of the graph of
π π
y = sin x, − ≤ x ≤ , in the line y = x and also shows that the sine function and the inverse sine
2 2
function are symmetric with respect to the origin.
Example 4.1
 1
Find the principal value of sin −1  −  (in radians and degrees).
 2
Solution
 1 1
Let sin −1  −  = y . Then sin y = − .
 2 2
 π π  π π
The range of the principal value of sin -1 x is  − ,  and hence, let us find y ∈  − ,  such
 2 2  2 2
1 π
that sin y = − . Clearly, y = − .
2 6
 1 π
Thus, the principal value of sin −1  −  is − . This corresponds to −30° .
 2 6
Example 4.2
Find the principal value of sin −1 ( 2 ) , if it exists.
Solution
Since the domain of y = sin −1 x is [ −1, 1] and 2 ∉ [ −1, 1] , sin −1 ( 2 ) does not exist.
Example 4.3
Find the principal value of
 1    π    5π  
(i) sin −1   (ii) sin −1  sin  −   (iii) sin −1  sin   .
 2   3    6 
Solution
 π π
We know that sin −1 : [ −1, 1] →  − ,  is given by
 2 2
π π
sin −1 x = y if and only if x = sin y for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤ y ≤ . Thus,
2 2

 1  p π  π π π 1
(i) sin −1  = , since ∈  − ,  and sin = .
 2 4 4  2 2 4 2
  π  π π  π π
sin −1  sin  −   = − ,
(ii) since − ∈ − , .
  3  3 3  2 2 
  5π  −1   π  −1  π π π  π π
sin −1  sin 
(iii)   = sin  sin  π −   = sin  sin  = , since ∈ − , .
  6    6   6 6 6  2 2 
Example 4.4
Find the domain of sin −1 ( 2 − 3x 2 )
Solution
We know that the domain of sin −1 ( x ) is [-1, 1] .
This leads to −1 ≤ 2 − 3 x 2 ≤ 1 , which implies − 3 ≤ −3 x 2 ≤ −1 .
Now, − 3 ≤ −3 x 2 , gives x 2 £ 1 and ... (1)
1
−3 x 2 ≤ −1 , gives x 2 ≥ ... (2)
3
1 1
Combining the equations (1) and (2), we get £ x 2 £ 1 . That is, £ x £ 1 , which gives
3 3
 1   1 
x ∈  −1, −  ∪  , 1 , since a £ x £ b implies x ∈ [ −b, − a ] ∪ [ a, b ] .
 3  3 
EXERCISE 4.1
1. Find all the values of x such that
(i) −10π ≤ x ≤ 10π and sin x = 0 (ii) −3p ≤ x ≤ 3p and sin x = −1.
2. Find the period and amplitude of
1 
(i) y = sin 7 x (ii) y = − sin  x  (iii) y = 4 sin(−2 x) .
3 
1 
3. Sketch the graph of y = sin  x  for 0 ≤ x < 6π .
3 
  2π   −1   5p  
4. Find the value of (i) sin −1  sin    (ii) sin  sin  4   .
  3   
5. For what value of x does sin x = sin −1 x ?

6. Find the domain of the following
 x2 + 1  π
(i) f ( x) = sin −1
 (ii) g ( x) = 2 sin −1 ( 2 x − 1) − .
 2x  4
 5π π 5π π
7. Find the value of sin −1  sin cos + cos sin  .
 9 9 9 9

4.4 The Cosine Function and Inverse Cosine Function
The cosine function is a function with  as its domain and [-1, 1] as its range. We write y = cos x
and y = cos −1 x or y = arccos(x) to represent the cosine function and the inverse cosine function,
respectively. Since cos ( x + 2π ) = cos x is true for all real numbers x and cos ( x + p ) need not be
equal to cos x for 0 < p < 2π , x ∈  , the period of y = cos x is 2p .
4.4.1 Graph of cosine function

The graph of cosine function is the graph of y = cos x , where x is a real number. Since cosine
function is of period 2p , the graph of cosine function is repeating the same pattern in each of the
intervals , [ −4π , − 2π ] , [ − 2π , 0] , [0, 2π ] , [ 2π , 4π ] , [ 4π , 6π ] ,  . Therefore, it suffices to
determine the portion of the graph of cosine function for x ∈[0, 2π ] . We construct the following table
to identify some known coordinate pairs ( x, y ) for points on the graph of y = cos x , x ∈ [ 0, 2π ] .
p p p p 3p
x ( in radian ) 0 p 2p
6 4 3 2 2
3 1 1
y = cos x 1 0 -1 0 1
2 2 2
y
The table shows that the graph of y = cos x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π , begins at y = cos x in [0, 2π ]
1
(0,1). As x increases from 0 to p , the value of y = cos x decreases from
x
1 to -1 . As x increases from p to 2p , the value of y increases from O π π 3π 2π
2 2
-1 to 1. Plot the points listed in the table and connect them with a −1
smooth curve. The portion of the graph is shown in Fig. 4.10. Fig. 4.10
y
y = cos x, x ∈ 
The graph of y = cos x , x ∈  consists of repetitions of the above 1
x
portion on either side of the interval [ 0, 2π ] and is shown in Fig. 4.11. −4π −3π −2π −π O π 2π 3π 4π
−1
From the graph of cosine function, observe that cos x is positive in the Fig. 4.11
 π  π 
first quadrant  for 0 ≤ x ≤  , negative in the second quadrant  for < x ≤ π 
 2  2 
3π   3π 
and third quadrant  for π < x <  and again it is positive in the fourth quadrant  for 2 < x < 2π  .
 2 
Note
We see from the graph that cos( − x) = cos x for all x , which asserts that y = cos x is an even
function.

4.4.2 Properties of the cosine function
From the graph of y = cos x , we observe the following properties of cosine function:
(i) There is no break or discontinuities in the curve. The cosine function is continuous.
(ii) The cosine function is even, since the graph is symmetric about y -axis.
(iii) The maximum value of cosine function is 1 and occurs at x = … , − 2π , 0, 2π , … and the
minimum value is - 1 and occurs at x = … , − π , π , 3π , 5π , … . . In other words, −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
for all x Î  .
Remark
p  π
(i) Shifting the graph of y = cos x to the right radians, gives the graph of y = cos  x −  ,
2  2
 π π 
which is same as the graph of y = sin x . Observe that cos  x −  = cos  − x  = sin x .
 2 2 
(ii) y = A sin α x and y = B cos β x always satisfy the inequalities − A ≤ A sin α x ≤ A and
2π
− B ≤ B cos β x ≤ B . The amplitude and period of y = A sin α x are A and , respectively
α
2π
and those of y = B cos β x are B and , respectively.
β
The functions y = A sin α x and y = B cos β x are known as sinusoidal functions.
(iii) Graphing of y = A sin α x and y = B cos β x are obtained by extending the

 2π   2π 
portion of the graphs on the intervals 0 ,  and 0 ,  , respectively.
 α   β 
Applications
Phenomena in nature like tides and yearly temperature that cycle repetitively through time are
often modelled using sinusoids. For instance, to model tides using a general form of sinusoidal
function y = d + a cos ( bt − c ) , we give the following steps:
(i) The amplitude of a sinusoidal graph (function) is one-half of the absolute value of the difference
of the maximum and minimum y -values of the graph.
1 1
Thus, Amplitude , a = ( max - min) ; Centre line is y = d , where d = ( max + min)
2 2
2π
(ii) Period, p = 2 × ( time from maximum to minimum) ; b =
p
c = b × time at which maximum occurs.
(iii)
Model-1
The depth of water at the end of a dock varies with tides. The following table shows the depth
( in metres ) of water at various time.
time, t 12 am 2 am 4 am 6 am 8 am 10 am 12 noon
depth 3.5 4.2 3.5 2.1 1.4 2.1 3.5

Let us construct a sinusoidal function of the form y = d + a cos ( bt − c ) to find the depth of water
π π
at time t. Here, a = 1.4 ; d = 2.8 ; p = 12 ; b = ; c= .
6 3
π π
The required sinusoidal function is y = 2.8 + 1.4 cos  t −  .
6 3
Note
The transformations of sine and cosine functions are useful in numerous applications. A circular
motion is always modelled using either the sine or cosine function.
Model-2
A point rotates around a circle with centre at origin and radius 4. We can obtain the y -coordinate
of the point as a function of the angle of rotation. y
y = 4sin θ
For a point on a circle with centre at the origin and radius a, 4
the y -coordinate of the point is y = a sin θ , where θ is the 3 4 units
angle of rotation. In this case, we get the equation 2

1
y(θ ) = 4 sin θ , where θ is in radian, the amplitude is 4 and θ
−4p −3p −2p −p O p 2p 3p 4p
−1
the period is 2p . The amplitude 4 causes a vertical stretch
−2
of the y -values of the function sin θ by a factor of 4. −3
−4
4.4.3 The inverse cosine function and its Fig. 4.12
properties
The cosine function is not one-to-one in the entire domain  . However, the cosine function is
one-to-one on the restricted domain [ 0, π ] and still, on this restricted domain, the range is [ −1, 1] .
Now, let us define the inverse cosine function with [-1, 1] as its domain and with [ 0, π ] as its range.
Definition 4.4
For −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, define cos -1 x as the unique number y in [ 0, π ] such that cos y = x . In other
words, the inverse cosine function cos −1 : [ −1, 1] → [ 0, π ] is defined by cos −1 ( x) = y if and only if
cos y = x and y ∈ [ 0, π ] .
Note
(i) The sine function is non-negative on the interval [ 0, π ] , the range of cos -1 x . This observation
is very important for some of the trigonometric substitutions in Integral Calculus.
(ii) Whenever we talk about the inverse cosine function, we have cos x : [ 0, π ] → [ −1, 1] and
cos −1 x : [ −1, 1] → [ 0, π ] .
(iii) We can also restrict the domain of the cosine function to any one of the intervals
 , [ −π , 0] , [π , 2π ] , , where it is one-to-one and its range is [-1, 1].
The restricted domain [ 0, π ] is called the principal domain of cosine function and the values of
y = cos −1 x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , are known as principal values of the function y = cos −1 x .

From the definition of y = cos −1 x , we observe the following:
y = cos −1 x if and only if x = cos y for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π .
(i)
cos ( cos −1 x ) = x if x ≤ 1 and has no sense if x > 1 .
(ii)
cos −1 ( cos x ) = x if 0 ≤ x ≤ π , the range of cos -1 x . Note that cos −1 ( cos 3π ) = π .
(iii)
4.4.4 Graph of the inverse cosine function

The inverse cosine function cos -1 : [ −1, 1] → [ 0, π ] , receives a real number x in the interval
[ −1, 1] as an input and gives a real number y in the interval [ 0, π ] as an output (an angle in radian
measure). Let us find some points ( x, y ) using the equation y = cos −1 x and plot them in the
xy -plane. Note that the values of y decrease from p to 0 as x increases from -1 to 1. The inverse
cosine function is decreasing and continuous in the domain. By connecting the points by a smooth
curve, we get the graph of y = cos −1 x as shown in Fig. 4.14
y y
x y
1 π π
y = cos x in [0, ] −1 y = cos –1x
2 3π
−
2 4 π
x π 2
O π π 0
2
2 2 π
2 4 x
−1 O 1
−1 1 0
Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14

Note
(i) The graph of the function y = cos −1 x is also obtained from the graph y = cos x by interchanging
x and y axes.
p
(ii) For the function y = cos −1 x , the x -intercept is 1 and the y -intercept is .
2
(iii) The graph is not symmetric with respect to either origin or y -axis. So, y = cos −1 x is neither
even nor odd function.
Example 4.5
 3
Find the principal value of cos −1   .
 2 
Solution
 3 3
Let cos −1   = y . Then, cos y = .
 2  2
The range of the principal values of y = cos −1 x is [ 0, π ] .
3
So, let us find y in [ 0, π ] such that cos y =
.
2
π 3 π π
But, cos = and ∈[0, π ]. Therefore, y =
6 2 6 6
 3 p
Thus, the principal value of cos −1   is .
 2  6

Example 4.6
 1    π    7π 
Find (i) cos −1  −  (ii) cos −1  cos  −   (iii) cos −1  cos  
 2   3    6 
Solution
It is known that cos −1 x : [ −1, 1] → [ 0, π ] is given by
cos −1 x = y if and only if x = cos y for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π .
Thus, we have
 1  3p 3π 3π  π π 1
(i) cos −1  − = , since ∈ [ 0, π ] and cos = cos  π −  = − cos = − .
 2 4 4 4  4 4 2
  π    π  p π π
cos −1  cos  −   = cos −1  cos    = , since − ∉ [ 0, π ] , but ∈ [ 0, π ] .
(ii)
  3    3  3 3 3
  7π   5p  7π   π 3  5π  5π
(iii) cos −1  cos   = , since cos   = cos  π +  = − = cos   and ∈ [ 0, π ] .
  6  6  6   6 2  6  6
Example 4.7
 2 + sin x 
Find the domain of cos −1  .
 3 
Solution
By definition, the domain of y = cos −1 x is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 or x £1 . This leads to
2 + sin x
−1 ≤ ≤ 1 which is same as − 3 ≤ 2 + sin x ≤ 3 .
3
− 5 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 reduces to − 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 , which gives
So,
π π
− sin −1 (1) ≤ x ≤ sin −1 (1) or ≤x≤ .
−
2 2
 2 + sin x   π π
Thus, the domain of cos −1   is  − ,  .
 3   2 2
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Find all values of x such that
(i) −6π ≤ x ≤ 6π and cos x = 0 (ii) −5π ≤ x ≤ 5π and cos x = 1.
  π  π
2. State the reason for cos −1 cos  −   ≠ − .
  6  6
3. Is cos−1 (−x) = p − cos−1 ( x) true? Justify your answer.

1
4. Find the principal value of cos −1   .
2
5. Find the value of
1 1 1
(i) 2 cos −1   + sin −1   (ii) cos −1   + sin −1 ( −1)
2 2 2
 π π π π 
(iii) cos −1  cos cos − sin sin  .
 7 17 7 17 

 x −2 −1  1 − x 
6. Find the domain of (i) f ( x) = sin −1   + cos 
−1 −1
 (ii) g ( x) = sin x + cos x
 3   4 
π
7. For what value of x , the inequality < cos −1 ( 3 x − 1) < π holds?
2
 4  4    4π   −1   5π  
(i) cos  cos −1   + sin −1    (ii) cos −1  cos    + cos  cos   .
 5  5    3    4 
4.5 The Tangent Function and the Inverse Tangent Function

We know that the tangent function y = tan x is used to find heights or distances, such as the
sin x
height of a building, mountain, or flagpole. The domain of y = tan x =
does not include values
cos x
of x , which make the denominator zero. So, the tangent function is not defined at
3π π π 3π
x = , − ,− , , , . Thus, the domain of the tangent function y = tan x is
2 2 2 2
 π  ∞
 2k + 1 2k + 3 
 x : x ∈ , x ≠ + kπ , k ∈  =   π, π  and the range is ( −∞, ∞ ) .The tangent
 2  k =−∞  2 2 
function y = tan x has period p .
4.5.1 The graph of tangent function

Graph of the tangent function is useful to find the values of the function over the repeated period
of intervals. The tangent function is odd and hence the graph of y = tan x is symmetric with respect
to the origin. Since the period of tangent function is π , we need to determine the graph over some
 π π
interval of length π . Let us consider the interval  − ,  and construct the following table to draw
 2 2
 π π
the graph of y = tan x , x ∈  − ,  .
 2 2
x ( in radian ) π π π 0 π π π
− − −
3 4 6 6 4 3
y = tan x - 3 -1 - 3 0 3 1 3
3 3
æ π πö
y
Now, plot the points and connect them with a smooth curve for a partial y = tan x in çç- , ÷÷÷
çè 2 2 ø
8
π π π
graph of y = tan x , where − ≤ x ≤ . If x is close to but remains less
6
asymptote
asymptote
2 2 2 4
π 2
than , the sin x will be close to 1 and cos x will be positive and close to x
2
π
2 2
O π
2
π sin x
0. So, as x approaches to , the ratio is positive and large and thus 4
2 cos x 6
8
approaching to ¥.
Fig. 4.15

π
Therefore, the line x = is a vertical asymptote to the graph. Similarly, if x is approaching to
2
π sin x
− , the ratio is negative and large in magnitude and thus, approaching to −∞ . So, the line
2 cos x
π
x = − is also a vertical asymptote to the graph. Hence, we get a branch of the graph of y = tan x
2
π π  π π
for − < x < as shown in the Fig 4.15. The interval  − ,  is called the principal domain of
2 2  2 2
y = tan x .
y = tan x
y
Since the tangent function is defined for all real numbers except at
π
x = (2n + 1) , n ∈  , and is increasing , we have vertical asymptotes
2
π x
x = (2n + 1) , n ∈  . As branches of y = tan x are symmetric with −
3π −π
−
π O π π 3π
2 2 2 2 2
respect to x = n π , n ∈  , the entire graph of y = tan x is shown in

Fig. 4.16.
Fig. 4.16
Note
p 3p
From the graph, it is seen that y = tan x is positive for 0 < x < and p < x < ; y = tan x is
2 2
π 3π
negative for < x < π and < x < 2π .
2 2
4.5.2 Properties of the tangent function
From the graph of y = tan x , we observe the following properties of tangent function.
π
(i) The graph is not continuous and has discontinuity points at x = ( 2n + 1) , n ∈  .
2
π π
(ii) The partial graph is symmetric about the origin for − < x < .
2 2
π
(iii) It has infinitely many vertical asymptotes x = ( 2n + 1) , n ∈  .
2
(iv) The tangent function has neither maximum nor minimum.
Remark
(i) The graph of y = a tan bx goes through one complete cycle for
π π p

− <x< and its period is .
2b 2b b
π π
(ii) For y = a tan bx , the asymptotes are the lines x = + k, k ∈  .
2b b
(iii) Since the tangent function has no maximum and no minimum value, the term amplitude for
tan x cannot be defined.

4.5.3 The inverse tangent function and its properties
π 
The tangent function is not one-to-one in the entire domain \  + kπ , k ∈  . However,
2 
 π π
tan x :  − ,  →  is a bijective function. Now, we define the inverse tangent function with 
 2 2
 π π
as its domain and  − ,  as its range.
 2 2
Definition 4.5
 π π
For any real number x, define tan -1 x as the unique number y in  − ,  such that tan y = x.
 2 2
 π π
In other words, the inverse tangent function tan −1 : ( −∞, ∞ ) →  − ,  is defined by tan −1 ( x) = y
 2 2
 π π
if and only if tan y = x and y ∈  − ,  .
 2 2
From the definition of y = tan −1 x , we observe the following:
π π
y = tan −1 x if and only if x = tan y for x ∈  and −
(i) < y< .
2 2
tan ( tan x ) = x for any real number x and y = tan x is an odd function.
(ii) −1 −1
π π
tan −1 ( tan x ) = x if and only if −
(iii) < x < . Note that tan −1 ( tan π ) = 0 and not π .
2 2
Note
(i) Whenever we talk about inverse tangent function, we have,
 π π  π π
tan :  − ,  →  and tan −1 :  →  − ,  .
 2 2  2 2
 π π
(ii) The restricted domain  − ,  is called the principal domain of tangent function and the
 2 2
values of y = tan −1 x , x ∈  , are known as principal values of the function y = tan −1 x .
4.5.4 Graph of the inverse tangent function

y = tan −1 x is a function with the entire real line ( −∞, ∞ ) as its domain and whose range is
 π π p p −1
 − ,  . Note that the tangent function is undefined at - and at . So, the graph of y = tan x
 2 2 2 2
π π
lies strictly between the two lines y = − and y = , and never touches these two lines. In other
2 2
π π
words, the two lines y = − and y = are horizontal asymptotes to y = tan −1 x .
2 2
 π π
Fig. 4.17 and Fig. 4.18 show the graphs of y = tan x in the domain  − ,  and y = tan −1 x
 2 2
in the domain (−∞, ∞) , respectively.

y
 π π y
y = tan x in  − , 
 2 2 8
x y π
6
asymptote
asymptote
π 2
4 −1 −
4
2 y = tan –1x
0 0
π O π x x
−3 −2 −1 O
−
−2 2 3 −π 1 2 3
−
2
−4 3 6
1 π −
π
−6
2
4
−8
Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18
Note
(i) The inverse tangent function is strictly increasing and continuous on the domain ( −∞, ∞ ) .
(ii) The graph of y = tan −1 x passes through the origin.
(iii) The graph is symmetric with respect to origin and hence, y = tan −1 x is an odd function.
Example 4.8
Find the principal value of tan −1 ( 3).
Solution
π π  π π
Let tan −1 ( 3 ) = y . Then, tan y = 3 . Thus, y =
3
. Since ∈  − ,  .
3  2 2
tan−−11 33 is=
Thus, the principal value of tan (( ) ) π
3
.
Example 4.9
3π
Find (i) tan −1 − 3 ( ) 
(ii) tan −1  tan
 5



(iii) tan ( tan −1 (2019) )
Solution
  π  π π  π π
( )
(i) tan −1 − 3 = tan −1  tan  −   = − , since − ∈  − ,  .
  3  3 3  2 2
 3π
tan −1  tan
(ii) .
  5
π π 3p
Let us find θ ∈  − ,  such that tan θ = tan .
 2 2 5
3p  3π   2π 
Since the tangent function has period p , tan = tan  − π  = tan  − .
5  5   5 
 3π  −1   2π   2π 2π  π π 
Therefore, tan −1  tan  = tan  tan  −  = − , since − ∈ − ,  .
 5    5  5 5  2 2
(iii) Since tan ( tan −1 x ) = x, x ∈  , we have tan ( tan −1 (2019) ) = 2019.

Example 4.10
1  1
Find the value of tan −1 (−1) + cos −1   + sin −1  −  .
2  2
Solution
π  π
Let tan −1 (−1) = y . Then, tan y = −1 = − tan = tan  −  .
4  4
π  π π π
As − ∈  − ,  , tan −1 (−1) = − .
4  2 2 4
1 1 π
Now, cos −1   = y implies cos y = = cos .
2 2 3
π 1 p
As ∈[0, π ], cos-1   = .
3 2 3
 1 1  π
Now, sin −1  −  = y implies sin y = − = sin  −  .
 2 2  6
π  π π  1 π
As − ∈  − ,  , sin −1  −  = − .
6  2 2  2 6
1  1 π π π π
Therefore, tan −1 (−1) + cos −1   + sin −1  −  = − + − = − .
2  2 4 3 6 12
Example 4.11
x
Prove that tan ( sin −1 x ) = , − 1 < x < 1.
1 − x2
Solution
If x = 0 , then both sides are equal to 0. ... (1)
Assume that 0 < x < 1.
π x x
Let θ = sin −1 x . Then 0 < θ < . Now, sin θ = gives tan θ = .
2 1 1 − x2
x
Hence, tan ( sin −1 x ) = . ... (2)
1 − x2
π x x
Assume that −1 < x < 0. Then, θ = sin −1 x gives − < θ < 0. Now, sin θ = gives tan θ = .
2 1 1 − x2
x
In this case also, tan ( sin −1 x ) = . ... (3)
1 − x2
x
Equations (1), (2) and (3) establish that tan ( sin −1 x ) = , − 1 < x < 1.
1 − x2
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find the domain of the following functions :
(i) tan −1 ( 9 − x2 ) (ii)

1
2
π
tan −1 (1 − x 2 ) − .
4
 5π    π 
2. Find the value of (i) tan −1  tan  (ii) tan −1  tan  −   .
 4    6 

  7π  
(i) tan  tan −1   (ii) tan ( tan −1 (1947 ) ) (iii) tan ( tan −1 ( −0.2021) ) .
  4 
 1  1   1  4 
4. Find the value of (i) tan  cos −1   − sin −1  −   (ii) sin  tan −1   − cos −1    .
 2  2   2  5 
 4  3 
(iii) cos  sin −1   − tan −1    .
 5  4 
4.6 The Cosecant Function and the Inverse Cosecant Function

Like sine function, the cosecant function is an odd function and has period 2p . The values of
1
that y cosec
cosecant function y = cosec x repeat after an interval of length 2p .Observe = = x
sin x
is not defined when sin x = 0 . So, the domain of cosecant function is \ {nπ : n ∈ } . Since
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 , y = cosec x does not take any value in between -1 and 1. Thus, the range of cosecant
function is (−∞,1] ∪ [1, ∞) .
4.6.1 Graph of the cosecant function

In the interval ( 0, 2π ) , the cosecant function is y
y = cosec x in (0, 2π )
4
continuous everywhere except at the point x = π . It has
3
neither maximum nor minimum. Roughly speaking, the 2
y =1
 π
1
value of y = cosec x falls from ¥ to 1 for x ∈  0,  , it O π π 3π
x
 2 −1
2π
2 y =−1 2
π  −2
raises from 1 to ¥ for x ∈  , π  . Again, it raises from
2  −3
−4
 3π 
−∞ to -1 for x ∈  π ,  and falls from -1 to −∞ for
 2  Fig. 4.19
 3π  y
x ∈  , 2π  . y = cosec x
 2  4
3
The graph of y = cosec x, x ∈ (0, 2π ) \ {π } is 2
1
shown in the Fig. 4.19. This portion of the graph is y =1
x
−3π −2π −π O π 2π 3π 4π
repeated for the intervals , ( −4π , − 2π ) \ {−3π } , y =− 1
−1
−2
( −2π , 0 ) \ {−π } , ( 2π , 4π ) \ {3π } , ( 4π , 6π ) \ {5π } , . −3
−4
The entire graph of y = cosec x is shown in
Fig. 4.20.
Fig. 4.20

4.6.2 The inverse cosecant function
 π   π
The cosecant function, cosec :  − , 0  ∪  0,  → (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) is bijective in the
 2   2
 π   π
restricted domain  − , 0  ∪  0,  . So, the inverse cosecant function is defined with the domain
 2   2
 π   π
(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) and the range  − , 0  ∪  0,  .
 2   2
Definition 4.6
 π   π
The inverse cosecant function cosec −1 : (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) →  − , 0  ∪  0,  is defined by
 2   2
 π   π
cosec −1 ( x) = y if and only if cosec y = x and y ∈  − , 0  ∪  0,  .
 2   2
4.6.3 Graph of the inverse cosecant function

The inverse cosecant function, y = cosec −1 x is a function whose domain is  \ (- 1, 1) and the
 π π  π   π
range is  − ,  \ {0}. That is, cosec −1 : (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) →  − , 0  ∪  0,  .
 2 2  2   2
Fig. 4.21 and Fig. 4.22 show the graphs of cosecant function in the principal domain and the
inverse cosecant function in the corresponding domain respectively.
y y
π
é π πù y π
y = cosecx in ê- , ú \{0} 2
y = cosec–1x
êë 2 2 úû 2
y 1
1 x
x 4 3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4
-
π O π
2 y 1 2
1
π

π y
2 2
Fig. 4.21 Fig. 4.22

4.7 The Secant Function and Inverse Secant Function
1
The secant function is defined as the reciprocal of cosine function. So,
= y sec
= x is
cos x
defined for all values of x except when cos x = 0 .Thus, the domain of the function y = sec x is
 π 
\ (2n + 1) : n ∈  . As −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 , y = sec x does not take values in (-1, 1) . Thus, the range
 2 
of the secant function is (−∞,1] ∪ [1, ∞) . The secant function has neither maximum nor minimum. The
function y = sec x is a periodic function with period 2p and it is also an even function.

4.7.1 The graph of the secant function y
y = sec x in [0, 2π ]
π 3π 7
The graph of secant function in 0 £ x £ 2p , x ≠ , , is
2 2 5
3
y =1
1
shown in Fig. 4.23. In the first and fourth quadrants or in the −1 O π π 3π 2π
x
π π −3 2 y =−1 2
interval − < x < , y = sec x takes only positive values, −5
2 2 −7
whereas it takes only negative values in the second and third
π 3π Fig. 4.23
quadrants or in the interval < x < .
2 2
p 3p
For 0 £ x £ 2p , x ¹ , , the secant function is continuous. The value of secant function
2 2
 π π 
raises from 1 to ¥ for x ∈ 0,  ; it raises from −∞ to -1 for x ∈  , π  . It falls from -1 to −∞
 2 2 
 3π   3π 
for x ∈ π ,  and falls from ¥ to 1 for x ∈  , 2π  .
 2   2 
As y = sec x is periodic with period 2p , the same y
4 y = sec x
π 3π 3
segment of the graph for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π , x ≠ , , is repeated
2 2 2
1
 5π 7π   9π 11π 
in [ 2π , 4π ] \  ,  , [ 4π , 6π ] \  ,
x
 ,  and in −2π −π O π 2π 3π 4π
 2 2   2 2  −1
−2
 7π 5π   3π π 
 , [ −4π , − 2π ] \ − , −  , [ −2π , 0] \ − , −  . −3
 2 2   2 2 −4
Now, the entire graph of y = sec x is shown in

Fig. 4.24
Fig. 4.24.
4.7.2 Inverse secant function

π 
The secant function, sec x : [ 0, π ] \   →  \ ( −1,1) is bijective in the restricted domain
2
π
[0, π ] \   . So, the inverse secant function is defined with  \ ( −1,1) as its domain and with
2
π
[0, π ] \   as its range.
2
Definition 4.7
π 
The inverse secant function sec −1 :  \ ( −1,1) → [ 0, π ] \   is defined by sec −1 ( x) = y
2
π 
whenever sec y = x and y ∈ [ 0, π ] \   .
2

4.7.3 Graph of the inverse secant function
The inverse secant function, y = sec −1 x is a function whose domain is  \ ( −1,1) and the range
π  π 
is [ 0, π ] \   . That is, sec −1 :  \ ( −1,1) → [ 0, π ] \   .
2 2
Fig. 4.25 and Fig. 4.26 are the graphs of the secant function in the principal domain and the
inverse secant function in the corresponding domain, respectively.
π 
y = sec x in [0, π ] \  
2
y
π y=π
y = sec–1x
y =1 π π
1
y=
2 2
π x
O π
2
−1 y = −1 O
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
Fig. 4.25 Fig. 4.26

Remark
A nice way to draw the graph of y = sec x or cosec x :
(i) Draw the graph of y = cos x or sin x
(ii) Draw the vertical asymptotes at the x -intercepts and take reciprocals of y values.
4.8 The Cotangent Function and the Inverse Cotangent Function

1
The cotangent function is given by cot x = . It is defined for all real values of x , except
tan x
when tan x = 0 or x = nπ , n ∈  . Thus, the domain of cotangent function is \ {n π : n ∈ } and its
range is ( −∞, ∞ ) . Like tan x , the cotangent function is an odd function and periodic with period π .
4.8.1 The graph of the cotangent function

The cotangent function is continuous on the set ( 0, 2π ) \ {π }. Let us first draw the graph of
cotangent function in ( 0, 2π ) \ {π }. In the first and third quadrants, the cotangent function takes only
positive values and in the second and fourth quadrants, it takes only negative values. The cotangent
function has no maximum value and no minimum value. The cotangent function falls from ¥ to 0
 π π   π 3π 
for x ∈  0,  ; falls from 0 to −∞ for x ∈  , π  ; falls from ¥ to 0 for x ∈  , and falls
 2 2   2 2 
 3π 
from 0 to −∞ for x ∈  , 2π  .
 2 

y
y
y = cot x in (0, 2π ) \ {π} y = cot x
4
4
3
3
2 2
1 1
x x
O π π 3π 2π O
−1 −3π −2π −π π 2π 3π
2 2 −1
−2
−3
−2
−4 −3
−4
Fig. 4.27 Fig. 4.28

The graph of y = cot x , x ∈ ( 0, 2π ) \ {π } is shown in Fig 4.27. The same segment of the graph of
cotangent for ( 0, 2π ) \ {π } is repeated for ( 2π , 4π ) \ {3π } , ( 4π , 6π ) \ {5π } , , and for  ,
( − 4π , −2π ) \ {−3π } , ( − 2π , 0 ) \ {−π } . The entire graph of cotangent function with domain
\ {nπ : n ∈ } is shown in Fig. 4.28.
4.8.2 Inverse cotangent function

The cotangent function is not one-to-one in its entire domain \ {nπ : n ∈ } . However,
cot : ( 0, π ) → ( −∞, ∞ ) is bijective with the restricted domain ( 0, π ) . So, we can define the inverse
cotangent function with ( −∞, ∞ ) as its domain and ( 0, π ) as its range.
Definition 4.8
The inverse cotangent function cot −1 : ( −∞, ∞ ) → ( 0, π ) is defined by cot −1 ( x) = y if and only if
cot y = x and y ∈ ( 0, π ) .
4.8.3 Graph of the inverse cotangent function

The inverse cotangent function, y = cot −1 x is a function whose domain is  and the range is
(0, p ) . That is, cot −1 x : ( −∞, ∞ ) → ( 0, π ) .

Fig. 4.29 and Fig. 4.30 show the cotangent function in the principal domain and the inverse
cotangent function in the corresponding domain, respectively.
y
y
4 y = cot x in (0,)
3
2 y = cot –1x
π
1 2
π x
O π
−1 2
−2 x
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3
−3
−4
Fig. 4.29 Fig. 4.30


4.9 Principal Value of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Let us recall that the principal value of a inverse trigonometric function at a point x is the value
of the inverse function at the point x , which lies in the range of principal branch. For instance, the
 3 p π
principal value of cos-1   is , since ∈ [ 0, π ] . When there are two values, one is positive and
 2  6 6
the other is negative such that they are numerically equal, then the principal value of the inverse
trigonometric function is the positive one. Now, we list out the principal domain and range of
trigonometric functions and the domain and range of inverse trigonometric functions.
Range of
Principal Inverse
Function Range Domain Principal
Domain Function
value branch
 π π  π π
sine  − 2 , 2  [-1,1] sin -1 [-1,1]  − 2 , 2 
cosine [0, p ] [-1,1] cos -1 [-1,1] [0, p ]
 π π  π π
tangent  − ,   tan -1  − , 
2 2  2 2
 −π π   π π
cosecant  2 , 2  \ {0}  \ (-1, 1) cosec -1  \ ( −1,1)  − 2 , 2  \{0}
π  p 
secant [0, π ] \    \ ( −1,1) sec -1  \ (-1,1) [0, p ] \  
2 2
cotangent (0, p )  cot -1  (0, p )
Example 4.12
Find the principal value of
(i) cosec −1 ( −1) (ii) sec ( −2 ) .
−1
Solution
(i) Let cosec −1 ( −1) = y . Then, cosec y = −1
 π π
Since the range of principal value branch of y = cosec -1 x is  − ,  \{0}and
 2 2
 π π π  π π
cosec  −  = −1 , we have y = − . Note that − ∈  − ,  \ {0} .
 2 2 2  2 2
π
Thus, the principal value of cosec −1 ( −1) is − .
2
(ii) Let y = sec ( −2 ) . Then, sec y = −2 .
−1
π 
By definition, the range of the principal value branch of y = sec −1 x is [0, π ] \   .
2
π 
Let us find y in [0, π ] −   such that sec y = −2 .
2

1
But, sec y = −2 ⇒ cos y = − .
2
1 π  π 2π 2π
Now, cos y = − = − cos = cos  π −  = cos . Therefore, y = .
2 3  3 3 3
2π π  2p
Since ∈[ 0, π ] \   , the principal value of sec −1 ( −2 ) is .
3 2 3
Example 4.13
 2 3
Find the value of sec −1  − .
 3 
Solution
 2 3 2 π  3
Let sec −1  −  = θ . Then, sec θ = − where θ ∈ [ 0, π ] \   . Thus, cos θ = − .
 3  3 2 2
5π  π π  3  2 3  5π
Now, cos = cos  π −  = − cos   = − . Hence, sec −1  − = .
6  6 6 2  3  6
Example 4.14
1
If cot −1   = θ , find the value of cos θ .
7 2
5
Solution 7
By definition, cot −1 x ∈ (0, p ) .
q
1 −1
Therefore, cot   = θ implies θ ∈ (0, π ) . 1
7
1 1
But cot −1   = θ implies cot θ = and hence tan θ = 7.and θ is acute.
7 7
7 1
Using tan θ = , we construct a right triangle as shown . Then, we have, cos θ = .
1 5 2
Example 4.15
 1 
Show that cot −1  -1
 = sec x , x > 1 .
2
 x −1 
Solution
 1  1
Let cot −1   = α . Then, cot α = .and α is acute. x
2
 x −1  x2 −1
x2–1
We construct a right triangle with the given data.

x
From the triangle, sec α = = x . Thus, α = sec −1 x .
1 1
 1 
Hence, cot −1  -1
 = sec x , x > 1 .
2
 x −1 
EXERCISE 4.4
1. Find the principal value of
 2 
(i) sec−1   (ii) cot −1
 3
( 3 ) (iii) cosec ( − 2 )−1

1
(i) tan −1 ( 3 ) − sec−1 ( −2 ) (ii) sin-1 (- 1) + cos-1   + cot-1 (2)
2  
 3
(iii) cot-1(1) + sin-1  −
2
 - sec-1 − 2 ( )
 
4.10 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we investigate some properties of inverse trigonometric functions. The properties
to be discussed are valid within the principal value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric
functions and where they are defined.
Property-I
 π π
sin −1 (sin θ ) = θ , if θ ∈  − ,  . (ii)
(i) cos −1 (cos θ ) = θ , if θ ∈[0, π ] .
 2 2
 π π  π π
tan −1 (tan θ ) = θ ,
(iii) if θ ∈  − ,  . (iv) cosec1 (cosecθ ) = θ , if θ ∈  − ,  \ {0}
 2 2  2 2
π 
(v) sec −1 (sec θ ) = θ , if θ ∈ [0, π ] \   . (vi) cot −1 (cot θ ) = θ , if θ ∈ (0, π ) .
2
Proof
All the above results follow from the definition of the respective inverse functions.
 π π
For instance, (i) let sin θ = x ; θ ∈  − , 
 2 2
Now, sin θ = x gives θ = sin −1 x , by definition of inverse sine function.
Thus, sin −1 ( sin θ ) = θ .
Property-II
(i) sin ( sin −1 x ) = x , if x ∈ [−1, 1] . (ii)
cos ( cos −1 x ) = x , if x ∈ [−1, 1]
tan ( tan −1 x ) = x , if x ∈  (iv)
(iii) cosec ( cosec −1 x ) = x , if x ∈  \ (−1, 1)
sec ( sec −1 x ) = x , if x ∈  \ (−1, 1) (vi)
(v) cot ( cot −1 x ) = x , if x ∈ 
Proof
(i) For x ∈ [ −1, 1] , sin -1 x is well defined.
 π π
Let sin −1 x = θ . Then, by definition θ ∈  − ,  and sin θ = x
 2 2
Thus, sin θ = x implies sin ( sin −1 x ) = x .
Similarly, other results are proved.
Note
(i) For any trigonometric function y = f ( x), we have f ( f −1 ( x) ) = x for all x in the range of f .
This follows from the definition of f -1 ( x) . When we have, f ( g −1 ( x) ) , where
g −1 ( x) = sin −1 x or cos −1 x, it will usually be necessary to draw a triangle defined by the inverse
trigonometric function to solve the problem. For instance, to find cot ( sin −1 x ) , we have to
draw a triangle using sin -1 x. However, we have to be a little more careful with expression of
the form f −1 ( f ( x) ) .

(ii) Evaluation of f -1[ f ( x)] , where f is any one of the six trigonometric functions.
(a) If x is in the restricted domain (principal domain) of f , then f −1[ f ( x)] = x .
(b) If x is not in the restricted domain of f , then find x1 within the restricted domain of f
such that f ( x) = f ( x1 ) . Now, f −1[ f ( x)] = x1 . For instance,

  π π
 x if x ∈  − 2 , 2 
  
sin −1 ( sin x ) = 
 x if x ∉  − π , π  , where sin x = sin x and x ∈  − π , π  .
 1  2 2  1 1  2 2 
Property-III (Reciprocal inverse identities)

1 −1  1 
sin −1   = cosec x , if x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) . (ii) cos   . = sec x , if x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) .
−1 −1
(i)
 x x
 
 1  cot x
−1
−1 if x > 0
(iii) tan   = 
 x  −p + cot −1 x if x < 0.
Proof
1 1
(i) If x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) , then ∈ [ −1, 1] and x ¹ 0 . Thus, sin −1   is well defined.
x x
 1  π π  1
Let sin −1   = θ . Then, by definition θ ∈  − ,  \ {0} and sin θ = .
x  2 2 x
Thus, cosec θ = x , which in turn gives θ = cosec −1 x .
1 1
Now, sin −1   = θ = cosec -1 x . Thus, sin −1   = cosec −1 x , x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) .
x x
Property-IV (Reflection identities)

(i) sin −1 (− x) = − sin −1 x , if x ∈ [−1, 1] .
tan −1 (− x) = − tan −1 x ,
(ii) if x ∈  .
cosec −1 (− x) = − cosec −1 x , if x ≥ 1 or x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) .

(iii)
cos −1 (− x) = π − cos −1 x , if x ∈ [−1, 1] .

(iv)
sec −1 (− x) = π − sec −1 x , if x ≥ 1 or x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) .

(v)
cot −1 (− x) = π − cot −1 x , if x ∈  .
(vi)
Proof
(i) If x ∈ [ −1, 1] , then − x ∈ [ −1, 1] . Thus, sin -1 (- x) is well defined
 π π
Let sin −1 (− x) = θ . Then θ ∈  − ,  and sin θ = −x .
 2 2
Now, sin θ = −x gives x = − sin θ = sin(−θ )

From x = sin(−θ ) , we must have sin −1 x = − θ , which in turn gives θ = − sin −1 x .
Hence, sin −1 (− x) = − sin −1 x .
(iv) If x ∈ [ −1, 1] , then − x ∈ [ −1, 1] . Thus, cos -1 (- x) is well defined
Let cos −1 (− x) = θ . Then θ ∈ [ 0, π ] and cos θ = −x .
Now, cos θ = − x implies x = − cos θ = cos (π − θ ) .
Thus, π − θ = cos −1 x, which gives θ = π − cos −1 x .
Hence, cos −1 (− x) = π − cos −1 x .
Note
(i) The inverse function of an one-to-one and odd function is also an odd function. For instance,
y = sin −1 x is an odd function, since sine function is both one-to-one and odd in the restricted
 π π
domain  − ,  .
 2 2
(ii) Is the inverse function of an even function also even? It turns out that the question does not
make sense, because an even function cannot be one-to-one if it is defined anywhere other
than 0. Observe that cos -1 x and sec -1 x are not even functions.
Property-V ( Cofunction inverse identities )
π π
(i) sin −1 x + cos −1 x = , x ∈ [−1, 1]. (ii) tan −1 x + cot −1 x = , x ∈ .
2 2
π
(iii) cosec −1 x + sec −1 x = , x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) or x ≥ 1.
2
Proof
 π π
(i) Here, x ∈ [ −1, 1] . Let sin −1 x = θ . Then θ ∈  − ,  and sin θ = x .
 2 2
π π π
Note that − ≤ θ ≤ ⇔ 0 ≤ − θ ≤ π .
2 2 2
π  π π
So, cos  − θ  = sin θ = x, which gives cos −1 x = − θ = − sin −1 x .
2  2 2
π
Hence, cos −1 x + sin −1 x = , | x | £1.
2
−1
(ii) Let cot x = θ . Then, cot θ = x , 0 < θ < π and x ∈  .
π 
Now, tan  − θ  = cot θ = x. ... (1)
2 
π 
Thus, for x ∈  , tan(tan −1 x) = x and (1) gives tan(tan −1 x) = tan  − θ  .
2 
−1 π −1 
Hence, tan(tan x) = tan  − cot x  ... (2)
2 
π π π
Note that 0 < cot −1 x < π gives − < − cot −1 x < .
2 2 2
π π
Thus, (2) gives tan −1 x = − cot −1 x . So, tan −1 x + cot −1 x = , x ∈ .
2 2
Similarly, (iii) can be proved.

Property-VI
(i) ( )
sin −1 x + sin −1 y = sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 , where either x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 or xy < 0 .
sin -1 x - sin -1 y = sin −1

(ii) ( x 1− y 2
−y 1 − x ) , where either x + y
2 2 2
≤ 1 or xy > 0 .
(iii) cos −1 x + cos −1 y = cos −1  xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2  , if x + y ≥ 0 .

 
cos −1 x − cos −1 y = cos −1  xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2  , if x £ y .

(iv)
 
 x+ y 
(v) tan −1 x + tan −1 y = tan −1   , if xy < 1.
 1 − xy 
 x− y 
(vi) tan −1 x − tan −1 y = tan −1   if xy > −1.
 1 + xy 
Proof
 π π
(i) Let A = sin −1 x . Then, x = sin A ; A∈  − ,  ; x £1 and cos A is positive
 2 2
 π π
Let B = sin −1 y . Then, y = sin B ; B ∈  − ,  ; y £1 and cos B is positive
 2 2
Now, cos A = + 1 − sin 2 A = 1 − x 2 and cos B = + 1 − sin 2 B = 1 − y 2
Thus, sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
= x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 , where x £1 ; y £1 and hence, x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1
Therefore, (
A + B = sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 )
( )
Thus, sin −1 x + sin −1 y = sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 , where either x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 or xy < 0 .
Property-VII
−1  1 − x 
2
 2x  −1
(i) 2 tan −1 x = tan −1  2 
, x < 1 (ii)
2 tan x = cos  2 
, x≥0
 1− x   1+ x 
 2x 
2 tan −1 x = sin −1 
(iii) 2 
, x ≤ 1.
 1+ x 
Proof
(i) By taking y = x in Property-VI (v) , we get the desired result
 2x 
2 tan −1 x = tan −1 
2 
, x < 1.
 1− x 
θ
(ii) Let θ = 2 tan −1 x . Then, tan = x.
2
θ
1 − tan 2
2 = 1 − x gives θ = cos −1  1 − x  .
2 2
The identity cos θ =  2 
θ 1 + x2  1+ x 
1 + tan 2
2

 1 − x2 
−1 −1
Hence, 2 tan x = cos  2 
, x≥0.
 1+ x 
Similarly, other result is proved.
Property-VIII
(i) ( )
sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 sin −1 x if | x | £
1
2
or −
1
2
≤x≤
1
2
.
sin −1
(ii) ( 2 x 1 − x ) = 2 cos
2 −1
x if
1
2
£ x £1.
Proof
(i) Let x = sin θ .
Now, 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ
( )
Thus, 2θ = sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 . Hence, sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 sin −1 x . ( )
(ii) Let x = cos θ .
Now, 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 cos θ sin θ = sin 2θ , which gives
(
2θ = sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 . Hence,
) ( )
sin-1 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 cos −1 x .
Property-IX
sin −1 x = cos −1 1 − x 2
(i) sin −1 x = − cos −1 1 − x 2 , if −1 ≤ x < 0 .
, if 0 £ x £ 1. (ii)
 x 
sin −1 x = tan −1 
(iii)  , if −1 < x < 1 . (iv) cos −1 x = sin −1 1 − x 2 , if 0 £ x £ 1.
 1 − x2 
 
 x   1 
(v) cos −1 x = π − sin −1 1 − x 2 , if −1 ≤ x < 0 . (vi) tan −1 x = sin −1   = cos −1   , if x > 0.
2 2
 1+ x   1+ x 
Proof
π
(i) Let sin −1 x = θ . Then, sin θ = x . Since 0 £ x £ 1 , we get 0 ≤ θ ≤ .
2
cos θ = 1 − x 2 or cos −1 1 − x 2 = θ = sin −1 x .

Thus, sin −1 x = cos−1 1− x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 .

π
(ii) Suppose that −1 ≤ x ≤ 0 and sin −1 x = θ . Then − ≤θ < 0 .
2
So, sin θ = x and cos (−θ ) = 1 − x 2 (since cos θ > 0 )
Thus, cos −1 1 − x 2 = − θ = − sin −1 x . Hence, sin −1 x = − cos −1 1 − x 2 .

Property-X
 1 1 1 
(i) 3 sin −1 x = sin −1 (3 x − 4 x3 ) , x ∈  − ,  . (ii) 3 cos −1 x = cos −1 (4 x3 − 3 x) , x ∈  , 1 .
 2 2 2 

Proof
(i) Let x = sin θ . Thus, θ = sin −1 x .
Now, 3 x − 4 x 3 = 3 sin θ − 4 sin 3 θ = sin 3θ .
Thus, sin −1 (3 x − 4 x 3 ) = 3θ = 3 sin −1 x .
The other result is proved in a similar way.
Remark
π
−1
 2 − x, if x ∈ [0, π ]
(i) sin (cos x) = 
 π − y, if x ∉ [0, π ] and cos x = cos y, y ∈ [0, π ]
 2
π  π π
 2 − x, if x ∈  − 2 , 2 
  
(ii) cos −1 (sin x) = 
 π − y, if x ∉  − π , π  and sin x = sin y, y ∈  − π , π 
 2  2 2   2 2 
Example 4.16
π 3π
Prove that ≤ sin −1 x + 2 cos −1 x ≤ .
2 2
Solution
π
sin −1 x + 2 cos −1 x = sin −1 x + cos −1 x + cos −1 x =
+ cos −1 x
2
π π π
We know that 0 ≤ cos −1 x ≤ π . Thus, + 0 ≤ cos −1 x + ≤ π + .
2 2 2
Thus, π ≤ sin −1 x + 2 cos −1 x ≤ 3π .
2 2
Example 4.17
  13π     3π 
Simplify (i) cos −1  cos  tan −1  tan 
  (ii) 
  3    4 
  5π  
sec −1  sec 
(iii)   (iv) sin −1 [sin 10]
  3 
Solution
  13π 
cos −1  cos 
(i)   . The range of principal values of cos x is [0, p ] .
-1
  3 
13π 13π 13π π π
Since ∉[0, π ] , we write as = 4π + , where ∈[ 0, π ] .
3 3 3 3 3
 13π   π π
Now, cos   = cos  4π +  = cos .
 3   3 3
  13π     π π π
Thus, cos −1  cos    = cos −1  cos    = , since ∈[0, π] .
  3    3 3 3

  3π 
tan −1  tan 
(ii)  .
  4 
3p  π π
Observe that is not in the interval  − ,  , the principal range of tan -1 x .
4  2 2
3π π
So, we write =π − .
4 4
 3π   π π  π π  π π
Now, tan   = tan  π −  = − tan = tan  −  and − ∈ − ,  .
 4   4 4  4 4  2 2
  3π  −1   π  π p  p p 
Hence, tan −1  tan    = tan  tan  −   = − , since − ∈ − ,  .
  4    4  4 4 2 2
  5π 
sec −1  sec 
(iii)  .
  3 
5p π 
Note that is not in [ 0, π ] \   , the principal range of sec -1 x .
3 2
5π π  5π   π π  π π 
We write = 2π − . Now, sec   = sec  2π −  = sec   and ∈ [ 0, π ] \   .
3 3  3   3 3 3 2
  5π  −1   π  π
Hence, sec −1  sec    = sec  sec    = .
  3    3  3
sin −1 [sin 10]
(iv)
 π π p 11
We know that sin −1 ( sin θ ) = θ if θ ∈  − ,  . Considering the approximation  ,
 2 2 2 7
 π π  π π
we conclude that 10 ∉  − ,  , but (10 − 3π ) ∈  − ,  .
 2 2  2 2
Now , sin 10 = sin ( 3π + (10 − 3π ) ) = sin(π + (10 − 3π ) = − sin(10 − 3π ) = sin(3π − 10).
 π π
Hence, sin −1 [sin 10] = sin −1 sin ( 3π − 10 )  = 3π − 10 , since (3π − 10) ∈  − ,  .
 2 2
Example 4.18
π  1  1  1 
Find the value of (i) sin  − sin −1  −   (ii)
cos  cos −1   
3  2  2  8 
1  2a  1 −1  1 − a 
2

(iii) tan  sin −1  2 
+ cos  2 
.
2  1+ a  2  1 + a 
Solution
π  1  π  π  π 
(i) sin  − sin −1  −   = sin  −  −   = sin   = 1.
3  2  3  6  2
1  1  1 1
(ii) Consider cos  cos −1    . Let cos −1   = θ . Then, cos θ = and θ ∈ [ 0, π ] .
2  8  8 8

1 θ 1 θ  3 q
Now, cos θ = implies 2 cos 2 − 1 = . Thus, cos   = , since cos   is positive.
8 2 8 2 4 2
1  1  θ  3
Thus, cos  cos −1    = cos   = .
2  8  2 4
1  2a  1 −1  1 − a 
2

tan  sin −1 
(iii) 2 
+ cos  2 
2  1+ a  2  1 + a 
Let a = tan θ .
Now,
1  2a  1 −1  1 − a 
2
 1  2 tan θ  1 −1  1 − tan θ
2

tan  sin −1  2 
+ cos  2 
= tan  sin −1   + cos  
 1 + tan θ
2
 1 + tan θ
2
2  1+ a  2  1 + a  2  2 
1 1  2 tan θ 2a
= tan  sin −1 ( sin 2θ ) + cos −1 ( cos 2θ )  = tan [ 2θ ] =
= .
2 2  1 − tan θ 1 − a 2
2
Example 4.19
x
Prove that tan(sin −1 x) = for x < 1.
1 − x2
Solution
Let sin −1 x = θ . Then, x = sin θ and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
sin θ sin θ x
Now, tan(sin −1 x) = tan θ = = = , x < 1.
cos θ 1 − sin θ 2
1 - x2
Example 4.20
 3  5 
Evaluate sin sin −1   + sec −1   
 5  4 
Solution
5 5 4
Let sec −1 = θ . Then, sec θ = and hence, cos θ = .
4 4 5
2
4 3 −1  3 
Also, sin θ = 1 − cos 2 θ = 1 −   = , which gives θ = sin   .
5 5 5
5 3 3 5 3

Thus, sec-1   = sin-1   and sin-1 + sec-1   = 2 sin-1   .
4 5 5 4 5
( )
We know that sin-1 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 sin −1 x , if | x | £
1
2
.
3 1 3  3 2 
 2 × 1 −  3   = sin-1   .
24
Since < , we have 2 sin-1   = sin-1
5 2 5  5  5    25 

 3  5    24   24 24
Hence, sin sin −1   + sec −1    = sin  sin −1    = , since ∈ [ −1, 1] .
 5  4    25   25 25

Example 4.21
1 1 π 1 1 31
Prove that (i) tan −1 + tan −1 = (ii) 2 tan −1 + tan −1 = tan −1
2 3 4 2 7 17
Solution
x+ y
(i) We know that tan −1 x + tan −1 y = tan −1 , xy < 1.
1 − xy
1 1
+
1 1 2 3 π
Thus, tan −1 + tan −1 = tan −1 = tan −1 (1) = .
2 3  1  1  4
1−   
 2  3 
2x
(ii) We know that 2 tan −1 x = tan −1 , −1 < x < 1
1 − x2
1
2 
So, 2 tan −1 1 = tan −1  2  2 = tan −1  4  .
2 1 3
1−  
2
 4 1 
 + 
1 1 4 1  31 
Hence, 2 tan −1 + tan −1 = tan −1 + tan −1 = tan −1  3 7  = tan −1   .
2 7 3 7  1−  4  1    17 
  3  7  
    
Example 4.22
If cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = π and 0 < x, y, z < 1, show that
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 xyz = 1
Solution
Let cos −1 x = α and cos −1 y = β . Then, x = cos α and y = cos β .
cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = π gives α + β = π − cos −1 z. ... (1)
Now, cos (α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β = xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 .
From (1), we get cos (π − cos −1 z ) = xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2
− cos ( cos −1 z ) = xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 .
So, − z = xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 , which gives − xy − z = − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 .

Squaring on both sides and simplifying, we get x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 xyz = 1 .
Example 4.23
If a1, a2, a3, ... an is an arithmetic progression with common difference d,
  d  −1  d  −1  d  an − a1
prove that tan  tan −1   + tan   + ... + tan   = .
  1 + a1a2   1 + a2 a3   1 + an an −1   1 + a1an
Solution
 d  −1  a2 − a1 
Now, tan −1   = tan 
−1
 = tan a2 − tan a1 .
−1
 1 + a1a2   1 + al a2 

 d  −1  a3 − a2 
Similarly, tan −1   = tan 
−1 −1
 = tan a3 − tan a2 .
 1 + a2 a3   1 + a2 a3 
Continuing inductively, we get
 d  −1  an − an −1 
tan −1   = tan 
−1 −1
 = tan an − tan an −1 .
 1 + an an −1   1 + an −1an 
Adding vertically, we get
 d  −1  d  −1  d 
tan −1   + tan   +  + tan 
-1 -1
 = tan an - tan a1 .
 1 + a a
1 2   1 + a a
2 3   1 + a a
n n −1 
  d  −1  d  −1  d 
tan  tan −1   + tan   + ... + tan 
−1 −1
  = tan[tan an − tan a1 ]
  1 + a1a2   1 + a2 a3   1 + an an −1  
  a − a  a −a
= tan  tan −1  n 1   = n 1 .
  1 + al an   1 + al an
 1− x  1
Example 4.24 Solve tan −1  −1
 = tan x for x > 0.
 1 + x  2
Solution
 1− x  1 −1 −1 1 −1
tan −1   = tan x gives tan 1 − tan x = 2 tan x .
−1
 1+ x  2
π 3 −1 π
Therefore, = tan x , which in turn reduces to tan −1 x =
4 2 6
π 1
Thus, x = tan = .
6 3
Example 4.25 Solve sin −1 x > cos −1 x

Solution
Given that sin −1 x > cos −1 x . Note that −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
Adding both sides by sin -1 x, we get

π
sin −1 x + sin −1 x > cos −1 x + sin −1 x , which reduces to 2 sin −1 x > .
2
 π π π 1
As sine function increases in the interval  − ,  , we have x > sin or x > .
 2 2 4 2
 1 
Thus, the solution set is the interval  , 1 .
 2 
Example 4.26
1 − x2
Show that cot(sin −1 x) = , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and x ¹ 0
x
Solution
 −π   π 
Let sin −1 x = θ . Then, x = sin θ and x ≠ 0, we get θ ∈  , 0 ∪  0,  .
 2   2
Hence, cos θ ≥ 0 and cos θ = 1 − sin 2 θ = 1 − x 2 .
1 − x2
Thus, cot(sin −1 x) = cot θ = , | x | £ 1 and x ¹ 0
x

π
Example 4.27: Solve tan −1 2 x + tan −1 3 x = , if 6 x 2 < 1 .
4
Solution
 2 x + 3x 
Now, tan −1 2 x + tan −1 3 x = tan −1  2 
, since 6 x 2 < 1 .
 1− 6x 
 5 x  p 5x π
So, tan −1  2 
= , which implies 2
= tan = 1 .
 1− 6x  4 1− 6x 4
2 2
Thus, 1 - 6 x = 5x , which gives 6 x + 5 x − 1 = 0
1
Hence, x = , -1 . But x = −1 does not satisfy 6 x 2 < 1 .
6
Observe that x = −1 makes the left side of the equation negative whereas the right side is a
1
positive number. Thus, x = −1 is not a solution. Hence, x = is the only solution of the equation.
6
Example 4.28
 x −1  −1  x + 1  π
Solve tan −1   + tan  = .
 x−2  x+2 4
Solution
 x −1 x +1 
 + 
−1  x − 1 
Now, tan  + tan −1  x + 1 
= tan −1
 x − 2 x+2  = π .
  
 x−2  x+2 1 − x − 1  x + 1   4
 x − 2  x + 2  
x −1 x +1
+
Thus, x − 2 x + 2 = 1, which on simplification gives 2 x 2 − 4 = −3
x −1  x +1 
1−  
x−2 x+2
1 1
Thus, x 2 = gives x = ± .
2 2
Example 4.29
  x   −1  3  
Solve cos  sin −1    = sin cot    .
 2
 4 
  1+ x  
5
Solution 4
 x   1 
We know that sin-1   = cos-1  . q
2 2
 1+ x   1+ x  3
  x  1
Thus, cos  sin −1    = . ...(1)
 1 + x 2 
1 + x 2
   
3
−1   3
Let cot   = θ. Then cot θ = and so θ is acute.
 4 4
From the diagram, we get
  3  4
Hence, sin cot −1    = sin θ = ... (2)
  4  5
1 4 5
Using (1) and (2) in the given equation, we get = , which gives 1 + x2 =
1 + x2 5 4
3
Thus, x = ± .
4

EXERCISE 4.5
Find the value, if it exists. If not, give the reason for non-existence.
1.
  5π  
(i) sin −1 ( cos π ) (ii)
tan −1  sin  −  (iii) sin −1 [sin 5].
  2 
Find the value of the expression in terms of x , with the help of a reference triangle.
2.
  1 
(i) sin ( cos −1 (1 − x ) ) (iii) cos ( tan −1 ( 3 x − 1) ) (iii)
tan  sin −1  x +   .
  2 

   3   3 4  3 3
(i) sin −1  cos  sin −1  cot  sin −1 + sin −1  (iii) tan  sin −1 + cot −1  .
   (ii)
 
   2   5 5  5 2
4.
Prove that
−1 2 7 1 3 12 16
(i) tan + tan −1 = tan −1 (ii) sin −1 − cos −1 = sin −1 .
11 24 2 5 13 65
 x + y + z − xyz 
Prove that tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = tan −1 
5. .
1 − xy − yz − zx 
If tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = π

6. , show that x + y + z = xyz .
2x −1 3 x − x
3
1
Prove that tan −1 x + tan −1
7. 2
= tan 2
, | x |< .
1− x 1 − 3x 3
x x− y
Simplify: tan −1
8. − tan −1 .
y x+ y
9.
Solve: 2 2
−1 5 −1 12 π −1 −1 1 − a −1 1 − b
(i) sin + sin = (ii) 2 tan x = cos − cos , a > 0, b > 0 .
x x 2 1 + a2 1 + b2
π
(iii) 2 tan −1 ( cos x ) = tan −1 ( 2cosec x ) (iv) cot −1 x − cot −1 ( x + 2 ) = , x > 0 .
12
10. Find the number of solutions of the equation tan −1 ( x − 1) + tan −1 x + tan −1 ( x + 1) = tan −1 ( 3 x ).
EXERCISE 4.6
Choose the correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives.
1. The value of sin −1 ( cos x ) , 0 ≤ x ≤ π is
π π
(1) π − x (2) x − (3) − x (4) x−π
2 2
2π
2. If sin −1 x + sin −1 y = ; then cos −1 x + cos −1 y is equal to
3
2p p p
(1) (2) (3) (4) p
3 3 6

−1 3 12 5 13
3. sin − cos −1 + sec −1 − cosec −1 is equal to
5 13 3 12
12
(1) 2p (2) p (3) 0 (4) tan -1
65
4. If sin −1 x = 2 sin −1 α has a solution, then
1 1 1 1
(1) α ≤ (2) α ≥ (3) α < (4) α >
2 2 2 2
p
5. sin −1 (cos x) = − x is valid for
2
p p p 3p
(1) −p ≤ x ≤ 0 (2) 0 £ x £ p (3) − ≤x≤ (4) − ≤x≤
2 2 4 4
3π 9
6. If sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = , the value of x 2017 + y 2018 + z 2019 − 101 101 101 is
2 x +y +z
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
2π
7. If cot −1 x = for some x ∈ R , the value of tan -1 x is
5
p p p p
(1) - (2) (3) (4) -
10 5 10 5
−1
8. The domain of the function defined by f ( x) = sin x − 1 is
(1) [1, 2] (2)
[ −1, 1] (3)
[0, 1] (4)
[ −1, 0]
1
(
If x = , the value of cos cos −1 x + 2 sin −1 x is
9
5
)
24 24 1 1
(1) - (2) (3) (4) -
25 25 5 5
1 2
10. tan −1   + tan −1   is equal to
4 9
1 3 1 −1  3  1 3 1
(1) cos −1   (2) sin   (3) tan −1   (4)
tan −1  
2 5 2 5 2 5 2
11. If the function f ( x) = sin −1 ( x 2 − 3) , then x belongs to
(1) [ −1, 1] (2)  2 , 2 
(3)  −2, − 2  ∪  2 , 2  (4)  −2, − 2 
12. If cot -1 2 and cot -1 3 are two angles of a triangle, then the third angle is
p 3p p p
(1) (2) (3) (4)
4 4 6 3
 p  3  p
13. sin −1  tan  − sin −1   = . Then x is a root of the equation
 4  x  6
(1) x 2 − x − 6 = 0 (2)
x 2 − x −12 = 0 (3) x 2 + x −12 = 0 (4) x 2 + x − 6 = 0

14. sin −1 ( 2 cos 2 x − 1) + cos −1 (1 − 2 sin 2 x ) =
p p p p
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 3 4 6
15. If cot −1 ( )
sin α + tan −1 ( )
sin α = u , then cos 2u is equal to
(1) tan 2 α
(2) 0 (3) -1 (4) tan 2α
2x
16. If x £1 , then 2 tan −1 x − sin −1 is equal to
1 + x2
(1) tan -1 x (2)

sin -1 x (3) 0 (4) p
 1 
17. The equation tan −1 x − cot −1 x = tan −1   has
 3
(1) no solution (2) unique solution
(3) two solutions (4) infinite number of solutions

1 π
18. If sin −1 x + cot −1   = , then x is equal to
2 2
1 1 2 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 5 5 2
x 5 π
19. If sin −1 + cosec −1 = , then the value of x is
5 4 2
(1) 4 (2) 5 (3) 2 (4) 3
20. sin(tan −1 x), | x | < 1 is equal to

x 1 1 x
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1- x 2 1- x 2 1+ x2 1+ x2

SUMMARY
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Inverse Inverse

Inverse sine Inverse cosine Inverse cot
tangent cosecant secant
function function function
Domain Domain Domain Domain Domain Domain
[-1,1] [-1,1]  ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) ( −∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ ) 
Range Range Range Range Range Range
[0, π ]  π π  π π π ( 0, π )
 π π
− 2 , 2  − ,   − 2 , 2  − {0} [0, π ] −  2 
   2 2    
not a periodic not a periodic not a periodic not a periodic not a periodic not a periodic
function function function function function function
odd function neither even odd function odd function neither even neither even
nor odd nor odd nor odd
strictly strictly strictly strictly strictly strictly
increasing decreasing increasing decreasing decreasing decreasing
function function function function with function with function
respect to its respect to its
domain. domain.
one to one one to one one to one one to one one to one one to one
function function function function function function
Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Property-I
π π
(i) sin−1(sin θ ) = θ , if θ ∈  − ,  (ii) cos−1 (cos θ ) = θ , if θ ∈[0, π ]
 2 2
 π π   π π
(iii) tan−1 (tan θ ) = θ , if θ ∈  − ,  (iv) cosec−1 (cosec θ ) = θ , if θ ∈  − ,  \ {0}
2 2  2 2
π 
(v) sec−1 (sec θ ) = θ , if θ ∈ [0, π ] \   (vi) cot−1 (cot θ ) = θ , if θ ∈ (0, π )
2
Property-II
(i) sin ( sin −1 x ) = x , if x ∈ [−1, 1] (ii)
cos ( cos −1 x ) = x , if x ∈ [−1, 1]
(iii) tan ( tan −1 x ) = x , if x ∈  (iv)
cosec ( cosec −1 x ) = x , if x ∈  \ (−1, 1)
(v) sec ( sec −1 x ) = x , if x ∈  \ (−1, 1) (vi)
cot ( cot −1 x ) = x , if x ∈ 
Property-III (Reciprocal inverse identities)

1 1
(i) sin −1   .= cosec x , if x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) . (ii) cos −1  = . sec x , if x ∈  \ ( −1, 1)
 x  x
 1  cot x
−1
if x > 0
(iii) tan   = 
−1
 x   − π + cot −1 x if x < 0.

Property-IV(Reflection identities)
(i) sin −1 (− x) = − sin −1 x ,if x ∈ [−1, 1] .
(ii) tan −1 (− x) = − tan −1 x ,if x ∈  .
(iii) cosec −1 (− x) = − cosec −1 x ,if x ≥ 1 or x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) .
(iv) cos −1 (− x) = p − cos −1 x ,if x ∈ [−1, 1] .
(v) sec−1 (− x) = p − sec −1 x ,if x ≥ 1 or x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) .
(vi) cot −1 (− x) = p − cot −1 x , if x ∈  .
Property-V ( Cofunction inverse identities )

p p
(i) sin −1 x + cos −1 x = , x ∈ [−1, 1]. (ii)
tan −1 x + cot −1 x = , x ∈ .
2 2
p
(iii) cos ec −1 x + sec −1 x = , x ∈  \ ( −1, 1) or x ≥ 1 .
2
Property-VI
( )
(i) sin −1 x + sin −1 y = sin −1 x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 , where either x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 or xy < 0 .
(ii) sin -1 x - sin -1 y = sin −1 (x 1− y 2

− y 1 − x ) , where either x + y
2 2 2
≤ 1 or xy > 0 .
(iii) cos −1 x + cos −1 y = cos −1  xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2  , if x + y ≥ 0 .

 
(iv) cos −1 x − cos −1 y = cos −1  xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2  , if x ″ y .

 
 x+ y 
(v) tan −1 x + tan −1 y = tan −1  , if xy < 1 .
 1 − xy 
 x− y 
(vi) tan −1 x − tan −1 y = tan −1  , if xy > −1 .
 1 + xy 
Property-VII
 2x   1 − x2 
(i) 2 tan −1 x = tan −1  , x <1 (ii) 2 tan −1 x = cos −1  2 
, x≥0
 1 − x 2  1+ x 
 2x 
(iii) 2 tan −1 x = sin −1  , x ≤1
 1 + x 2 
Property-VIII
( )
(i) sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 sin −1 x , if |x| ≤
1
2
or −
1
2
≤x≤
1
2
.
( )
(ii) sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 = 2 cos −1 x , if
1
2
≤ x ≤ 1.

Property-IX
sin −1 x = − cos −1 1 − x 2 , if −1 ≤ x < 0 .
(i) sin −1 x = cos −1 1 − x 2 , if 0 £ x £ 1 . (ii)
 x 
(ii) sin −1 x = tan −1   , if −1 < x < 1 . (iv) cos −1 x = sin −1 1 − x 2 , if 0 £ x £ 1 .
 1 − x2 
 
 x   1 
(v) cos −1 x = π − sin −1 1 − x 2 , if −1 ≤ x < 0 . (vi) tan −1 x = sin −1  2
 = cos −1 
2
 , if x > 0 .
 1+ x   1+ x 
Property-X
 1 1 1 
(i) 3 sin −1 x = sin −1 (3 x − 4 x3 ) , x ∈  − ,  . (ii) 3 cos −1 x = cos −1 (4 x3 − 3 x) , x ∈  , 1 .
 2 2 2 
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Chapter
5
Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry-II
"Divide each difficulty into as many parts as is feasible and necessary to resolve it"
René Descartes
5.1 Introduction
Analytical Geometry of two dimension is used to describe geometric objects such
as point, line, circle, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola using Cartesian coordinate
system. Two thousand years ago (≈ 2- 1 BC (BCE)), the ancient Greeks studied
conic curves, because studying them elicited ideas that were exciting, challenging,
René Descartes and interesting. They could not have imagined the applications of these curves in
1596 – 1650 the later centuries.
Solving problems by the method of Analytical Geometry was systematically developed in the
first half of the 17th century majorly, by Descartes and also by other great mathematicians like Fermat,
Kepler, Newton, Euler, Leibniz, l’Hôpital, Clairaut, Cramer, and the Jacobis.
Analytic Geometry grew out of need for establishing algebraic techniques for solving geometrical
problems and the development in this area has conquered industry, medicine, and scientific research.
The theory of Planetary motions developed by Johannes Kepler, the German mathematician cum
physicist stating that all the planets in the solar system including the earth are moving in elliptical
orbits with Sun at one of a foci, governed by inverse square law paved way to established work in
Euclidean geometry. Euler applied the co-ordinate method in a systematic study of space curves and
surfaces, which was further developed by Albert Einstein in his theory of relativity.
Applications in various fields encompassing gears, vents in dams, wheels and circular
geometry leading to trigonometry as application based on properties of circles; arches, dish,
solar cookers, head-lights, suspension bridges, and search lights as application based on
properties of parabola; arches, Lithotripsy in the field of Medicine, whispering galleries,
Ne-de-yag lasers and gears as application based on properties of ellipse; and telescopes, cooling
towers, spotting locations of ships or aircrafts as application based on properties of hyperbola, to
name a few.
Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3
172
Chapter 5 Analytical Geometry.indd 172 31-01-2020 17:42:21

Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5
A driver took the job of delivering a truck of books ordered on line.
The truck is of 3m wide and 2.7 m high, while driving he noticed a sign
at the semielliptical entrance of a tunnel; Caution! Tunnel is of 3m high
at the centre peak. Then he saw another sign; Caution! Tunnel is of 12m
wide. Will his truck pass through the opening of tunnel’s archway? We
Fig. 5.6
will be able to answer this question at the end of this chapter.
Learning Objectives

● write the equations of circle, parabola, ellipse, hyperbola in standard form,
● find the centre, vertices, foci etc. from the equation of different conics,
● derive the equations of tangent and normal to different conics,
● classify the conics and their degenerate forms,
● form equations of conics in parametric form, and their applications.
● apply conics in various real life situations.
5.2 Circle
The word circle is of Greek origin and reference to circles is found as early as 1700 BC (BCE). In Nature
circles would have been observed, such as the Moon, Sun, and ripples in water. The circle is the basis
for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, makes much of modern machinery possible.
In mathematics, the study of the circle has helped to inspire the development of geometry, astronomy and
calculus. In Bohr-Sommerfeld theory of the atom, electron orbit is modelled as circle.
Definition 5.1
A circle is the locus of a point in a plane which moves such that its distance from a fixed point
in the plane is always a constant.
The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is called radius of the circle.
5.2.1 Equation of a circle in standard form

(i) Equation of circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r y
Let the centre be C(0, 0) and radius be r and P ( x, y ) be the moving point.
Note that the point P having coordinates ( x, y ) is represented as P ( x, y ) . C(0, 0)
Then, CP = r and so CP 2 = r 2 r x
P(x, y)
Therfore ( x − 0) 2 + ( y − 0) 2 = r 2
That is x 2 + y 2 = r 2
This is the equation of the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r . Fig.5.7
173 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry - II

(ii) Equation of circle with centre (h, k) and radius r y
Let the centre be C (h, k ) and r be the radius and P( x, y ) be the moving
point. C(h, k) x
Then, CP = r and so CP 2 = r 2 . r
That is, ( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 .This is the equation of the circle in P(x, y)

Standard form, which is also known as centre-radius form.
Expanding the equation, we get Fig.5.8
x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky + h 2 + k 2 − r 2 = 0 .
Taking 2 g = −2h, 2 f = −2k , c = h 2 + k 2 − r 2 , the equation takes the form
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 , called the general form of a circle.
The equation x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is a second degree equation in x and y possessing the
following characteristics:
(i) It is a second degree equation in x and y ,
(ii) coefficient of x 2 = coefficient of y 2 ¹ 0 ,
(iii) coefficient of xy = 0 .
Conversely, we prove that an equation possessing these three characteristics, always represents
a circle. Let
ax 2 + ay 2 + 2 g ′x + 2 f y′ + c = 0 … (1)
be a second degree equation in x and y having characteristics (i), (ii) and (iii), a ¹ 0 . Dividing
(1) by a , gives
2g′ 2f′ c′
x2 + y 2 +
x+ y + = 0 . … (2)
a a a
g′ f′ c′
Taking = g , = f and = c , equation (2) becomes x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 .
a a a
Adding and subtracting g and f 2 , we get x 2 + 2 gx + g 2 + y 2 + 2 fy + f 2 − g 2 − f 2 + c = 0
2
⇒ ( x + g )2 + ( y + f )2 = g 2 + f 2 − c
( )
2
⇒ ( x − (− g )) 2 + ( y − (− f )) 2 = g2 + f 2 − c
This is in the standard form of a circle with centre C (- g , - f ) and radius r = g 2 + f 2 − c . Hence
 −g′ − f ′ 
equation (1) represents a circle with centre (− g , − f ) =  ,  and radius
 a a 
1
= g2 + f 2 − c = g ′2 + f ′2 − c′a .
a
Note
2 2
The equation of the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 with centre (–g, –f ) and radius g + f − c represents.
(i) a real circle if g 2 + f 2 − c > 0 ;
(ii) a point circle if g 2 + f 2 − c = 0 ;
(iii) an imaginary circle if g 2 + f 2 − c < 0 with no locus.

Example 5.1
Find the general equation of a circle with centre (-3, -4) and radius 3 units.
Solution
Equation of the circle in standard form is ( x − h ) + ( y − k ) = r 2
2 2

( x − ( −3) ) + ( y − ( −4 ) )
2 2
⇒ = 32
( x + 3) + ( y + 4 ) = 32
2 2
⇒
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 6 x + 8 y + 16 = 0 .
Theorem 5.1
The circle passing through the points of intersection (real or imaginary) of the line lx + my + n = 0
and the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is the circle of the form
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c + λ ( lx + my + n ) = 0 , λ ∈ 1 .
Proof
Let the circle be S : x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 , … (1)
and the line be L : lx + my + n = 0 . … (2)

Consider S + l L = 0 . That is x + y + 2 gx + 2 fy + c + l (lx + my + n) = 0
2 2
... (3)
Grouping the terms of x, y and constants, we get
x 2 + y 2 + x (2 g + ll ) + y (2 f + lm) + c + ln = 0 which is a second degree equation in x and
y with coefficients of x 2 and y 2 equal and there is no xy term.
If (α , β ) is a point of intersection of S and L satisfying equation (1) and (2), then it satisfies equation (3).
Hence S + l L = 0 represents the required circle.
Example 5.2
Find the equation of the circle described on the chord 3 x + y + 5 = 0 of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 16 as
diameter.
Solution
Equation of the circle passing through the points of intersection of the chord and circle by
Theorem 5.1 is x 2 + y 2 − 16 + λ ( 3 x + y + 5 ) = 0 .
 −3λ −λ 
The chord 3 x + y + 5 = 0 is a diameter of this circle if the centre  ,  lies on the chord.
 2 2 
 −3λ  λ
So, we have 3   − + 5 = 0 ,
 2  2
−9λ λ
⇒ − + 5 = 0 ,
2 2
⇒ −5λ + 5 = 0 ,
⇒ λ = 1 .
Therefore, the equation of the required circle is x 2 + y 2 + 3 x + y − 11 = 0 .
Example 5.3
Determine whether x + y − 1 = 0 is the equation of a diameter of the circle
x 2 + y 2 − 6 x + 4 y + c = 0 for all possible values of c .
Solution
Centre of the circle is (3, -2) which lies on x + y − 1 = 0 . So the line x + y − 1 = 0 passes through
the centre and therefore the line x + y − 1 = 0 is a diameter of the circle for all possible values of c .

Theorem 5.2
The equation of a circle with ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) as extremities of one of the diameters of the
circle is ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0 .
Proof
Let A( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) be the two extremities of the diameter AB , and P ( x, y ) be any point
π P ( x, y )
on the circle. Then ∠APB = (angle in a semi-circle).
2
( x1 , y1 ) ( x2 , y2 )
Therefore, the product of slopes of AP and PB is equal to -1. A B
( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 )
That is,    
 ( x − x )  = −1 yielding the equation of the required circle as Fig.5.9
 ( x − x1 )   2 
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0 .
Example 5.4
Find the general equation of the circle whose diameter is the line segment joining the points
( −4, −2 ) and (1,1) .
Solution
Equation of the circle with end points of the diameter as ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) given in
theorem 5.2 is
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) = 0
⇒ ( x + 4 ) ( x − 1) + ( y + 2 ) ( y − 1) = 0
x + y + 3x + y − 6 = 0 which is the required equation of the circle.
2 2
⇒
Theorem 5.3
The position of a point P( x1 , y1 ) with respect to a given circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 in the
plane containing the circle is outside or on or inside the circle according as
> 0 or,
2 2 
x + y + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c is = 0
1 1 or,

< 0.
Proof P(
2 2
Q x1 ,
y1 )
Equation of the circle is x + y + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 with centre C
(- g , - f ) and radius r = g 2 + f 2 − c .
C (-
Let P( x1 , y1 ) be a point in the plane. Join CP and let it meet the

g,-
f)
circle at Q .Then the point P is outside, on or within the circle according

as
Fig.5.10
> | CQ | or,

| CP | is =| CQ | or,

<| CQ | .

> r 2 or,

⇒ CP is = r 2
2
or {CQ = r},

< r 2 .

> g 2 + f 2 − c or,

⇒ ( x1 + g ) 2 + ( y1 + f ) 2 is = g 2 + f 2 − c or,

< g 2 + f 2 − c.

> 0 or,

⇒ x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c is = 0 or,

< 0.
Example 5.5
Examine the position of the point (2, 3) with respect to the circle x 2 + y 2 − 6 x − 8 y + 12 = 0 .
Solution
Taking (x1, y1) as (2, 3), we get
x1 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = 22 + 32 − 6 × 2 − 8 × 3 + 12 ,
2
= 4 + 9 − 12 − 24 + 12 = −11 < 0.
Therefore, the point (2, 3) lies inside the circle, by theorem 5.3.
Example 5.6
The line 3 x + 4 y − 12 = 0 meets the coordinate axes at A and B . Find the equation of the circle
drawn on AB as diameter.
Solution
x y
Writing the line 3 x + 4 y = 12, in intercept form yields + = 1 . Hence the points A and B are
4 3
(4, 0) and (0, 3) .
Equation of the circle in diameter form is
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) = 0
( x − 4 ) ( x − 0 ) + ( y − 0 ) ( y − 3) = 0
x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 3 y = 0 .
Example 5.7
A line 3 x + 4 y + 10 = 0 cuts a chord of length 6 units on a circle with centre of the circle (2,1) . Find
the equation of the circle in general form.
Solution
C(2,1) is the centre and 3 x + 4 y + 10 = 0 cuts a chord AB on the circle. Let M be the midpoint
of AB . Then we have
AM = BM = 3 . Now BMC is a right triangle. C A
4
3(2) + 4(1) + 10
So, we have CM = = 4.
5 M
2 2
3 +4 3
B
By Pythogoras theorem BC 2 = BM 2 + MC 2 = 32 + 42 = 25 . Fig.5.11

BC = 5 = radius.
So, the equation of the required circle is ( x − 2) 2 + ( y − 1) = 52
x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 2 y − 20 = 0 .
Example 5.8 y
A circle of radius 3 units touches both the axes. Find the equations of
all possible circles formed in the general form. C2(–3,3) C1(3,3)
Solution
As the circle touches both the axes, the distance of the centre from O x
both the axes is 3 units, centre can be (±3, ±3) and hence there are four
C3(–3,–3) C4(3,–3)
circles with radius 3, and the required equations of the four circles are
x2 + y 2 ± 6x ± 6 y + 9 = 0 .
Example 5.9 Fig.5.12
Find the centre and radius of the circle 3 x 2 + ( a + 1) y 2 + 6 x − 9 y + a + 4 = 0 .
Solution
Coefficient of x 2 = Coefficient of y 2 (characteristic (ii) for a second degree equation to represent
a circle).
That is, 3 = a + 1 and a = 2 .
Therefore, the equation of the circle is
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 6 x − 9 y + 6 = 0
x 2 + y 2 + 2 x − 3 y + 2 = 0
 3 9 5
So, centre is  −1,  and radius r = 1 + − 2 = .
 2 4 2
Example 5.10
Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (1,1), (2, -1) , and (3, 2) .
Solution
Let the general equation of the circle be
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 . ... (1)
It passes through points (1,1), (2, -1) and (3, 2) .
Therefore, 2 g + 2 f + c = -2 , … (2)
4 g − 2 f + c = -5 , … (3)
6 g + 4 f + c = -13 . … (4)
(2) – (3) gives −2 g + 4 f = 3 . ... (5)
(4) – (3) gives 2 g + 6 f = -8 . ... (6)
1
(5) + (6) gives f = -
2

1 5
Substituting f = -
in (6), g = − .
2 2
1 5
Substituting f = - and g = − in (2) , c = 4 .
2 2
Therefore, the required equation of the circle is
 5  1
x 2 + y 2 + 2  −  x + 2  −  y + 4 = 0

 2  2
2 2
⇒ x + y − 5 x − y + 4 = 0 .
Note
Three points on a circle determine the equation to the circle uniquely. Conversely three equidistant
points from a centre point forms a circle.
5.2.2 Equations of tangent and normal at a point P on a given circle

Tangent of a circle is a line which touches the circle at only one point and normal is a line
perpendicular to the tangent and passing through the point of contact.
Let P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) be two points on the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 .
Therefore,
x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = 0 ... (1) f)
,−
2 2
and x2 + y2 + 2 gx2 + 2 fy2 + c = 0 ,,, (2) C (− g Q( x2 , y2 )
Q′
(2) - (1) gives Q′′
2 2 2 2
x2 − x + y2 − y + 2 g ( x2 − x1 ) + 2 f ( y2 − y1 ) = 0
1 1
P(
x1 ,
y1 )
( x2 − x1 )( x2 + x1 + 2 g ) + ( y2 − y1 )( y2 + y1 + 2 f ) = 0
Fig.5.13
x2 + x1 + 2 g (y - y )
= - 2 1
y2 + y1 + 2 f ( x2 - x1 )
( x1 + x2 + 2 g )
Therefore, slope of PQ = − .
( y1 + y2 + 2 f )
When Q → P, the chord PQ becomes tangent at P
(2 x1 + 2 g ) (x + g)
Slope of tangent is − = − 1 .
(2 y1 + 2 f ) ( y1 + f )
( x1 + g )
Hence, the equation of tangent is y - y1 = − ( x − x1 ) . Simplifying,
( y1 + f )
yy1 + fy − y12 − fy1 + xx1 − x12 + gx − gx1 = 0
xx1 + yy1 + gx + fy − ( x12 + y12 + gx1 + fy1 ) = 0 ...(1)
Since ( x1 , y1 ) is a point on the circle, we have x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = 0
Therefore, −( x12 + y12 + gx1 + fy1 ) = gx1 + fy1 + c . ...(2)
Hence, substituting (2) in (1), we get the equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) as
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0 .

(y + f ) x−x
Hence, the equation of normal is ( y − y1 ) = 1 ( 1)
( x1 + g )
⇒ ( y − y1 ) ( x1 + g ) = ( y1 + f ) ( x − x1 )
⇒ x1 ( y − y1 ) + g ( y − y1 ) = y1 ( x − x1 ) + f ( x − x1 )
⇒ yx1 − xy1 + g ( y − y1 ) − f ( x − x1 ) = 0 .
Remark
(1) The equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x2+y2 = a2 is xx1 + yy1 = a 2 .
(2) The equation of normal at ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x2+y2 = a2 is xy1 − yx1 = 0 .
(3) The normal passes through the centre of the circle.
5.2.3 Condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2

and finding the point of contact
Let the line y = mx + c touch the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . The centre and radius of the circle
x 2 + y 2 = a 2 are (0, 0) and a respectively.
(i) Condition for a line to be tangent
Then the perpendicular distance of the line y − mx − c = 0 from (0, 0) is
0 − m.0 − c |c|
= .
2
1+ m 1 + m2
|c|
This must be equal to radius .Therefore = a or c 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 ) .
2
1+ m
Thus the condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is
c 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 ) .
(ii) Point of contact
Let ( x1 , y1 ) be the the point of contact of y = mx + c with the P( x1 , y1 )
y=m
circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 , x+c
a
Then y1 = mx1 + c . ... (1)
Equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) is xx1 + yy1 = a 2 . C (0, 0)
2
yy1 = − xx1 + a ... (2)
Equations (1) and (2) represent the same line and hence the Fig.5.14
coefficients are proportional.
y1 − x1 a 2
So, = =
1 m c
2
a −a 2 m
y1 = , x1 = , c = ± a 1 + m2 .
c c
 −am a 
Then the points of contact is either  , 
2
 1+ m 1 + m2 
 am −a 
or  , .
2
 1+ m 1 + m2 

Note
The equation of tangent at P to a circle is y = mx ± a 1 + m 2 .
Theorem 5.4
From any point outside the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 two tangents can be drawn.
Proof
Let P( x1 , y1 ) be a point outside the circle. The equation of the tangent is T1
2
y = mx ± a 1 + m . It passes through ( x1 , y1 ) . Therefore
y1 = mx1 ± a 1 + m 2 P( x C
1 ,y )
1
y1 - mx1 = a 1 + m 2 . Squaring both sides, we get T2
Fig.5.15
( y1 - mx1 ) 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 )
y12 + m 2 x12 − 2mx1 y1 − a 2 − a 2 m 2 = 0
m 2 ( x12 − a 2 ) − 2mx1 y1 + ( y12 − a 2 ) = 0 .
This quadratic equation in m gives two values for m .
These values give two tangents to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 .
Note
(1) If ( x1 , y1 ) is a point outside the circle, then both the tangents are real.
(2) If ( x1 , y1 ) is a point inside the circle, then both the tangents are imaginary.
(3) If ( x1 , y1 ) is a point on the circle, then both the tangents coincide.
Example 5.11
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25 at P(-3, 4) .
Solution
Equation of tangent to the circle at P( x1 , y1 ) is xx1 + yy1 = a 2 .
That is, x(−3) + y (4) = 25
−3 x + 4 y = 25
Equation of normal is xy1 - yx1 = 0
That is, 4 x + 3 y = 0 .
Example 5.12
If y = 4 x + c is a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 9 , find c .
Solution
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is c 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 ) .
Then, c = ± 9(1 + 16)

c = ±3 17 .
Example 5.13
A road bridge over an irrigation canal have two y
semi circular vents each with a span of 20m and the
supporting pillars of width 2m . Use Fig.5.16 to write
the equations that represent the semi-verticular vents.
O1 O2 x
Solution
Let O1 O2 be the centres of the two semi 2m
20m 2m
20m
circular vents. Fig.5.16

First vent with centre O1 (12, 0) and radius Second vent with centre O2 (34, 0) and
r = 10 yields equation to first semicircle as radius r = 10 yields equation to second vent as
2 2 2
( x − 12) + ( y − 0) = 10 ( x − 34) 2 + y 2 = 102
⇒ x 2 + y 2 − 24 x + 44 = 0 , y > 0 . ⇒ x 2 + y 2 − 68 x + 1056 = 0 , y > 0 .
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Obtain the equation of the circles with radius 5 cm and touching x-axis at the origin in general
form.
2. Find the equation of the circle with centre (2, −1) and passing through the point (3, 6) in
standard form.
3. Find the equation of circles that touch both the axes and pass through (−4, −2) in general form.
4. Find the equation of the circle with centre (2, 3) and passing through the intersection of the
lines 3 x − 2 y − 1 = 0 and 4 x + y − 27 = 0 .
5. Obtain the equation of the circle for which (3, 4) and (2, −7) are the ends of a diameter.
6. Find the equation of the circle through the points (1, 0), (−1, 0) , and (0,1) .
7. A circle of area 9p square units has two of its diameters along the lines x + y = 5 and x − y = 1.
Find the equation of the circle.
8. If y = 2 2 x + c is a tangent to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 16 , find the value of c .
9. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 − 6 x + 6 y − 8 = 0 at (2, 2) .
10. Determine whether the points (−2,1) , (0, 0) and (−4, −3) lie outside, on or inside the circle
x2 + y 2 − 5x + 2 y − 5 = 0 .
11. Find centre and radius of the following circles.
(i) x 2 + ( y + 2 ) = 0 (ii) x 2 + y 2 + 6 x − 4 y + 4 = 0
2
(iii) x 2 + y 2 − x + 2 y − 3 = 0 (iv) 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 − 6 x + 4 y + 2 = 0
12. If the equation 3 x 2 + ( 3 − p ) xy + qy 2 − 2 px = 8 pq represents a circle,
find p and q . Also determine the centre and radius of the circle.
5.3. Conics
Definition 5.2
A conic is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, so that its distance from a fixed point
bears a constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line not containing the fixed point.
The fixed point is called focus, the fixed line is called directrix and the constant ratio is called
eccentricity, which is denoted by e.
(i) If this constant e = 1 then the conic is called a parabola
(ii) If this constant e < 1 then the conic is called a ellipse
(iii) If this constant e > 1 then the conic is called a hyperbola

5.3.1 The general equation of a Conic
Let S ( x1 , y1 ) be the focus, l the directrix, and e be the eccentricity. Let P ( x, y ) be the moving point.
By the definition of conic, we have
l
SP
= constant = e , ...(1) P ( x, y )
PM M
Where SP = ( x − x1 ) 2 + ( y − y1 ) 2
and PM = perpendicular distance from P ( x, y )

to the line lx + my + n = 0 S (x 1 , y1 )
lx + my + n
= . Fig.5.17
l 2 + m2
From (1) we get SP 2 = e 2 PM 2
2
2 2 lx + my + n 
2
( x − x1 ) + ( y − y1 ) = e 
⇒  .
2 2
 l + m 
On simplification the above equation takes the form of general second-degree equation
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 , where
e 2l 2 2lme 2 e2 m2
A = 1− , B = , C = 1 −
l 2 + m2 l 2 + m2 l 2 + m2
Now ,
4l 2 m 2 e 4  e 2l 2   e2 m2 
B 2 − 4 AC = − 4  1 − 2 
1 − 2 
( l 2 + m2 )
2 2 2
 l + m  l + m 

= 4 ( e 2 − 1)

yielding the following cases:
(i) B 2 - 4 AC = 0 Û e = 1 ⇔ the conic is a parabola,
(ii) B 2 − 4 AC < 0 Û 0 < e < 1 ⇔ the conic is an ellipse,
(iii) B 2 − 4 AC > 0 Û e >1 ⇔ the conic is a hyperbola.
5.3.2 Parabola y
Since e = 1 , for a parabola, we note that the

parabola is the locus of points in a plane that are
equidistant from both the directrix and the focus. M
P(x, y)
L
(i) Equation of a parabola in standard form with Vertex Latus Rectum
vertex at (0, 0) Z O(0,0) S (a, 0) x
Let S be the focus and l be the directrix.
Focus Axis
Draw SZ perpendicular to the line l . Directrix
Let us assume SZ produced as x -axis and the L
perpendicular bisector of SZ produced as y - axis. l
The intersection of this perpendicular bisector with
SZ be the origin O . Fig.5.18

Let SZ = 2a . Then S is (a, 0) and the equation of the directrix is x + a = 0 .
Let P( x, y ) be the moving point in the locus that yield a parabola. Draw PM perpendicular to the
SP
directrix. By definition, e = = 1. So, SP 2 = PM 2 .
PM
Then, ( x − a ) + y = ( x + a ) 2 . On simplifying, we get y 2 = 4ax which is the equation of the
2 2
parabola in the standard form.

The other standard forms of parabola are y 2 = −4ax, x 2 = 4ay , and x 2 = −4ay .
Definition 5.3
● The line perpendicular to the directrix and passing through the focus is known as the Axis
of the parabola.
● The intersection point of the axis with the curve is called vertex of the parabola
● Any chord of the parabola, through its focus is called focal chord of the parabola
● The length of the focal chord perpendicular to the axis is called latus rectum of the parabola
Example 5.14
Find the length of Latus rectum of the parabola y 2 = 4ax .
Solution
Equation of the parabola is y 2 = 4ax .
Latus rectum LL′ passes through the focus (a, 0) . Refer (Fig. 5.18)
Hence the point L is (a, y1 ) .
Therefore y12 = 4a 2 .
Hence y1 = ± 2a .
The end points of latus rectum are (a, 2a ) and (a, -2a ) .
Therefore length of the latus rectum LL′ = 4a .
Note
The standard form of the parabola y 2 = 4ax has for its vertex (0, 0) , axis as x -axis, focus as
(a, 0) . The parabola y 2 = 4ax lies completely on the non-negative side of the x-axis. Replacing y by
–y in y2 = 4ax, the equation remains the same. so the parabola y 2 = 4ax is symmetric about x-axis;
that is, x-axis is the axis and symmetry of y 2 = 4ax
(ii) Parabolas with vertex at ( h, k )
When the vertex is (h, k ) and the axis of symmetry is parallel to x -axis, the equation of the
parabola is either ( y − k ) 2 = 4a ( x − h) or ( y − k ) 2 = − 4a ( x − h) (Fig. 5.19, 5.20).
When the vertex is (h, k ) and the axis of symmetry is parallel to y -axis, the equation of the

parabola is either ( x − h) 2 = 4a ( y − k ) or ( x − h) 2 = − 4a ( y − k ) (Fig. 5.21, 5.22).

Length
Axis of Equation of
Equation Graph Vertices Focus of latus
symmetry directrix
rectum
( y − k ) 2 = 4a ( x − h) y y' (h, k ) ( h + a, 0 + k ) y=k x = h−a 4a
A(h,k)
x'
S(h + a,k)
x
Directrix
x=h–a
(a) The graph of

( y − k ) 2 = 4a ( x − h)
Fig. 5.19
( y − k ) 2 = −4a ( x − h) Directrix (h, k ) ( h − a, 0 + k ) y=k x = h+a 4a

x=h+a
y y'
A(h,k) x'
x
S(h – a,k)
(b) The graph of

2
( y − k ) = −4 a ( x − h )
Fig. 5.20
( x − h) 2 = 4a ( y − k ) (h, k ) ( 0 + h, a + k ) x=h y = k −a 4a
a)
y y'
+
,k
S(h
A(h,k) x'
x
Directrix
y=k–a
(c) The graph of

( x − h) 2 = 4a ( y − k )
Fig. 5.21
( x − h) 2 = −4a ( y − k ) Directrix
y=k+a
(h, k ) ( 0 + h, − a + k ) x = h y =k +a 4a
y y'
A(h,k)
x'
S(
h,
x
k–
a)
(d) The graph of

( x − h) 2 = −4a ( y − k )
Fig. 5.22

5.3.3 Ellipse
We invoke that an ellipse is the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from a fixed
point (focus) bears a constant ratio (eccentricity) less than unity its distance from its directrix bearing
a constant ratio e (0 < e < 1) . Vertices y
(i) Equation of an Ellipse in standard form
b)
B P(x,y)
L(a,2
M Latus rectum
Let S be a focus, l be a directrix, e be the eccentricity Z ′ a , 0 )
A'( – C(0,0) Z
( 0 < e < 1 ) and P ( x, y ) be the moving point. Draw SZ and S'(
–a S ( a e,0)
A(
a,0
e,0 )
PM perpendicular to l . l′
L′ ( a
) l
B'
, −2
Let A and A′ be the points which divide SZ internally Centre
b)
Foci
and externally in the ratio e :1 respectively. Let AA′ = 2a . Let Fig.5.23
the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisector with AA′ beC . Therefore CA = a and CA′ = a.
Choose C as origin and CZ produced as x -axis and the perpendicular bisector of AA′ produced as
y -axis.
By definition,
SA e SA ' e
= and =
AZ 1 A'Z 1
SA = eAZ SA' = eA ' Z
CA - CS = e ( CZ − CA ) A ' C + CS = e ( A ' C + CZ )
a - CS = e ( CZ − a ) ... (1) a + CS = e ( a + CZ ) ... (2)
a
( 2 ) + (1) gives CZ =
and ( 2 ) − (1) gives CS = ae .
e
a 
Therefore M is  , y  and S is ( ae, 0 ) .
e 
SP
By the definition of a conic, = e ⇒ SP 2 = e 2 PM 2
PM

2  a
2

⇒ ( x − ae ) + ( y − 0 ) = e  x −  + 0  which
2

 e 
2 2
x y
on simplification yields 2 + 2 = 1.
a a (1 − e 2 )
Since 1 - e 2 is a positive quantity, write b 2 = a 2 (1− e 2 )
Taking ae = c, b 2 = a 2 − c 2 .
x2 y 2
Hence we obtain the locus of P as 2 + 2 = 1 which is the equation of an ellipse in standard
a b
form and note that it is symmetrical about x and y axis.
Definition 5.4
(1) The line segment AA′ is called the major axis of the ellipse and is of length 2a .
(2) The line segment BB′ is called the minor axis of the ellipse and is of length 2b .
(3) The line segment CA = the line segment CA′ = semi major axis = a and the line segment
CB = the line segment CB′ = semi minor axis = b .
a
(4) By symmetry, taking S ′(−ae, 0) as focus and x = − as directrix l ′ gives the same ellipse.
e
Thus, we see that an ellipse has two foci, S (ae, 0) and S ′(−ae, 0) and two vertices A(a, 0) and
a a
A′(−a, 0) and also two directrices, x = and x = − .
e e

Example 5.15
x2 y 2
Find the length of Latus rectum of the ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2
Solution
x2 y 2
The Latus rectum LL′ (Fig. 5.22) of an ellipse + = 1 passes through S (ae, 0) .
a 2 b2
Hence L is (ae, y1 ) .
a 2 e 2 y12
Therefore, + 2 = 1
a2 b
y12
= 1 - e 2
b2
y12 = b 2 (1 - e 2 )
 b2  2  2 b2 
= b  2   s ince, e = 1 − 2 
a   a 
b2
y1 = ± .
a
 b2   b2 
′
That is, the end points of Latus rectum L and L are  ae,  and  ae, − .
 a  a
2b 2
Hence the length of latus rectum LL = ′ .
a
(ii) Types of ellipses with centre at ( h, k )

(a) Major axis parallel to the x-axis
From Fig. 5.24
( x − h) (y −k)
2 2
+ = 1, a > b
a2 b2
The length of the major axis is 2a . The length of the minor axis is 2b . The coordinates of the
vertices are ( h + a, k ) and ( h − a, k ) , and the coordinates of the foci are ( h + c, k ) and ( h − c, k )
where c 2 = a 2 − b 2 .
(b) Major axis parallel to the y-axis

From Fig. 5.25
( x − h) (y −k)
2 2
+ = 1, a > b
b2 a2
The length of the major axis is 2a . The length of the minor axis is 2b . The coordinates of the
vertices are ( h, k + a ) and ( h, k − a ) , and the coordinates of the foci are ( h, k + c ) and ( h, k − c ) ,
where c 2 = a 2 − b 2 .

Equation Centre Major Axis Vertices Foci
( h, k ) parallel to the ( h − a, k ) ( h − c, k )
( x − h) (y −k)
2 2
2
+ 2
=1 a 2 > b2 x-axis
a b
y' y
( h + a, k ) ( h + c, k )
A'(h – a,k) A(h+a,k)
O x
C( x'
h ,k) S(h+c,k)
S'(h–c,k)
Fig.5.24
(a) Major axis parallel to the x-axis
Foci are c units right and c units left of
centre, where c 2 = a 2 − b 2 .
( x − h) 2 ( y − k ) 2 ( h, k ) parallel to the (h, k - a ) (h, k - c)

+ = 1 a 2 > b2 y-axis
b 2
a 2
(h, k + a ) (h, k + c)
y
y'
A(h,k+a)
S(h,k+c)
O
x
x'
C(h,k)
S'(h,k–c)
A'(h,k–a)
Fig.5.25
(b) Major axis parallel to the y-axis
Foci are c units right and c units left of
centre, where c 2 = a 2 − b 2 .
Theorem 5.5
The sum of the focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to length of the major axis.
Proof
x2 y 2
Let P ( x, y ) be a point on the ellipse + = 1.
a 2 b2
y
Draw MM ′ through P , perpendicular to
directrices l and l ′ .
M' P(x,y) M
d1
Draw PN ⊥ to x -axis. d2
x
S'(–c,0) C(0,0) N Z(a/e, 0)
Z'(–a/e, 0)
By definition SP = ePM S(c,0)
l' l
= eNZ
= e[CZ - CN ] Fig.5.26

a 
= e  − x  = a − ex ... (1)
2 
and SP′ = ePM ′
= e[CN + CZ ′]
 a
= e  x +  = ex + a ... (2)
 e
Hence, SP + S ′P = a − ex + a + ex = 2a
Remark
( x − h) 2 ( y − k ) 2
When b = a , the equation + = 1, becomes ( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = a 2 the equation
a2 b2
of circle with centre (h, k ) and radius a .
a2
When b = a, e = 1 − = 0 . Hence the eccentricity of the circle is zero.
a2
SP
Furthere, = 0 implies PM → ∞ . That is, the directrix of the circle is at infinity.
PM
Remark y
Auxiliary circle or circumcircle is the circle with length of major axis as B

x
diameter and Incircle is the circle with length of minor axis as diameter. They x' A' C A
are given by x 2 + y 2 = a 2 and x 2 + y 2 = b 2 respectively. B'
γ'
Fig.5.27
5.3.4 Hyperbola
We invoke that a hyperbola is the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from a fixed
point (focus) bears a constant ratio (eccentricity) greater than unity its distance from its directrix,
bearing a constant ratio e (e > 1) .
y Foci
(i) Equation of a Hyperbola in standard form with L

centre at (0, 0) M
P(x,y)
B
Let S be a focus, l be the directrix line, e be the eccentricity

)
e,0
–a
S(ae,0)
S′(
Z′ Z A(a,0)
x
e > 1 and P ( x, y ) be the moving point. Draw SZ and PM C(0,0)
A′
tum
(–
s rec
a,0
Latu
)
B′
perpendicular to l . l
Vertices Centre L′
Let A and A′ be the points which divide SZ Fig.5.28

internally and externally in the ratio e :1 respectively.
Let AA′ = 2a . Let the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisector with AA′ be C . Then
CA = CA' = a Choose C as origin and the line CZ produced as x -axis and the perpendicular bisector
of AA′ as y -axis.
AS A′S
By definition, = e and =e.
AZ A′Z

⇒ AS = eAZ A′S = eA′Z
⇒ CS − CA = e(CA − CZ ) A′C + CS = e( A′C + CZ )
⇒ CS − a = e(a − CZ ) … (1) a + CS = e(a + CZ ) … (2)
a
(1) + (2) gives CS = ae and (2) - (1) gives CZ = .
e
a a
Hence, the coordinates of S are (ae, 0) . Since PM = x − , the equation of directrix is x − = 0.
e e
Let P ( x, y ) be any point on the hyperbola.
SP
By the definition of a conic, = e ⇒ SP 2 = e 2 PM 2 .
PM
2
2  a 2 2
Then ( x − ae) + ( y − 0) = e  x − 
 e
⇒ ( x − ae) 2 + y 2 = (ex - a ) 2
⇒ (e 2 - 1) x 2 - y 2 = a 2 (e 2 - 1)
x2 y2
⇒ 2
- 2 2
a a (e - 1)
( )
= 1. Since e > 1, a 2 e 2 − 1 > 0 . Setting a 2 (e 2 − 1) = b 2 , we obtain the locus of P as
x2 y 2
- = 1 which is the equation of a Hyperbola in standard form and
a 2 b2
note that it is symmetrical about x and y-axes.
Taking ae = c , we get b 2 = c 2 − a 2 .
Definition 5.5
(1) The line segment AA′ is the transverse axis of length 2a .
(2) The line segment BB′ is the conjugate axis of length 2b .
(3) The line segment CA = the line segment CA′ = semi transverse axis = a and
the line segment CB = the line segment CB′ = semi conjugate axis = b .
a
(4) By symmetry, taking S ′(−ae, 0) as focus and x = − as directrix l ′ gives the same
e
hyperbola.
Thus we see that a hyperbola has two foci S (ae, 0) and S ′(−ae, 0) , two vertices A(a, 0)
a a
and A′(−a, 0) and two directrices x = and x = − .
e e
2b 2
Length of latus rectum of hyperbola is ,which can be obtained along lines as that of the
a
ellipse.
Asymptotes
Let P( x, y ) be a point on the curve defined by y = f ( x) , which moves further and further
away from the origin such that the distance between P and some fixed line tends to zero. This fixed
line is called an asymptote.
Note that the hyperbolas admit asymptotes while parabolas and ellipses do not.

(ii) Types of Hyperbola with centre at (h, k)
y (a) Transverse axis parallel to the x-axis.
The equation of a hyperbola with centre C
( h, k ) and transverse axis parallel to the x-axis
( x − h) (y −k)
2 2
C(h,k)
(Fig. 5.29) is given by = 1. −
a,k
)
+ a2 b2
S(h – c,k) h
A( S(h + c,k) The coordinates of the vertices are
A'(
A(h + a, k ) and A′(h − a, k ) . The coordinates of

h–
a,k
x the foci are S (h + c, k ) and S ′(h − c, k ) where

)
c2 = a 2 + b2 .
a
The equations of directrices are x = h ± e .
Fig. 5.29
(a) transverse axis parallel to the x-axis
(b) Transverse axis parallel to the y-axis

c)
y
The equation of a hyperbola with centre
S(h, k +
C (h, k ) and transverse axis parallel to the

y -axis (Fig. 5.0) is given by
A(h,k + c) x
(y −k) ( x − h)
2 2
C(h,k) − = 1.
A'(h,k – a) a2 b2
The coordinates of the vertices are
S'( A(h, k + a ) and A′(h, k − a ) .The coordinates of
h,
k– the foci are S (h, k + c) and S ′(h, k − c) , where
c)
c2 = a 2 + b2 .
a
Fig. 5.30 The equations of directrices are y = k ± .
e
(b) transverse axis parallel to the y-axis
Remark
(1) The circle described on the transverse axis of hyperbola as its diameter is called the auxiliary
circle of the hyperbola. Its equation is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 .
(2) The absolute difference of the focal distances of any point on the hyperbola is constant and is
equal to length of transverse axis. That is, | PS − PS ′ | = 2a . (can be proved similar that of ellipse)
So far we have discussed four standard types of parabolas, two types of ellipses and two
types of hyperbolas. There are plenty of parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas whose equations cannot
be classified under the standard types, For instance consider the following parabola, ellipse, and
hyperbola. y y
y
O x O x
O x
Fig. 5.31
By a suitable transformation of coordinate axes they can be represented by standard equations.

Example 5.16 y
Find the equation of the parabola with focus (− )
2 , 0 and directrix
x= 2.
x= 2
Solution x
A(0
Parabola is open left and axis of symmetry as x -axis and vertex (0, 0) . ,0)
Then the equation of the required parabola is

(
S - 2, 0 )
( y − 0 ) = − 4 2 ( x − 0 )
2

Fig.5.32
⇒ y 2 = - 4 2 x .
Example 5.17
Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is (5, -2) and focus (2, -2) .
Solution y
Given vertex A(5, -2) and focus S(2, -2) and the focal distance
AS= a= 3 . O x
S(2,−2)
Parabola is open left and symmetric about the line parallel to A(5
,−2 )
x -axis.
Then, the equation of the required parabola is
( y + 2) = −4 ( 3) ( x − 5 )
2

Fig.5.33
2
⇒ y + 4 y + 4 = −12 x + 60
⇒ y 2 + 4 y + 12 x − 56 = 0 .
Example 5.18
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (-1, -2) , axis parallel to y -axis and passing through
(3, 6) .
Solution y' y
Since axis is parallel to y -axis the required equation of the
parabola is
( x + 1) = 4a ( y + 2 ) .
2

O
x
Since this passes through (3,6), we get
( 3 + 1) = 4a ( 6 + 2 )
2
A(–1,–2) x'
1
⇒ a = . Fig.5.34
2
Then the equation of parabola is ( x + 1) = 2 ( y + 2 ) which on simplifying yields,
2

x 2 + 2 x − 2 y − 3 = 0 .
Example 5.19
Find the vertex, focus, directrix, and length of the latus rectum of the parabola x 2 − 4 x − 5 y − 1 = 0.
y y′
Solution
For the parabola,
x 2 - 4 x - 5 y - 1 = 0 x O
⇒ x 2 - 4 x = 5 y + 1 A(2,–1
) x′
2
⇒ x − 4 x + 4 = 5 y + 1 + 4 .
Fig.5.35

( x − 2) = 5 ( y + 1) which is in standard form. Therefore, 4a = 5 and the vertex is (2, -1) , and
2
⇒
 1
the focus is  2,  .
 4
Equation of directrix is y − k + a = 0
5
y + 1 + = 0
4
4 y + 9 = 0 .
Length of latus rectum 5 units.
Example 5.20
Find the equation of the ellipse with foci (± 2, 0) , vertices (± 3, 0) .
Solution
y
From Fig. 5.36, we get
SS ′ = 2c and 2c = 4 ; A′A = 2a = 6
⇒ c = 2 and a = 3, S' C (0,0) S A (3,0)
x
A' (–3,0)
⇒ b 2 = a 2 − c 2 = 9 − 4 = 5 . (–2,0) (2,0)
Major axis is along x -axis, since a > b .

Centre is (0, 0) and Foci are (±2, 0) . Fig.5.36
x2 y 2
Therefore, equation of the ellipse is + = 1 .
9 5
Example 5.21
1
Find the equation of the ellipse whose eccentricity is, one of the foci is (2, 3) and a directrix is
2
x = 7 . Also find the length of the major and minor axes of the ellipse.
Solution
SP
By the definition of a conic, = e or SP 2 = e 2 PM 2 .
PM
1
( x − 2 ) + ( y − 3) ( x − 7)
2 2 2
Then, =
4
2 2
⇒ 3 x + 4 y − 2 x − 24 y + 3 = 0
2
 1 1 100
3  x −  + 4 ( y − 3) = 3   + 4 × 9 − 3 =
2
⇒
 3 9 3
2
 1
 x −  ( y − 3)2
 3
⇒ + = 1 which is in the standard form.
100 100
9 12
100 20
Therefore, the length of major axis = 2a = 2 = and
9 3
100 10
the length of minor axis = 2b = 2 = .
12 3

Example 5.22
Find the foci, vertices and length of major and minor axis of the conic
4 x 2 + 36 y 2 + 40 x − 288 y + 532 = 0 .
Solution
Completing the square on x and y of 4 x 2 + 36 y 2 + 40 x − 288 y + 532 = 0 ,
4( x 2 + 10 x + 25 − 25) + 36( y 2 − 8 y + 16 − 16) + 532 = 0 , gives
4( x 2 + 10 x + 25 ) + 36( y 2 − 8 y + 16 ) = −532 + 100 + 576
4 ( x + 5 ) + 36 ( y − 4 ) = 144 .
2 2

Dividing both sides by 144 , the equation reduces to
( x + 5) ( y − 4)
2 2
= 1 . +
36 4
This is an ellipse with centre (-5, 4) , major axis is parallel to x -axis, length of major axis is 12
and length of minor axis is 4. Vertices are (1, 4) and (-11, 4) .
Now, c 2 = a 2 − b 2 = 36 − 4 = 32
and c = ±4 2 .
( ) (
Then the foci are −5 − 4 2 , 4 and −5 + 4 2 , 4 . )
Length of the major axis = 2a = 12 units and
the length of the minor axis = 2b = 4 units.
Example 5.23
For the ellipse 4 x 2 + y 2 + 24 x − 2 y + 21 = 0 , find the centre, vertices, and the foci. Also prove that
the length of latus rectum is 2 .
Solution y′
Rearranging the terms, the equation of ellipse is y
S
4 x 2 + 24 x + y 2 − 2 y + 21 = 0 3,1)
C (− x′
That is, 4 ( x + 6 x + 9 − 9 ) + ( y − 2 y + 1 − 1) + 21 = 0 ,
2 2
O x
4 ( x + 3) − 36 + ( y − 1) − 1 + 21 = 0 ,
2 2 S'

4 ( x + 3) + ( y − 1) = 16 ,
2 2

Fig.5.37
( x + 3) + ( y − 1) = 1.
2 2

4 16
a 4=
Centre is (-3,1)= , b 2 , and the major axis is parallel to y -axis
c 2 = 16 − 4 = 12
c = ±2 3 .
( )
Therefore, the foci are −3, 2 3 + 1 and −3, −2 3 + 1 . ( )
Vertices are (3, ±4 + 1) . That is the vertices are (3, 5) and (3, -3) , and
2b 2
the length of Latus rectum = = 2 units. (see Fig. 5.37)
a

Example 5.24
Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices (0, ±4) and foci (0, ±6) .
y
Solution
From Fig. 5.38, the midpoint of line joining foci is the
S (0,6)
centre C ( 0, 0 ) .
Transverse axis is y -axis (0,4)
C (0,0)
AA′ = 2a ⇒ 2a = 8, x
SS ′ ==
2c 12
=,c 6 (0,– 4)
a = 4
S' (0,–6)
b 2 = c 2 − a 2 = 36 − 16 = 20 .
y 2 x2 Fig.5.38
Hence the equation of the required hyperbola is - = 1.
16 20
Example 5.25
Find the vertices, foci for the hyperbola 9 x 2 − 16 y 2 = 144 .
Solution
Reducing 9 x 2 - 16 y 2 = 144 to the standard form,
x2 y 2
we have, - = 1.
16 9
With the transverse axis is along x -axis vertices are ( −4, 0 ) and ( 4, 0 ) ;
and c 2 = a 2 + b 2 = 16 + 9 = 25 , c = 5 .
Hence the foci are ( −5, 0 ) and ( 5, 0 ) .
Example 5.26
Find the centre, foci, and eccentricity of the hyperbola 11x 2 − 25 y 2 − 44 x + 50 y − 256 = 0
Solution
Rearranging terms in the equation of hyperbola to bring it to standard form,
we have, 11( x 2 - 4 x) - 25( y 2 - 2 y ) - 256 = 0
11( x − 2 ) − 25 ( y − 1) = 256 − 44 + 25
2 2

11( x − 2 ) − 25 ( y − 1) = 275
2 2

( x − 2) ( y − 1)
2 2
− = 1.
25 11
Centre (2,1) , a 2 = 25 ,b 2 = 11
c 2 = a 2 + b 2
= 25 + 11 = 36
Therefore, c = ±6
c 6
and e = = and the coordinates of foci are (8,1) and (-4,1) from Fig. 5.39.
a 5

y y'
)
S '(−4,1) ) 8,1
C(2,1 S( x'
x
O
Fig. 5.39
Example 5.27
The orbit of Halley’s Comet (Fig. 5.51) is an ellipse 36.18 astronomical units long and by 9.12
astronomical units wide. Find its eccentricity.
Solution
that 2a 36
Given= = .18, 2b 9.12 , we get
2 2
 36.18   9.12 
  − 
b2 2
a −b 2
 2   2 
e = 1 - = =
a2 a 36.18
2
(18.09) 2 − (4.56) 2
= ≈ 0.97 .
(8.09)
Note
One astronomical unit (mean distance of Sun and earth) is 1, 49, 597, 870 km , the semi major
axis of the Earth’s orbit.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. Find the equation of the parabola in each of the cases given below:
(i) focus (4, 0) and directrix x = −4 .
(ii) passes through (2, -3) and symmetric about y -axis.
(iii) vertex (1, -2) and focus (4, -2) .
(iv) end points of latus rectum (4, -8) and (4, 8) .
2. Find the equation of the ellipse in each of the cases given below:
1
(i) foci ( ±3, 0 ) , e = .
2
(ii) foci ( 0, ±4 ) and end points of major axis are (0,±5) .
3
(iii) length of latus rectum 8, eccentricity = , centre (0, 0) and major axis on x -axis.
5
(iv) length of latus rectum 4 , distance between foci 4 2 , centre (0, 0) and major axis as y - axis.
3. Find the equation of the hyperbola in each of the cases given below:
3
(i) foci ( ±2, 0 ) , eccentricity = .
2
(ii) Centre (2,1) , one of the foci (8,1) and corresponding directrix x = 4 .
(iii) passing through ( 5, −2 ) and length of the transverse axis along x axis and of length 8 units.

4. Find the vertex, focus, equation of directrix and length of the latus rectum of the following:
(i) y 2 = 16 x (ii) x 2 = 24 y (iii) y 2 = −8 x
(iv) x 2 − 2 x + 8 y + 17 = 0 (v) y 2 − 4 y − 8 x + 12 = 0

5. Identify the type of conic and find centre, foci, vertices, and directrices of each of the following:
2 2
x2 y x2 y x2 y 2 y 2 x2
(i) + = 1 (ii) + = 1 (iii) − = 1 (iv) − =1
25 9 3 10 25 144 16 9
x2 y 2 2b 2
6. Prove that the length of the latus rectum of the hyperbola − = 1 is .
a 2 b2 a
7. Show that the absolute value of difference of the focal distances of any point P on the hyperbola
is the length of its transverse axis.
8. Identify the type of conic and find centre, foci, vertices, and directrices of each of the following :
( x − 3) ( y − 4) ( x + 1) ( y − 2) ( x + 3) ( y − 4)
2 2 2 2 2 2
(i) + = 1 (ii) + = 1 (iii) − =1

225 289 100 64 225 64
( y − 2) ( x + 1)
2 2
(iv) − = 1 (v) 18 x 2 + 12 y 2 − 144 x + 48 y + 120 = 0

25 16
(vi) 9 x 2 − y 2 − 36 x − 6 y + 18 = 0
5.4 Conic Sections

In addition to the method to determine the curves discussed in Section 5.3, geometric description
of a conic section is given here. The graph of a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola can be
obtained by the intersection of a plane and a double napped cone. Hence, these figures are referred to
as conic sections or simply conics.
5.4.1 Geometric description of conic section
A plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone (plane C ) intersecting any one nape of the double
napped cone yields a circle (Fig. 5.40) . The plane E , tilted so that it is not perpendicular to the axis,
intersecting any one nape of the double napped cone yields an ellipse (Fig. 5.40). When the plane is
parallel to a side of one napes of the double napped cone, the plane intersecting the cone yields a
parabola (Fig. 5.41). When the plane is parallel to the plane containing the axis of the double cone,
intersecting the double cone yields a hyperbola (Fig. 5.42).
Axis Axis Axis
◄
E
Hyperbola
Ellipse
Circle
Parabola
◄
Fig. 5.40 Fig. 5.41 Fig. 5.42

5.4.2 Degenerate Forms
Degenerate forms of various conics (Fig. 5.43) are either a point or a line or a pair of straight
lines or two intersecting lines or empty set depending on the angle (nature) of intersection of the
plane with the double napped cone and passing through the vertex or when the cones degenerate into
a cylinder with the plane parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
If the intersecting plane passes through the vertex of the double napped cone and perpendicular
to the axis, then we obtain a point or a point circle. If the intersecting plane passes through a generator
then we obtain a line or a pair of parallel lines, a degenerate form of a parabola for which A= B= C = 0
in general equation of a conic and if the intersecting plane passes through the axis and passes through
the vertex of the double napped cone, then we obtain intersecting lines a degenerate of the hyperbola.
Single
se
sec
ectiiinnnggPoint
ntersecting
ntersec
secttin
ting
ing Lines
L Single
ngllee Line
Single
Sing
ng L
Line
ine
iin
n Intersecting
Single
Sin
Si
Sing
S in
ing
innggle
le P iinnLines
Point
oint
oin
ooi
Fig. 5.43
Remark
b2 b
In the case of an ellipse (0 < e < 1) where e = 1 − 2
. As e → 0, → 1 i.e., b → a or the
a a
lengths of the minor and major axes are close in size. i.e., the ellipse is close to being a circle. As
b
e → 1, → 0 and the ellipse degenerates into a line segment i.e., the ellipse is flat.
a
Remark
b2 b
In the case of a hyperbola (e > 1) where e = 1 + 2 . As e → 1, → 0 i.e., as e → 1, b is very
a a
small related to a and the hyperbola becomes a pointed nose. As e → ∞ , b is very large related to a
and the hyperbola becomes flat.
5.4.3 Identifying the conics from the general equation of the conic
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .
The graph of the second degree equation is one of a circle, parabola, an ellipse, a hyperbola, a
point, an empty set, a single line or a pair of lines. When,
(1) A = C = 1, B = 0, D = −2h, E = −2k , F = h 2 + k 2 − r 2 the general equation reduces to
( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 , which is a circle.
(2) B = 0 and either A or C = 0 , the general equation yields a parabola under study, at this level.
(3) A ¹ C and A and C are of the same sign, the general equation yields an ellipse.
A ¹ C and A and C are of opposite signs, the general equation yields a hyperbola
(4)
A = C and B= D= E= F= 0 , the general equation yields a point x 2 + y 2 = 0 .

(5)

(6) A= C= F and B= D= E = 0 , the general equation yields an empty set x 2 + y 2 + 1 = 0 , as
there is no real solution.
(7) A ¹ 0 or C ¹ 0 and others are zeros, the general equation yield coordinate axes.
A = −C and rests are zero, the general equation yields a pair of lines x 2 − y 2 = 0 .
(8)
Example 5.28
Identify the type of the conic for the following equations:
(1) 16 y 2 = −4 x 2 + 64 (2) x 2 + y 2 = −4 x − y + 4
(3) x 2 − 2 y = x + 3 (4)
4 x 2 − 9 y 2 − 16 x + 18 y − 29 = 0
Solution
Q.no. Equation condition Type of the conic
1 16 y 2 = −4 x 2 + 64 3 Ellipse
2 x 2 + y 2 = −4 x − y + 4 1 Circle
3 x2 − 2 y = x + 3 2 parabola
4 4 x 2 − 9 y 2 − 16 x + 18 y − 29 = 0 4 Hyperbola
EXERCISE 5.3
Identify the type of conic section for each of the equations.
1. 2 x 2 − y 2 = 7 2. 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 − 4 x + 3 y + 10 = 0 3. 3 x 2 + 2 y 2 = 14
4. x 2 + y 2 + x − y = 0 5. 11x 2 − 25 y 2 − 44 x + 50 y − 256 = 0 6. y 2 + 4 x + 3 y + 4 = 0
5.5 Parametric form of Conics

5.5.1 Parametric equations
Suppose f (t ) and g (t ) are functions of ' t ' . Then the equations x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) together describe
a curve in the plane . In general ' t ' is simply an arbitrary variable, called in this case a parameter, and this
method of specifying a curve is known as parametric equations. One important interpretation of ' t ' is time
. In this interpretation,the equations x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) give the position of an object at time ' t ' .
So a parametric equation simply has a third variable, expressing x and y in terms of that third
variable as a parameter . A parameter does not always have to be ' t ' . Using ' t ' is more standard but
one can use any other variable. y
2 2 2
(i) Parametric form of the circle x + y = a P(x,y)
Let P( x, y ) be any point on the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . a
Join OP and let it make an angle θ with x -axis. θ
O M x
Draw PM perpendicular to x -axis. From triangle OPM ,
x = OM = a cos θ
y = MP = a sin θ
Thus the coordinates of any point on the given circle are ( a cos θ, a sin θ ) and Fig. 5.44

x = a cos θ , y = a sin θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π are the parametric equations of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 .
Conversely, if x = a cos θ , y = a sin θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ,
x y
then, = cos θ , = sin θ .
a a
Squaring and adding, we get,
x2 y 2
2
+ 2 = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 .
a a
2 2 2
Thus x + y = a yields the equation to circle with centre (0, 0) and radius a units.
Note
(1)
= x a= cos t , y a sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π also represents the same parametric equations
of circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ,
t increasing in anticlockwise direction. Fig. 5.45
(2) x = a sin t , y = a cos t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π also represents the same parametric equations

of circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 ,
t increasing in clockwise direction. Fig. 5.46
2
(ii) Parametric form of the parabola y = 4ax
Let P( x1 , y1 ) be a point on the parabola
y12 = 4ax1
( y1 )( y1 ) = (2a )(2 x1 )
y1 2x
= 1 = t (−∞ < t < ∞) say
2a y1
y1 = 2at , 2 x1 = y1t
2 x1 = 2at (t )
x1 = at 2
Parametric form of y 2 = 4ax is x = at 2 , y = 2at , − ∞ < t < ∞ .
Conversely if x = at 2 and y = 2at , −∞ < t < ∞ , then eliminating ' t ' between these equations we
get y 2 = 4ax .
x2 y2 y
(iii) Parametric form of the Ellipse + =1 Q
a 2 b2
P
Let P be any point on the ellipse. Let the ordinate MP meet the α
x
auxiliary circle at Q . A′ C M A
Let ∠ ACQ = α
∴ CM = a cos α , MQ = a sin α
and Q(a cos α , a sin α ) Fig. 5.47
Now x -coordinate of P is a cos α . If its y -coordinate is y′, then P(a cos α , y′) lies on
x2 y 2
+ = 1
a 2 b2

y ′2
whence cos 2 α + = 1
b2
⇒ y′ = b sin α .
Hence P is (a cos α , b sin α ) .
The parameter α is called the eccentric angle of the point P . Note that α is the angle which the
line CQ makes with the x -axis and not the angle which the line CP makes with it.
Hence the parametric equation of an ellipse is x = a cos θ , y = b sin θ , where θ is the parameter
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π .
x2 y2
(iv) Parametric form of the Hyperbola − =1
a 2 b2
Similarly, parametric equation of a hyperbola can be derived as x = a sec θ , y = b tan θ , where
π
θ is the parameter. −π ≤ θ ≤ π except θ = ± .
2
In nutshell the parametric equations of the circle, parabola,ellipse and hyperbola are given in the
following table.
Parametric Range of Any point on the
Conic Parameter
equations parameter conic
x = a cos θ ‘ θ ’ or
Circle θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
y = a sin θ (a cos θ , a sin θ )
x = at 2 ‘ t ’ or
Parabola t −∞ < t < ∞
y = 2at (at 2 , 2at )
Ellipse θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
y = b sin θ (a cos θ , b sin θ )
x = a sec θ −π ≤ θ ≤ π ‘ θ ’ or
Hyperbola θ π
y = b tan θ except θ = ± (a sec θ , b tan θ )
2
Remark
(1) Parametric form represents a family of points on the conic which is the role of a parameter.
Further parameter plays the role of a constant and a variable, while cartesian form represents
the locus of a point describing the conic. Parameterisation denotes the orientation of the
curve.
(2) A parametric representation need not be unique.
(3) Note that using parameterisation reduces the number of variables at least by one.
5.6 Tangents and Normals to Conics

Tangent to a plane curve is a straight line touching the curve at exactly one point and a straight line
perpendicular to the tangent and passing through the point of contact is called the normal at that point.
5.6.1 Equation of tangent and normal to the parabola y 2 = 4ax

(i) Equation of tangent in cartesian form
Let P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 ) be two points on a parabola y 2 = 4ax .

Then, y12 = 4ax1 and y2 2 = 4ax2 , y P(x1,y1)
and y12 - y2 2 = 4a ( x1 - x2 ) .
y -y 4a Q'' x
Simplifying, 1 2 = , the slope of the chord PQ .
x1 - x2 y1 + y2
Q'
4a Q(x2,y2)
Thus ( y − y1 ) = ( x − x1 ) , represents the equation
y1 + y2
y2 = 4ax
of the chord PQ .
Fig. 5.48
When Q → P , or y2 → y1 the chord becomes tangent at P .
Thus the equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) is
4a 2a
y - y1 = ( x − x1 ) where is the slope of the tangent ... (1)
2 y1 y1
yy1 - y12 = 2ax - 2ax1
yy1 - 4ax1 = 2ax - 2ax1
yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 )
(ii) Equation of tangent in parametric form

Equation of tangent at (at 2 , 2at ) on the parabola is
y (2at ) = 2a ( x + at 2 )
yt = x + at 2
(iii) Equation of normal in cartesian form

y
From (1) the slope of normal is - 1
2a
Therefore equation of the normal is
y1
y - y1 = − ( x − x1 )
2a
2ay - 2ay1 = − y1 x + y1 x1
xy1 + 2ay = y1 ( x1 + 2a )
xy1 + 2ay = x1 y1 + 2ay1
(iv) Equation of normal in parametric form

Equation of the normal at (at 2 , 2at ) on the parabola is
x 2at + 2ay = at 2 (2at ) + 2a (2at )
2a ( xt + y ) = 2a (at 3 + 2at )
y + xt = at 3 + 2at
Theorem 5.6
Three normals can be drawn to a parabola y 2 = 4ax from a given point, one of which is always real.

Proof
y 2 = 4ax is the given parabola. Let (α, β ) be the given point.
Equation of the normal in parametric form is
y = – tx + 2at + at 3 ... (1)
If m is the slope of the normal then m = −t .
Therefore the equation (1) becomes y = mx - 2am - am3 .
Let it passes through (α, β ) , then
b = ma - 2am - am3
am3 + (2a − α )m + β = 0
which being a cubic equation in m , has three values of m . Consequently three normals, in
general, can be drawn from a point to the parabola, since complex roots of real equation, always occur
in conjugate pairs and (1) being an odd degree equation, it has atleast one real root. Hence atleast one
normal to the parabola is real.
5.6.2 Equations of tangent and normal to Ellipse and Hyperbola

(the proof of the following are left to the reader)
x2 y 2
(1) Equation of the tangent to the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
xx1 yy1
(i) at ( x1 , y1 ) is 2 + 2 = 1 cartesian form
a b
x cos θ y sin θ
(ii) at 'θ ' + = 1 . parametric form
a b
x2 y 2
(2) Equation of the normal to the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
2 2
a x b y
(i) at ( x1 , y1 ) is − = a 2 − b2 cartesian form
x1 y1
ax by
(ii) at 'θ ' is − = a 2 − b2 parametric form
cos θ sin θ
x2 y 2
(3) Equation of the tangent to the hyperbola − =1
a 2 b2
xx1 yy1
(i) at ( x1 , y1 ) is − =1 cartesian form
a 2 b2
x sec θ y tan θ
(ii) at 'θ ' is − =1 parametric form
a b
x2 y 2
(4) Equation of the normal to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1
a b
a 2 x b2 y
(i) at ( x1 , y1 ) is + = a 2 + b2 cartesian form
x1 y1
ax by
(ii) at 'θ ' is + = a 2 + b2 parametric form.
sec θ tan θ

5.6.3 Condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the conic sections
(i) parabola y 2 = 4ax
Let ( x1 , y1 ) be the point on the parabola y 2 = 4ax . Then y12 = 4ax1 ... (1)
Let y = mx + c be the tangent to the parabola ... (2)
Equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) to the parabola from 5.6.1 is yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 ) . … (3)

Since (2) and (3) represent the same line, coefficients are proportional.
y1 2a 2ax1
= =
1 m c
2a c
⇒ y1 = , x1 =
m m
2
 2a  c
Then (1) becomes,   = 4a  
m m
a
⇒ c=
m
 a 2a  a
So the point of contact is  2 ,  and the equation of tangent to parabola is y = mx + .
m m  m
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be tangent to the ellipse or hyperbola can be derived as
follows in the same way as in the case of parabola.
x2 y2
(ii) ellipse + =1
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
Condition for line y = mx + c to be the tangent to the ellipse + =1
a 2 b2
2 2 2 2  a 2m b2 
is c = a m + b , with the point of contact is  − ,  and the equation of tangent is
 c c 
y = mx ± a 2 m 2 + b 2 .
2 2
(iii) Hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1
a b
x2 y 2
Condition for line y = mx + c to be the tangent to the hyperbola − =1
a 2 b2
 a 2m b2 
is c 2 = a 2 m 2 − b 2 , with the point of contact is  − , −  and the equation of tangent is
 c c 
y = mx ± a 2 m 2 − b 2 .
Note
(1) In y = mx ± a 2 m 2 + b 2 , either y = mx + a 2 m 2 + b 2 or y = mx − a 2 m 2 + b 2 is the equation

to the tangent of ellipse but not both.
(2) In y = mx ± a 2 m 2 − b 2 , either y = mx + a 2 m 2 − b 2 or y = mx − a 2 m 2 − b 2 is the equation

to the tangent of hyperbola but not both.

Results (Proof, left to the reader)
(1) Two tangents can be drawn to (i) a parabola (ii) an ellipse and (iii) a hyperbola, from any
external point on the plane.
(2) Four normals can be drawn to (i) an ellipse and (ii) a hyperbola from any external point on the
plane.
(3) The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to
(i) the parabola y 2 = 4ax is x = − a (the directrix).
x2 y 2
(ii) the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b 2 ( called the director circle of ellipse).
a b
x2 y 2
(iii) the hyperbola − = 1 is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 − b 2 (called director circle of hyperbola).
a 2 b2
Example 5.29
Find the equations of tangent and normal to the parabola x 2 + 6 x + 4 y + 5 = 0 at (1, -3) .
Solution
Equation of parabola is x 2 + 6 x + 4 y + 5 = 0 .
x 2 + 6 x + 9 − 9 + 4 y + 5 = 0
( x + 3) 2 = -4( y - 1) ... (1)

Let X = x + 3, Y = y − 1
Equation (1) takes the standard form
X 2 = -4Y
Equation of tangent is XX 1 = −2(Y + Y1 )
At (1, -3) X 1 = 1 + 3 = 4;Y1 = −3 − 1 = −4
Therefore, the equation of tangent at (1, -3) is
( x + 3)4 = -2( y - 1 - 4)
2 x + 6 = − y + 5 .
2x + y +1 = 0 .
1
Slope of tangent at (1, -3) is -2 , so slope of normal at (1, -3) is
2
Therefore, the equation of normal at (1, -3) is given by
1
y + 3 = ( x - 1)
2
2 y + 6 = x -1
x - 2y - 7 = 0 .
Example 5.30
π
Find the equations of tangent and normal to the ellipse x 2 + 4 y 2 = 32 when θ = .
4

Solution
Equation of ellipse is x 2 + 4 y 2 = 32
x2 y 2
+ = 1
32 8
a 2 = 32, b 2 = 8
a = 4 2 , b = 2 2
p
Equation of tangent at θ = is
4
π π
x cos y sin
4+ 4 = 1
4 2 2 2
x y
+ = 1
8 4
x + 2 y − 8 = 0 .
4 2x 2 2 y
Equation of normal is − = 32 - 8
π π
cos sin
4 4
That is 8 x - 4 y = 24
2 x - y - 6 = 0 .
Aliter
p
At, θ = ,
4
 π π
(a cos θ , b sin θ ) =  4 2 cos , 2 2 sin 
 4 4
= (4, 2)
π
∴ Equation of tangent at θ = is same at (4, 2) .
4
xx1 yy1
Equation of tangent in cartesian form is + = 1
a 2 b2
x + 2 y − 8 = 0
1
Slope of tangent is -
2
Slope of normal is 2
Equation of normal is y - 2 = 2( x - 4)
y − 2 x + 6 = 0 .
EXERCISE 5.4
1. Find the equations of the two tangents that can be drawn from (5, 2) to the ellipse
2 x 2 + 7 y 2 = 14 .
x2 y 2
2. Find the equations of tangents to the hyperbola − = 1 which are parallel to 10 x − 3 y + 9 = 0.
16 64
3. Show that the line x − y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the ellipse x 2 + 3 y 2 = 12 . Also find the coordinates
of the point of contact.

4. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2 = 16 x perpendicular to 2 x + 2 y + 3 = 0 .
5. Find the equation of the tangent at t = 2 to the parabola y 2 = 8 x . (Hint: use parametric form)
π
6. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to hyperbola 12 x 2 − 9 y 2 = 108 at θ = . (Hint:
3
use parametric form)
7. Prove that the point of intersection of the tangents at ‘ t1 ’ and ‘ t2 ’on the parabola y 2 = 4ax is
 at1t2 , a ( t1 + t2 )  .
8. If the normal at the point ‘ t1 ’ on the parabola y 2 = 4ax meets the parabola again at the point
 2
‘ t2 ’, then prove that t2 = −  t1 +  .
 t1 
5.7 Real life Applications of Conics

5.7.1 Parabola
The interesting applications of Parabola involve their use as reflectors and receivers of light
or radio waves. For instance, cross sections of car headlights, flashlights are parabolas wherein the
gadgets are formed by the paraboloid of revolution about its axis. The bulb in the headlights, flash
lights is located at the focus and light from that point is reflected outward parallel to the axis of
symmetry (Fig. 5.60) while Satellite dishes and field microphones used at sporting events, incoming
radio waves or sound waves parallel to the axis that are reflected into the focus intensifying the same
(Fig. 5.59). Similarly, in solar cooking, a parabolic mirror is mounted on a rack with a cooking pot
hung in the focal area (Fig. 5.1). Incoming Sun rays parallel to the axis are reflected into the focus
producing a temperature high enough for cooking.
Parabolic arches are the best stable structures also considered for their beauty to name a few, the
arches on the bridge of river in Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, India, the Eiffel tower in Paris, France.
Fig. 5.49 Fig. 5.50
5.7.2 Ellipse
Neptune
According to Johannes Kepler, all planets in the solar system revolve
around Sun in elliptic orbits with Sun at one of the foci. Some comets have Earth
76 years
elliptic orbits with Sun at one of the foci as well. E.g. Halley’s Comet that is
visible once every 75 years with e » 0.97 in elliptic orbit (Fig. 5.51). Our
n
Su
satellite moon travels around the Earth in an elliptical orbit with earth at one Jupiter
of its foci. Satellites of other planets also revolve around their planets in Uranus
elliptical orbits as well. The elliptical orbit of Halley’s Comet

Elliptic arches are often built for its beauty and stability. Steam boilers Fig. 5.51
are believed to have greatest strength when heads are made elliptical with
major and minor axes in the ratio 2:1.

In Bohr-Sommerfeld theory of the atom electron orbit can be
circular or elliptical. Gears are sometimes (for particular need)
made elliptical in shape. (Fig. 5.52)
The shape of our mother Earth is an oblate spheroid i.e., the Fig. 5.52
solid of revolution of an ellipse about its minor axis, bulged along
equatorial region and flat along the polar region.
The property of ellipse, any ray of light or sound released from a focus of the ellipse on touching
the ellipse gets reflected to reach the other focus (Fig. 5.62), which could be proved using concepts of
incident rays and reflected rays in Physics.
An exciting medical application of an ellipsoidal reflectors is a device called a Lithotripter
(Fig. 5.4 and 5.63) that uses electromagnetic technology or ultrasound to generate a shock wave
to pulverize kidney stones. The wave originates at one focus of the cross-sectional ellipse and is
reflected to the kidney stone, which is positioned at the other focus. Recovery time following the use
of this technique is much shorter than the conventional surgery, non-invasive and the mortality rate is
lower.
5.7.3 Hyperbola
Some Comets travel in hyperbolic paths with the Sun at one focus, such comets pass by the Sun
only one time unlike those in elliptical orbits, which reappear at intervals.
We also see hyperbolas in architecture, such as Mumbai Airport terminal (Fig. 5.53), in cross section
of a planetarium, an locating ships (Fig. 5.54), or a cooling tower for a steam or nuclear power plant.
(Fig. 5.5)
Fig. 5.53 Fig. 5.54
Example 5.31
A semielliptical archway over a one-way road has a height of 3m and a width of 12m . The truck
has a width of 3m and a height of 2.7 m . Will the truck clear the opening of the archway? (Fig. 5.6)
Solution
y
Since the truck’s width is 3m , to determine the clearance, (0,3)
we must find the height of the archway 1.5m from the centre.
2.7
If this height is 2.7 m or less the truck will not clear the archway. (6,0)
x
(–6,0) 1.5 1.5
From the diagram a = 6 and b = 3 yielding the equation 6 6
x2 y 2 Fig. 5.55
of ellipse as 2 + 2 = 1 .
6 3

The edge of the 3m wide truck corresponds to x = 1.5m from centre We will find the height of
the archway 1.5m from the centre by substituting x = 1.5 and solving for y
2
3
  2
 2  + y = 1
36 9
 9 
y 2 = 9 1 − 
 144 
9(135) 135
= =
144 16
135
y =
4
11.62
=
4
= 2.90
Thus the height of arch way 1.5m from the centre is approximately 2.90m . Since the truck’s
height is 2.7 m , the truck will clear the archway.
Example 5.32
The maximum and minimum distances of the Earth from the Sun respectively are 152 ×106 km
and 94.5 ×106 km. The Sun is at one focus of the elliptical orbit. Find the distance from the Sun to the
other focus.
Solution Earth
6 6
AS = 94.5 ×10 km, SA' = 152 ×10 km
a + c = 152 ×106 Sun
a - c = 94.5 ×10 6 S' S
Subtracting 2c = 57.5 ×106 = 575 ×105 km
Distance of the Sun from the other focus is SS ′ = 575 ×105 km. Fig. 5.56
Example 5.33
A concrete bridge is designed as a parabolic arch. The road over bridge is 40m long and the
maximum height of the arch is 15m . Write the equation of the parabolic arch.
Solution y
From the graph the vertex is at (0, 0) and the parabola is open down O
x
2
Equation of the parabola is x = -4ay
15
(-20, -15) and (20, -15) lie on the parabola
202 = -4a(-15) 40
(–20,–15) (20,–15)
400
4a =
15 Fig. 5.57
−80
x 2 = ×y
3
Therefore equation is 3 x 2 = -80 y

Example 5.34
The parabolic communication antenna has a focus at 2m distance from the vertex of the antenna.
Find the width of the antenna 3m from the vertex.
Y
Solution
Let the parabola be y 2 = 4ax . P(3, y)
Since focus is 2m from the vertex a = 2
Equation of the parabola is y 2 = 8x S(2,0)
X
Let P be a point on the parabola whose x -coordinate is 3m from the
vertex P (3, y )
y 2 = 8 × 3
P'
y = 8 × 3
Fig. 5.58
= 2 6
The width of the antenna 3m from the vertex is 4 6 m .
5.7.4 Reflective property of parabola

The light or sound or radio waves originating at a parabola’s focus are reflected parallel to the
parabola’s axis (Fig. 5.60) and conversely the rays arriving parallel to the axis are directed towards
the focus (Fig. 5.59).
Example 5.35
1 2
The equation y = x models cross sections of parabolic mirrors that are used for solar energy.
32
There is a heating tube located at the focus of each parabola; how high is this tube located above the
vertex of the parabola? y
Solution
Equation of the parabola is

◄
◄
◄
1
y = x2 S
32
◄
◄
◄
◄
That is x 2 = 32 y ; the vertex is (0, 0) O

x
= 4(8) y Fig. 5.59

⇒ a = 8
So the heating tube needs to be placed at focus (0, a ) . Hence the heating tube needs to be placed
8 units above the vertex of the parabola.
Example 5.36
A search light has a parabolic reflector (has a cross section that forms a ‘bowl’). The parabolic
bowl is 40 cm wide from rim to rim and 30 cm deep. The bulb is located at the focus .
(1) What is the equation of the parabola used for reflector?
(2) How far from the vertex is the bulb to be placed so that the maximum distance covered?

Solution y
Let the vertex be (0, 0) .
The equation of the parabola is
◄
◄ ◄
x
2
◄
y = 4ax
O ◄ S ◄
◄ ◄
(1) Since the diameter is 40 cm and the depth is 30 cm , the point

(30, 20) lies on the parabola.
Fig. 5.60
202 = 4a × 30
400 40
4a =
= .
30 3
2 40
Equation is y = x .
3
10
a
(2) The bulb is at focus , 0) . Hence the bulb is at a distance of
( cm from the vertex.
3
Example 5.37
x2 y 2
An equation of the elliptical part of an optical lens system is+ = 1 . The parabolic part of
16 9
the system has a focus in common with the right focus of the ellipse .The vertex of the parabola is at
the origin and the parabola opens to the right. Determine the equation of the parabola.
Solution y
In the given ellipse a 2 = 16 , b 2 = 9
then c 2 = a 2 - b 2 A' S' A(4,0) x
2
c = 16 - 9 O S
( 7,
= 7 )
0
c = ± 7
Fig. 5.61
Therefore the foci are F ( ) ( ) (
7 , 0 , F ′ − 7 , 0 . The focus of the parabola is 7 , 0 ⇒ a = 7 . )
Equation of the parabola is y 2 = 4 7 x .
5.7.5 Reflective Property of an Ellipse

The lines from the foci to a point on an
P
ellipse make equal angles with the tangent line at ß Shock waves
◄
that point (Fig. 5.62).

◄
α Kidney
◄ ◄
Stones
◄
◄ ◄
S' S S' S
The light or sound or radio waves emitted
◄
from one focus hits any point P on the ellipse is α=ß

Source
received at the other focus (Fig. 5.63). Fig. 5.62 Fig. 5.63
Example 5.38
A room 34m long is constructed to be a whispering gallery. The room has an elliptical ceiling,
as shown in Fig. 5.64. If the maximum height of the ceiling is 8m , determine where the foci are
located.

Solution Elliptical ceiling of a
The length a of the semi major axis of the elliptical y whispering gallery
ceiling is17m . The height b of the semi minor axis is 8m . ◄
◄ ◄
Thus 8m ◄
◄
◄
c 2 = a 2 - b 2 = 17 2 - 82
◄
◄
S' S x
then c = 289 − 64 = 225 34m
 15 Fig. 5.64
For the elliptical ceiling the foci are located on either side about 15m from the centre, along its
major axis.
A non-invasive medical miracle
In a lithotripter, a high-frequency sound wave is emitted from a source that is located at one of
the foci of the ellipse. The patient is placed so that the kidney stone is located at the other focus of the
ellipse.
Example 5.39
( x − 11)
2
y2
If the equation of the ellipse is + = 1 ( x and y are measured in centimeters) where
484 64
to the nearest centimeter, should the patient’s kidney stone be placed so that the reflected sound hits
the kidney stone?
Solution
2
( x −11) y 2 – +
The equation of the ellipse is + = 1 . The origin
484 64 Ultrasound Kidney
of the sound wave and the kidney stone of patient should be at the emitter
foci in order to crush the stones.
Elliptic
a 2 = 484 and b 2 = 64 reflector Kidney
stone
c2 = a 2 - b2
Fig. 5.65
= 484 - 64
= 420
c  20.5
Therefore the patient’s kidney stone should be placed 20.5cm from the centre of the ellipse.
5.7.6 Reflective Property of a Hyperbola y

α
The lines from the foci to a point on a hyperbola make equal angles with the P(x,y)
tangent line at that point (Fig. 5.66). ß
x
S'(–c,0)
The light or sound or radio waves directed from one focus is received at the S(–c,0)
other focus as in the case ellipse (Fig. 5.54) used in spotting location of ships
sailing in deep sea.
Fig. 5.66
Example 5.40
Two coast guard stations are located 600 km apart at points A(0, 0) and B(0, 600) . A distress
signal from a ship at P is received at slightly different times by two stations. It is determined that the
ship is 200 km farther from station A than it is from station B . Determine the equation of hyperbola
that passes through the location of the ship.

Solution
Since the centre is located at (0, 300) , midway between the two foci, which are the coast guard
( y − 300 ) ( x − 0)
2 2
stations, the equation is −= 1 . ... (1)

a2 b2
To determine the values of a and b , select two points known to be on the hyperbola and substitute
each point in the above equation.
The point (0, 400) lies on the hyperbola, since it is 200 km further from Station A than from
( 400 − 300 )
2
0 1002
station B . −= 1 = , a 2 10000 . There is also a point ( x, 600) on the hyperbola
1=
a2 b2 a2
y
such that 6002 + x 2 = ( x + 200 ) .
2
B
360000 + x 2 = x 2 + 400 x + 40000 600 (x, 600)
x = 800 400
( 600 − 300 ) (800 − 0 )

2 2 300
x + 200
Substituting in (1), we have − 2
= 1
10000 b A x
640000 (0,0)
9- = 1
b2
b 2 = 80000 Fig. 5.67
( y − 300 )
2
x2
Thus the required equation of the hyperbola is =1 −
10000 80000
The ship lies somewhere on this hyperbola. The exact location can be determined using data from
a third station.
Example 5.41
Certain telescopes contain both parabolic mirror and a hyperbolic mirror. In the telescope shown in
figure 5.68 the parabola and hyperbola share focus F1 which is 14m above the vertex of the parabola.
The hyperbola’s second focus F2 is 2m above the parabola’s vertex. The vertex of the hyperbolic
mirror is 1m below F1 . Position a coordinate system with the origin at the centre of the hyperbola and
with the foci on the y -axis. Then find the equation of the hyperbola.
Solution
F1
Let V1 be the vertex of the parabola and
Hyperbola
◄
V2 be the vertex of the hyperbola.

V2
F1 F2 = 14 − 2 = 12m, 2c = 12, c = 6
◄
◄
◄
◄
The distance of centre to the vertex of the hyperbola is a = 6 − 1 = 5

b 2 = c 2 - a 2
F2
2m
= 36 − 25 = 11 . Parabola
2 2 V1
y x
Therefore the equation of the hyperbola is − = 1. Fig. 5.68
25 11

EXERCISE 5.5
1. A bridge has a parabolic arch that is 10m high in the centre and 30m wide at the bottom. Find
the height of the arch 6m from the centre, on either sides.
2. A tunnel through a mountain for a four lane highway is to have a elliptical opening. The total
width of the highway (not the opening) is to be 16m , and the height at the edge of the road
must be sufficient for a truck 4m high to clear if the highest point of the opening is to be 5m
approximately . How wide must the opening be?
3. At a water fountain, water attains a maximum height of 4m at horizontal distance of 0.5m
from its origin. If the path of water is a parabola, find the height of water at a horizontal
distance of 0.75m from the point of origin.
4. An engineer designs a satellite dish with a parabolic cross section. The dish is 5m wide at the
opening, and the focus is placed 1.2m from the vertex
(a) Position a coordinate system with the origin at the vertex and the x -axis on the parabola’s
axis of symmetry and find an equation of the parabola.
(b) Find the depth of the satellite dish at the vertex.
5. Parabolic cable of a 60m portion of the roadbed of a suspension bridge are positioned as
shown below. Vertical Cables are to be spaced every 6m along this portion of the roadbed.
Calculate the lengths of first two of these vertical cables from the vertex.
3m
16m
60m
Fig. 5.69
6. Cross section of a Nuclear cooling tower is in the shape of a hyperbola with equation
x2 y2
− = 1 . The tower is 150m tall and the distance from the top of the tower to the centre
302 442
of the hyperbola is half the distance from the base of the tower to the centre of the hyperbola.
Find the diameter of the top and base of the tower.
y
x
150m
Fig. 5.70

7. A rod of length 1.2m moves with its ends always touching the coordinate axes. The locus of a
point P on the rod, which is 0.3m from the end in contact with x -axis is an ellipse. Find the
eccentricity.
8. Assume that water issuing from the end of a horizontal pipe, 7.5m above the ground, describes
a parabolic path. The vertex of the parabolic path is at the end of the pipe. At a position 2.5 m
below the line of the pipe, the flow of water has curved outward 3m beyond the vertical line
through the end of the pipe. How far beyond this vertical line will the water strike the ground?
9. On lighting a rocket cracker it gets projected in a parabolic path and reaches a maximum height
of 4m when it is 6m away from the point of projection. Finally it reaches the ground 12m
away from the starting point. Find the angle of projection.
10. Points A and B are 10km apart and it is determined from the sound of an explosion heard at
those points at different times that the location of the explosion is 6 km closer to A than B .
Show that the location of the explosion is restricted to a particular curve and find an equation
of it.
EXERCISE 5.6
1. The equation of the circle passing through (1, 5) and (4,1) and touching y -axis is
x 2 + y 2 − 5 x − 6 y + 9 + λ ( 4 x + 3 y − 19 ) = 0 where λ is equal to

40 40 -40
(1) 0, - (2) 0 (3) (4)
9 9 9
2. The eccentricity of the hyperbola whose latus rectum is 8 and conjugate axis is equal to half
the distance between the foci is
4 4 2 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3 3 3 2
3. The circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 x + 8 y + 5 intersects the line 3 x − 4 y = m at two distinct points if
(1) 15 < m < 65 (2) 35 < m < 85 (3) −85 < m < −35 (4) −35 < m < 15
4. The length of the diameter of the circle which touches the x -axis at the point (1,0) and passes
through the point (2, 3) .
6 5 10 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
5 3 3 5
2 2 2
5. The radius of the circle 3 x + by + 4bx − 6by + b = 0 is
(1) 1 (2) 3 (3) 10 (4) 11
6. The centre of the circle inscribed in a square formed by the lines x 2 − 8 x − 12 = 0 and
2
y − 14 y + 45 = 0 is
(1) (4, 7) (2) (7, 4) (3) (9, 4) (4) (4, 9)

7. The equation of the normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 − 2 x − 2 y + 1 = 0 which is parallel to the line
2 x + 4 y = 3 is
(1) x + 2 y = 3 (2) x + 2 y + 3 = 0 (3) 2 x + 4 y + 3 = 0 (4) x − 2 y + 3 = 0
8. If P ( x, y ) be any point on 16 x 2 + 25 y 2 = 400 with foci F1 (3, 0) and F2 (-3, 0) then PF1 + PF2
is
(1) 8 (2) 6 (3) 10 (4) 12
9. The radius of the circle passing through the point (6, 2) two of whose diameter are x + y = 6
and x + 2 y = 4 is
(1) 10 (2) 2 5 (3) 6 (4) 4
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
10. The area of quadrilateral formed with foci of the hyperbolas − = 1 and − = −1
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
is
1 2
(1) 4(a 2 + b 2 ) (2) 2(a 2 + b 2 ) (3) a 2 + b 2 (4) (a + b 2 )
2
11. If the normals of the parabola y 2 = 4 x drawn at the end points of its latus rectum are tangents
to the circle ( x − 3) 2 + ( y + 2) 2 = r 2 , then the value of r 2 is
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 1 (4) 4
12. If x + y = k is a normal to the parabola y 2 = 12 x , then the value of k is
(1) 3 (2) -1 (3) 1 (4) 9
x2 y 2
13. The ellipse E1 : + = 1 is inscribed in a rectangle R whose sides are parallel to the
9 4
coordinate axes. Another ellipse E2 passing through the point (0, 4) circumscribes the rectangle
R . The eccentricity of the ellipse is
2 3 1 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 2 2 4
x2 y 2
14. Tangents are drawn to the hyperbola − = 1 parallel to the straight line 2 x − y = 1 . One of
9 4
the points of contact of tangents on the hyperbola is
 9 −1   −9 1   9 1 
(1)  ,
2 2 2
 (2)  ,
2 2 2
 (3)  ,
2 2 2
 (4) 3 3 , −2 2 ( )
x2 y 2
15. The equation of the circle passing through the foci of the ellipse + = 1 having centre at
16 9
(0, 3) is
(1) x 2 + y 2 − 6 y − 7 = 0 (2) x 2 + y 2 − 6 y + 7 = 0
(3) x 2 + y 2 − 6 y − 5 = 0 (4) x 2 + y 2 − 6 y + 5 = 0

16. Let C be the circle with centre at (1,1) and radius = 1. If T is the circle centered at (0, y )
passing through the origin and touching the circle C externally, then the radius of T is equal
to
3 3 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 2 2 4
17. Consider an ellipse whose centre is of the origin and its major axis is along x-axis. If its
3
eccentrcity is and the distance between its foci is 6, then the area of the quadrilateral
5
inscribed in the ellipse with diagonals as major and minor axis of the ellipse is
(1) 8 (2) 32 (3) 80 (4) 40
x2 y 2
18.
Area of the greatest rectangle inscribed in the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is
a b
a
(1) 2ab (2) ab (3) ab (4)
b
19. An ellipse has OB as semi minor axes, F and F ′ its foci and the angle FBF ′ is a right angle.
Then the eccentricity of the ellipse is
1 1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 2 4 3
y2
20. The eccentricity of the ellipse ( x − 3) 2 + ( y − 4) 2 = is
9
3 1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 3 3 2 3
21. If the two tangents drawn from a point P to the parabola y 2 = 4 x are at right angles then the
locus of P is
(1) 2 x + 1 = 0 (2) x = −1 (3) 2 x − 1 = 0 (4) x = 1
22. The circle passing through (1, -2) and touching the axis of x at (3, 0) passing through the point
(1) (-5, 2) (2) (2, -5) (3) (5, -2) (4) (-2, 5)
2
23. The locus of a point whose distance from (-2, 0) is times its distance from the line
3
−9
x = is
2
(1) a parabola (2) a hyperbola (3) an ellipse (4) a circle
24. The values of m for which the line y = mx + 2 5 touches the hyperbola 16 x 2 − 9 y 2 = 144 are
the roots of x 2 − (a + b) x − 4 = 0 , then the value of (a + b) is
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 0 (4) -2
25. If the coordinates at one end of a diameter of the circle x 2 + y 2 − 8 x − 4 y + c = 0 are (11, 2) ,
the coordinates of the other end are
(1) (-5, 2) (2) (2, -5) (3) (5, -2) (4) (-2, 5)

SUMMARY
(1) Equation of the circle in a standard form is ( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 .
(i) Centre (h, k ) (ii) radius ‘ r ’
(2) Equation of a circle in general form is x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 .
(i) centre (- g , - f ) (ii) radius = g2 + f 2 − c
(3) The circle through the intersection of the line lx + my + n = 0 and the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c + λ (lx + my + n) = 0, λ ∈ 1 .
(4) Equation of a circle with ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) as extremities of one of the diameters is
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0 .
(5) Equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) on circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
(6) Equation of normal at ( x1 , y1 ) on circle x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is

yx1 − xy1 + g ( y − y1 ) − f ( x − x1 ) = 0 .
Table 1
Tangent and normal
Curve Equation Equation of tangent Equation of normal
x2 + y 2 = a2 (i) cartesian form (i) cartesian form
xx1 + yy1 = a 2 xy1 − yx1 = 0
Circle
( ii) parametric form ( ii) parametric form
x cos θ + y sin θ = a x sin θ − y cos θ = 0
y 2 = 4ax (i) yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 ) (i) xy1 + 2 y = 2ay1 + x1 y1

Parabola
(ii) yt = x + at 2 (ii) y + xt = at 3 + 2at
x2 y 2 xx1 yy1 a 2 x b2 y
+ =1 (i) + =1 (i) + = a 2 − b2
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 x1 y1
Ellipse
x cos θ y sin θ ax by
(ii) + =1 (ii) − = a 2 − b2
a b cos θ sin θ
x2 y 2 xx1 yy1 a 2 x b2 y
− =1 (i) − =1 (i) + = a 2 + b2
a 2 b2 a 2 b2 x1 y1
Hyperbola
x sec θ y tan θ ax by
(ii) − =1 (ii) + = a 2 + b2
a b sec θ tan θ

Table 2
Condition for the sine y = mx + c to be a tangent to the Conics
Condition to be
Conic Equation Point of contact Equation of tangent
tangent
x2 + y 2 = a2 c 2 = a 2 (1 + m 2 )  am ±a  y = mx ± 1 + m 2
Circle  , 
2
 1+ m 1 + m2 
y 2 = 4ax a  a 2a  a
c=  2,  y = mx +
Parabola m m m  m
x2 y 2 c 2 = a 2 m2 + b2  −a 2 m b 2  y = mx ± a 2 m 2 + b 2
+ =1  , 
Ellipse a 2 b2  c c 
x2 y 2 c 2 = a 2 m2 − b2  −a 2 m −b 2  y = mx ± a 2 m 2 − b 2
Hyperbola − =1  , 
a 2 b2  c c 
Table 3
Parametric forms
Parametric Range of Any point on the

Conic Parameter
equations parameter conic
Circle θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
y = a sin θ (a cos θ , a sin θ )
x = at 2 ‘ t ’ or
Parabola t −∞ < t < ∞
y = 2at (at 2 , 2at )
Ellipse θ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
y = b sin θ (a cos θ , b sin θ )
x = a sec θ −π ≤ θ ≤ π ‘ θ ’ or
Hyperbola θ π
y = b tan θ except θ = ± (a sec θ , b tan θ )
2
Identifying the conic from the general equation of conic Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
The graph of the second degree equation is one of a circle, parabola, an ellipse, a hyperbola, a
point, an empty set, a single line or a pair of lines. When,
(1) A = C = 1, B = 0, D = −2h, E = −2k , F = h 2 + k 2 − r 2 the general equation reduces to
( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 , which is a circle.

(2) B = 0 and either A or C = 0 , the general equation yields a parabola under study, at this level.
(3) A ¹ C and A and C are of the same sign the general equation yields an ellipse.
A ¹ C and A and C are of opposite signs the general equation yields a hyperbola
(4)
A = C and B= D= E= F= 0 , the general equation yields a point x 2 + y 2 = 0 .

(5)
A= C= F and B= D= E = 0 , the general equation yields an empty set x 2 + y 2 + 1 = 0 , as

(6)
there is no real solution.

(7) A ¹ 0 or C ¹ 0 and others are zeros, the general equation yield coordinate axes.
A = −C and rests are zero, the general equation yields a pair of lines x 2 − y 2 = 0 .
(8)
ICT CORNER
related to your text book. Click on the chapter named "Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry-II". You can see several work sheets related to the
chapter. Select the work sheet "Conic Tracing"

Chapter
6
Applications of Vector Algebra
“Mathematics is the science of the connection of magnitudes.
Magnitude is anything that can be put equal or unequal to another thing.
Two things are equal when in every assertion each may be replaced by the other.”
— Hermann Günther Grassmann
6.1 Introduction
We are familiar with the concept of vectors, (vectus in Latin means “to
carry”) from our XI standard text book. Further the modern version of Theory
of Vectors arises from the ideas of Wessel(1745-1818) and Argand (1768-1822)
when they attempt to describe the complex numbers geometrically as a directed
line segment in a coordinate plane. We have seen that a vector has magnitude
and direction and two vectors with same magnitude and direction regardless
of positions of their initial points are always equal.
We also have studied addition of two vectors, scalar multiplication Josiah Williard Gibbs
(1839 – 1903)
of vectors, dot product, and cross product by denoting an arbitrary vector by

the notation a or a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ . To understand the direction and magnitude of a given vector and
all other concepts with a little more rigor, we shall recall the geometric introduction of vectors, which
will be useful to discuss the equations of straight lines and planes. Great mathematicians Grassmann,
Hamilton, Clifford and Gibbs were pioneers to introduce the dot and cross products of vectors.
The vector algebra has a few direct applications in physics and it has a lot of applications along
with vector calculus in physics, engineering, and medicine. Some of them are mentioned below.
• To calculate the volume of a parallelepiped, the scalar triple product is used.
• To find the work done and torque in mechanics, the dot and cross products are respectiveluy used.
• To introduce curl and divergence of vectors, vector algebra is used along with calculus. Curl
and divergence are very much used in the study of electromagnetism, hydrodynamics, blood
flow, rocket launching, and the path of a satellite.
• To calculate the distance between two aircrafts in the space and the angle between their paths,
the dot and cross products are used.
• To install the solar panels by carefully considering the tilt of the roof, and the direction of the
Sun so that it generates more solar power, a simple application of dot product of vectors is
used. One can calculate the amount of solar power generated by a solar panel by using vector
algebra.
• To measure angles and distance between the panels in the satellites, in the construction of
networks of pipes in various industries, and, in calculating angles and distance between
beams and structures in civil engineering, vector algebra is used.
221
Chapter 6 Vector Algebra.indd 221 31-01-2020 17:49:20

Learning Objectives

● apply scalar and vector products of two and three vectors
● solve problems in geometry, trigonometry, and physics
● derive equations of a line in parametric, non-parametric, and cartesian forms in different
situations
● derive equations of a plane in parametric, non-parametric, and cartesian forms in different
situations
● find angle between the lines and distance between skew lines
● find the coordinates of the image of a point
6.2 Geometric introduction to vectors z

 D
A vector v is represented as a directed straight line segment in a C
3-dimensional space  3 , with an initial point A = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ∈ 3 and V B
 U A
an end point B = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) ∈ 3 , and it is denoted by AB . The length
P

of the line segment AB is the magnitude of the vector v and the direction O y

from A to B is the direction of the vector v . Hereafter, a vector will be x
    Fig. 6.1
interchangeably denoted by v or AB . Two vectors AB and CD in  3
are said to be equal if and only if the length AB is equal to the length CD and the direction from A
    
to B is parallel to the direction from C to D . If AB and CD are equal, we write AB = CD , and CD

is called a translate of AB .

It is easy to observe that every vector AB can be translated to anywhere in  3 , equal to a vector
 
with initial point U ∈  3 and end point V ∈  3 such that AB = UV . In particular, if O is the origin
  
of  3 , then a point P ∈  3 can be found such that AB = OP . The vector OP is called the position

vector of the point P . Moreover, we observe that given any vector v , there exists a unique point
  
P ∈  3 such that the position vector OP of P is equal to v . A vector AB is said to be the zero
vector if the initial point A is the same as the end point B . We use the standard notations iˆ, ˆj , kˆ and

0 to denote the position vectors of the points (1, 0, 0), (0,1, 0), (0, 0,1), and (0, 0, 0), respectively. For
a given point (a1, a2 , a3 ) ∈  3 , a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ is called the position vector of the point (a1 , a2 , a3 ),
which is the directed straight line segment with initial point (0, 0, 0) and end point (a1 , a2 , a3 ) . All real
numbers are called scalars.


Given a vector AB , the length of the vector is calculated by
(b1 − a1 ) 2 + (b2 − a2 ) 2 + (b3 − a3 ) 2 ,


where A is (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B is (b1 , b2 , b3 ). In particular, if a vector is the position vector b of
b12 + b2 2 + b32 . A vector having length 1 is called a unit vector. We use

(b1 , b2 , b3 ), then its length is

the notation û , for a unit vector. Note that iˆ, ˆj , and k̂ are unit vectors and 0 is the unique vector

with length 0 . The direction of 0 is specified according to the context.
The addition and scalar multiplication on vectors in 3-dimensional space are defined by
 
a + b = (a1 + b1 )iˆ + (a2 + b2 ) ˆj + (a3 + b3 )kˆ .

α a = (α a1 )iˆ + (α a2 ) ˆj + (α a3 )kˆ ;
 
where a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ ∈  3 and α ∈  .
   
To see the geometric interpretation of a + b , let a and b , denote the position vectors of

A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) , respectively. Translate the position vector b to the vector with
initial point as A and end point as C = (c1 , c2 , c3 ) , for a suitable (c1 , c2 , c3 ) ∈  3 . See the
  
Fig (6.2). Then, the position vector c of the point (c1 , c2 , c3 ) is equal to a + b .
 
The vector α a is another vector parallel to a and its length is magnified (if α > 1) or contracted
 
(if 0 < α < 1) . If α < 0 , then α a is a vector whose magnitude is | α | times that of a and direction
  
opposite to that of a . In particular, if α = −1 , then α a = −a is the vector with same length and

direction opposite to that of a . See Fig. 6.3
z
z
C 
2a

b
 
A −2a −a

c
B 
a

 a
b y
O
O y
x
x
Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3
223 Applications of Vector Algebra

6.3 Scalar Product and Vector Product
Next we recall the scalar product and vector product of two vectors as follows.
Definition 6.1
 
Given two vectors a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ the scalar product (or dot
 
product) is denoted by a ⋅ b and is calculated by
 
a ⋅ b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 ,
 
and the vector product (or cross product) is denoted by a × b , and is calculated by
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Note 
  
a ⋅ b is a scalar, and a × b is a vector.
6.3.1 Geometrical interpretation

 
Geometrically, if a is an arbitrary vector and n̂ is a unit vector, then a ⋅ nˆ is the projection of
 
the vector a on the straight line on which n̂ lies. The quantity a ⋅ nˆ is positive if the angle between
 
a and n̂ is acute, see Fig. 6.4 and negative if the angle between a and n̂ is obtuse see Fig. 6.5.

a
θ
a
n̂

a ⋅ nˆ
q n̂
⋅ nˆ
a Negative dot product
Positive dot product
Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5
 
       b     a 
If a and b are arbitrary non-zero vectors, then | a ⋅ b | = | b | a ⋅    = | a | b ⋅    and so
|b | |a |  
 
| a ⋅ b | means either the length of the straight line segment obtained by projecting the vector | b | a
  
along the direction of b or the length of the line segment obtained by projecting the vector | a | b
    
along the direction of a . We recall that a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ , where θ is the angle between the two
     
vectors a and b . We recall that the angle between a and b is defined as the measure from a to b
in the counter clockwise direction.
    
The vector a × b is either 0 or a vector perpendicular to the plane parallel to both a and b

having magnitude as the area of the parallelogram formed by coterminus vectors parallel to a and
    
b . If a and b are non-zero vectors, then the magnitude of a × b can be calculated by the formula
     
| a × b | = | a | | b | | sin θ |, where θ is the angle between a and b .
Two vectors are said to be coterminus if they have same initial point.

Remark
 
(1) An angle between two non-zero vectors a and b is found by the following formula
 
 a ⋅b 
θ = cos     .
−1
|a | |b |
 
(2) a and b are said to be parallel if the angle between them is 0 or π .
  π 3p
(3) a and b are said to be perpendicular if the angle between them is or .
2 2
Property
 
(1) Let a and b be any two nonzero vectors. Then
   
 a ⋅ b = 0 if and only if a and b are perpendicular to each other.
    
 a × b = 0 if and only if a and b are parallel to each other.
  
(2) If a , b , and c are any three vectors and α is a scalar, then
                
a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a , (a + b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c , (α a ) ⋅ b = α (a ⋅ b ) = a ⋅ (α b );
                
a × b = − (b × a ), (a + b ) × c = a × c + b × c , (α a ) × b = α (a × b ) = a × (α b ) .
6.3.2 Application of dot and cross products in plane Trigonometry

We apply the concepts of dot and cross products of two vectors to derive a few formulae in plane
trigonometry.
Example 6.1 (Cosine formulae)
With usual notations, in any triangle ABC, prove the following by vector method.
(i) a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A (ii) b 2 = c 2 + a 2 − 2ca cos B
(iii) c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos C
Solution
     
With usual notations in triangle ABC, we have BC = a , CA = b and AB = c . Then= | BC | a= , | CA | b ,
    
| AB | = c and BC + CA + AB = 0 .
  
So, BC = −CA − AB . π–A A
Then applying dot product, we get
      c b
BC ⋅ BC = (−CA − AB) ⋅ (−CA − AB)
     B π–C
⇒ | BC |2 = | CA |2 + | AB |2 +2CA ⋅ AB
π–B a C
⇒ a 2 = b 2 + c 2 + 2bc cos(π − A) Fig. 6.6
⇒ a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A .
The results in (ii) and (iii) are proved in a similar way.
Example 6.2
With usual notations, in any triangle ABC, prove the following by vector method.
(i) a = b cos C + c cos B (ii)
b = c cos A + a cos C
(iii) c = a cos B + b cos A

Solution

With usual notations in triangle ABC, we have= BC a= , CA b , and π–A A

AB = c . Then
c b

= | BC | a= , | CA | b , | AB | = c and BC + CA + AB = 0
B π–C
C
So, BC = −CA − AB π–B a
Applying dot product, we get Fig. 6.7

BC ⋅ BC = − BC ⋅ CA − BC ⋅ AB

⇒ | BC |2 = − | BC | | CA | cos(p − C )− | BC | | AB | cos(p − B )
⇒ a 2 = ab cos C + ac cos B
Therefore a = b cos C + c cos B . The results in (ii) and (iii) are proved in a similar way.
Example 6.3
By vector method, prove that cos(α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β .
Solution
 
Let â = OA and b̂ = OB be the unit vectors and which make angles α and β , respectively, with
positive x -axis, where A and B are as in the Fig. 6.8. Draw AL and BM perpendicular to the

x -axis. Then | OL | = | OA | cos α = cos α , | LA |= | OA | sin α = sin α .
   y
B
So, ˆ
OL =| OL | i = cos α ˆ
i , LA = sin α ( − ˆ
j ) .
   b̂
Therefore, â = OA = OL + LA = cos α iˆ − sin α ˆj . ... (1)
β L
Similarly, b̂ = cos β iˆ + sin β ˆj ... (2) O α M x
â
The angle between â and b̂ is α + β and so,
A
â ⋅ bˆ = | aˆ | | bˆ | cos(α + β ) = cos(α + β ) ... (3)
Fig. 6.8
On the other hand, from (1) and (2)
â ⋅ bˆ = (cos α iˆ − sin α ˆj ) ⋅ (cos β iˆ + sin β ˆj ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β . ... (4)
From (3) and (4), we get cos(α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β .
Example 6.4
a b c
With usual notations, in any triangle ABC, prove by vector method that = = .
sin A sin B sin C
Solution
       
With usual notations in triangle ABC , we have BC = a , CA = b , and AB = c . Then | BC | = a, | CA | = b,

and | AB | = c .
       
Since in ∆ABC , BC + CA + AB = 0 , we have BC × ( BC + CA + AB) = 0 .
π–A A
Simplification gives,
   
c b
BC × CA = AB × BC . ... (1)
   
Similarly, since BC + CA + AB = 0 , we have B π–C
C
     π–B a
CA × ( BC + CA + AB) = 0 .
Fig. 6.9

   
On Simplification, we obtain BC × CA = CA × AB ... (2)
Equations (1) and (2), we get
     
AB × BC = CA × AB = BC × CA .
     
So, | AB × BC | = | CA × AB | = | BC × CA | . Then, we get
ca sin(π − B) = bc sin(π − A) = ab sin(π − C ) .
That is, ca sin B = bc sin A = ab sin C . Dividing by abc , leads to
sin A sin B sin C a b c

= = or = =
a b c sin A sin B sin C
Example 6.5
Prove by vector method that sin(α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β .
Solution y
   A
Let â = OA and b = OB be the unit vectors making
angles α and β respectively, with positive x -axis, where â B
b̂
A and B are as shown in the Fig. 6.10. Then, we get β
α−
aˆ = cos α iˆ + sin α ˆj and bˆ = cos β iˆ + sin β ˆj , α β
The angle between â and b̂ is α − β and, the vectors O L M x
bˆ, aˆ , kˆ form a right-handed system.

Hence, we get Fig. 6.10
bˆ × aˆ = | bˆ | | aˆ | sin(α − β )kˆ = sin(α − β )kˆ . ... (1)
On the other hand,
iˆ ˆj kˆ
bˆ × aˆ = cos β sin β 0 = (sin α cos β − cos α sin β )kˆ ... (2)
cos α sin α 0
Hence, equations (1) and (2), leads to
sin(α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β .
6.3.3 Application of dot and cross products in Geometry

Example 6.6 (Apollonius's theorem)
If D is the midpoint of the side BC of a triangle ABC, show by vector method that
   
| AB |2 + | AC |2 = 2(| AD |2 + | BD |2 ) .
A
Solution  
  b c
Let A be the origin, b be the position vector of B and c be the position
 of C . Now D is the midpoint of BC , and so the, position vector of D B

vector
D C
b +c
is . Therefore, we have Fig. 6.11
2

 
 2    b + c   b + c  1  2 2  
| AD | = AD ⋅ AD =  ⋅  = (| b | + | c | +2b ⋅ c ) . ... (1)
 2   2  4
 
   b + c  c − b
Now, BD = AD − AB = −b = .
2 2
 
 2    c − b   c − b  1  2 2  
Then, this gives, | BD | = BD ⋅ BD =  ⋅
   = (| b | + | c | −2b ⋅c) ... (2)
 2   2  4
Now, adding (1) and (2), we get
  1     1    1  
Therefore, | AD |2 + | BD |2 = (| b |2 + | c |2 +2b ⋅ c ) + (| b |2 + | c |2 −2b ⋅ c) = (| b |2 + | c |2 )
4 4 2
  1  
⇒ | AD |2 + | BD |2 = (| AB |2 + | AC |2 ) .
2
 2  2  
Hence, | AB | + | AC | = 2(| AD |2 + | BD |2 )
Example 6.7
Prove by vector method that the perpendiculars (attitudes) from the vertices to the opposite sides
of a triangle are concurrent. A
Solution F a
E
Consider a triangle ABC in which the two altitudes AD and BE intersect at
b O c
O . Let CO be produced to meet AB at F. We take O as the origin and let
      C
OA = a , OB = b and OC = c . B D
Fig. 6.12
   
Since AD is perpendicular to BC , we have OA is perpendicular to BC , and hence we get
    
OA ⋅ BC = 0 . That is, a ⋅ (c − b ) = 0 , which means
   
a ⋅ c − a ⋅ b = 0 . ... (1)
   
Similarly, since BE is perpendicular to CA , we have OB is perpendicular to CA , and hence we
    
get OB ⋅ CA = 0 . That is, b ⋅ (a − c ) = 0 , which means,
   
a ⋅ b − b ⋅ c = 0 . ... (2)
      
Adding equations (1) and (2), gives a ⋅ c − b ⋅ c = 0 . That is, c ⋅ (a − b ) = 0 .
    
That is, OC ⋅ BA = 0 . Therefore, BA is perpendicular to OC which implies that CF is

perpendicular to AB . Hence, the perpendicular drawn from C to the side AB passes through O .
Thus, the altitudes are concurrent.
Example 6.8
In triangle ABC , the points D, E , F are the midpoints of the sides BC , CA , and AB respectively.
1
Using vector method, show that the area of ∆DEF is equal to (area of ∆ABC ) .
4

Solution A
In triangle ABC , consider A as the origin. Then the position vectors of
   
AB + AC AC AB  
D, E , F are given by , , respectively. Since | AB × AC | is the F E
2 2 2  
area of the parallelogram formed by the two vectors AB, AC as adjacent sides, the
1  
area of ∆ABC is | AB × AC | . Similarly, considering ∆DEF , we have B D C
2 Fig. 6.13
1  
the area of ∆DEF = | DE × DF |
2
1    
= | ( AE − AD) × ( AF − AD) |
2
 
1 AB AC
= ×
2 2 2
1  1   
=  | AB × AC | 
4 2 
1
= (the area of ∆ABC ) .
4
6.3.4 Application of dot and cross product in Physics
Definition 6.2

If d is the displacement vector of a particle moved from a point to another point after applying
  
a constant force F on the particle, then the work done by the force on the particle is w = F ⋅ d .
F̂ F̂ F̂
θ
θ d θ d d
Fig. 6.14
If the force has an acute angle, perpendicular angle, and an obtuse angle, the work done by the
force is positive, zero, and negative respectively.
Example 6.9
A particle acted upon by constant forces 2iˆ + 5 ˆj + 6kˆ and −iˆ − 2 ˆj − kˆ is displaced from the point
(4, −3, −2) to the point (6,1, −3) . Find the total work done by the forces.
Solution

Resultant of the given forces is F = (2iˆ + 5 ˆj + 6kˆ) + (−iˆ − 2 ˆj − kˆ) = iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ .
Let A and B be the points (4, −3, −2) and (6,1, −3) respectively. Then the displacement vector
   
of the particle is d = AB = OB − OA = (6iˆ + ˆj − 3kˆ) − (4iˆ − 3 ˆj − 2kˆ) = 2iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ .
 
Therefore the work done w = F ⋅ d = (iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ) ⋅ (2iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ) = 9 units.

Example 6.10
A particle is acted upon by the forces 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ and 2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ is displaced from the point
(1,3, −1) to the point (4, −1, λ ) . If the work done by the forces is 16 units, find the value of λ .
Solution

Resultant of the given forces is F = (3iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ) + (2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) = 5iˆ − ˆj + kˆ .
The displacement of the particle is given by

d = (4iˆ − ˆj + λ kˆ) − (iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ) = (3iˆ − 4 ˆj + (λ + 1)kˆ) .
As the work done by the forces is 16 units, we have
 
F ⋅ d = 16 .
That is, (5iˆ − ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ (3iˆ − 4 ˆj + (λ + 1)kˆ = 16 ⇒ λ + 20 = 16 .
So, λ = −4 .
Definition 6.3
 
If a force F is applied on a particle at a point with position vector r , then the torque or
  
moment on the particle is given by t = r × F . The torque is also called the rotational force.

trF

F

r
Merry-go-round
Fig. 6.15
Example 6.11
Find the magnitude and the direction cosines of the torque about the point (2, 0, −1) of a force
2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ, whose line of action passes through the origin.
Solution 
Let A be the point (2, 0, −1) . Then the position vector of A is OA = 2iˆ − kˆ A (2,0,–1)
 
and therefore r = AO = −2iˆ + kˆ . r


Then the given force is F = 2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ . So, the torque is
O
F
iˆ ˆj kˆ Fig. 6.15
  
t = r × F = −2 0 1 = −iˆ − 2kˆ .
2 1 −1
The magnitude of the torque =| −iˆ − 2kˆ |= 5 and the direction cosines of the torque are
1 2
− , 0, − .
5 5

EXERCISE 6.1
1. Prove by vector method that if a line is drawn from the centre of a circle to the midpoint of
a chord, then the line is perpendicular to the chord.
2. Prove by vector method that the median to the base of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular
to the base.
3. Prove by vector method that an angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
4. Prove by vector method that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
5. Using vector method, prove that if the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, then it is a
rectangle.
6. Prove by vector method that the area of the quadrilateral ABCD having diagonals A C and
1  
BD is | AC × BD | .
2
7. Prove by vector method that the parallelograms on the same base and between the same
parallels are equal in area.
8. If G is the centroid of a ∆ABC , prove that
1
(area of ∆GAB) = (area of ∆GBC ) = (area of ∆GCA) = (area of DABC ) .
3
9. Using vector method, prove that cos(α − β ) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β .
10. Prove by vector method that sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β ,
11. A particle acted on by constant forces 8iˆ + 2 ˆj − 6kˆ and 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 2kˆ is displaced from the
point (1, 2,3) to the point (5, 4,1) . Find the total work done by the forces.
12. Forces of magnitudes 5 2 and 10 2 units acting in the directions 3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 5kˆ and
10iˆ + 6 ˆj − 8kˆ , respectively, act on a particle which is displaced from the point with position
vector 4iˆ − 3 ˆj − 2kˆ to the point with position vector 6iˆ + ˆj − 3kˆ .Find the work done by the
forces.
13. Find the magnitude and direction cosines of the torque of a force represented by 3iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ
about the point with position vector 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ acting through a point whose position vector
is 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ .
14. Find the torque of the resultant of the three forces represented by −3iˆ + 6 ˆj − 3kˆ , 4iˆ − 10 ˆj + 12kˆ
and 4iˆ + 7 ˆj acting at the point with position vector 8iˆ − 6 ˆj − 4kˆ , about the point with position
vector 18iˆ + 3 ˆj − 9kˆ .
6.4 Scalar triple product

Definition 6.4
     
For a given set of three vectors a , b , and c , the scalar (a × b ) ⋅ c is called a scalar triple
  
product of a , b , c .
Remark
    
a ⋅ b is a scalar and so (a ⋅ b ) × c has no meaning.

Note
  
Given any three vectors a , b and c , the following are scalar triple products:
                 
(a × b ) ⋅ c , (b × c ) ⋅ a , (c × a ) ⋅ b , a ⋅ (b × c ), b ⋅ (c × a ), c ⋅ (a × b ),
                 
(b × a ) ⋅ c , (c × b ) ⋅ a , (a × c ) ⋅ b , a ⋅ (c × b ), b ⋅ (a × c ), c ⋅ (b × a )
Geometrical interpretation of scalar triple product
  
Geometrically, the absolute value of the scalar triple product (a × b ) ⋅ c is the volume of the
  
parallelepiped formed by using the three vectors a , b , and c as co-terminus edges. Indeed, the
   
magnitude of the vector (a × b ) is the area of the parallelogram formed by using a and b ; and the
   
direction of the vector (a × b ) is perpendicular to the plane parallel to both a and b .
      r r
Therefore, | (a × b ) ⋅ c | is | a × b | | c | | cos θ | , a ×b
  
where θ is the angle between a × b and c .From

Fig. 6.17, we observe that | c | | cos θ | is the
r
height of the parallelepiped formed by using the r c
   θ
three vectors as adjacent vectors. Thus, | (a × b ) ⋅ c | | c | cos θ r
is the volume of the parallelepiped. b
The following theorem is useful for r
a
computing scalar triple products. Fig. 6.17
Theorem 6.1 
 
If a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ, b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ and c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ , then
a1 a2 a3
  
(a × b ) ⋅ c = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
Proof
By definition, we have
iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
(a × b ) ⋅ c = a1 a2 a3 ⋅ c
b1 b2 b3
= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ − (a1b3 − a3b1 ) ˆj + (a1b2 − a2b1 )kˆ  ⋅ (c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ)

= (a2b3 − a3b2 )c1 + (a3b1 − a1b3 )c2 + (a1b2 − a2b1 )c3

a1 a2 a3
= b1
b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
which completes the proof of the theorem.
6.4.1 Properties of the scalar triple product
Theorem 6.2
        
For any three vectors a , b , and c , (a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b × c ) .

Proof   
Let a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ, b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ and c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ .
b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 a3
     
Then, a ⋅ (b × c ) = (b × c ) ⋅ a = c1 c2 c3 = − c1 c2 c3 , by R1 ↔ R3
a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
a1 a2 a3
= b1 b2 b3 , by R2 ↔ R3
c1 c2 c3
  
= (a × b ) ⋅ c .
Hence the theorem is proved.
Note
By Theorem 6.2, it follows that, in a scalar triple product, dot and cross can be interchanged
without altering the order of occurrences of the vectors, by placing the parentheses in such a way
that dot lies outside the parentheses, and cross lies between the vectors inside the parentheses. For
instance, we have
     
(a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b × c ) , since dot and cross can be interchanged.
  
= (b × c ) ⋅ a , since dot product is commutative.
  
= b ⋅ (c × a ) , since dot and cross can be interchanged
  
= (c × a ) ⋅ b , since dot product is commutative
  
= c ⋅ (a × b ) , since dot and cross can be interchanged
Notation
        
For any three vectors a , b and c , the scalar triple product (a × b ) ⋅ c is denoted by [a , b , c ] .
     
[a , b , c ] is read as box a , b , c . For this reason and also because the absolute value of a scalar
triple product represents the volume of a box (rectangular parallelepiped),a scalar triple product is
also called a box product.
Note
                 
[a , b , c ] = (a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b × c ) = (b × c ) ⋅ a = b ⋅ (c × a ) = [b , c , a ]
(1)
                 
[b , c , a ] = (b × c ) ⋅ a = b ⋅ (c × a ) = (c × a ) ⋅ b = c ⋅ (a × b ) = [c , a , b ].
        
In other words, [a , b , c ] = [b , c , a ] = [c , a , b ] ; that is, if the three vectors are permuted in
the same cyclic order, the value of the scalar triple product remains the same.
(2) If any two vectors are interchanged in their position in a scalar triple product, then the
value of the scalar triple product is (−1) times the original value. More explicitly,
                 
[a , b , c ] = [b , c , a ] = [c , a , b ] = −[a , c , b ] = −[c , b , a ] = −[b , a , c ] .

Theorem 6.3
The scalar triple product preserves addition and scalar multiplication. That is,
         
[(a + b ), c , d ] = [a , c , d ] + [b , c , d ] ;
     
[λ a , b , c ] = λ[a , b , c ], ∀λ ∈ 
         
[a , (b + c ), d ] = [a , b , d ] + [a , c , d ] ;
     
[a , λb , c ] = λ[a , b , c ], ∀λ ∈ 
         
[a , b , (c + d )] = [a , b , c ] + [a , b , d ] ;
     
[a , b , λ c ] = λ[a , b , c ], ∀λ ∈  .
Proof
Using the properties of scalar product and vector product, we get
       
[(a + b ), c , d ] = ((a + b ) × c ) ⋅ d
    
= (a × c + b × c ) ⋅ d
     
= (a × c ) ⋅ d + (b × c ) ⋅ d
     
= [a , c , d ] + [b , c , d ]
              
[λ a , b , c ] = ((λ a ) × b ) ⋅ c = (λ (a × b )) ⋅ c = λ ((a × b ) ⋅ c ) = λ[a , b , c ] .
Using the first statement of this result, we get the following.
             
[a , (b + c ), d ] = [(b + c ), d , a ] = [b , d , a ] + [c , d , a ]
     
= [a , b , d ] + [a , c , d ]
           
[a , λb , c ] = [λb , c , a ] = λ[b , c , a ] = λ[a , b , c ] .
Similarly, the remaining equalities are proved.
We have studied about coplanar vectors in XI standard as three nonzero vectors of which, one
can be expressed as a linear combination of the other two. Now we use scalar triple product for the
characterisation of coplanar vectors.
Theorem 6.4
The scalar triple product of three non-zero vectors is zero if, and only if, the three vectors are
coplanar.
Proof
  
Let a, b, c be any three non-zero vectors. Then,
     

( )
a × b ⋅ c = 0 ⇔ c is perpendicular to a × b
  
⇔ c lies in the plane which is parallel to both a and b
  
⇔ a, b, c are coplanar.
Theorem 6.5
  
Three vectors a, b, c are coplanar if, and only if, there exist scalars r , s, t ∈  such that
   
atleast one of them is non-zero and ra + sb + tc = 0 .

Proof
  
Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k . Then, we have
a1 a2 a3
     
a, b, c are coplanar ⇔  a, b, c  = 0 ⇔ b1 b2 b3 = 0
c1 c2 c3
⇔ there exist scalars r , s, t ∈  ,
atleast one of them non-zero such that
a1r + a2 s + a3t = 0, b1r + b2 s + b3t = 0, c1r + c2 s + c3t = 0

⇔ there exist scalars r , s, t ∈  ,
   
atleast one of them non-zero such that ra + sb + tc = 0 .
Theorem 6.6
         
If a, b, c and p, q, r are any two systems of three vectors, and if p = x1 a + y1 b + z1 c,
       
q = x2 a + y2 b + z2 c, and, r = x3 a + y3 b + z3 c , then
x1 y1 z1
     
 p, q, r  = x2 y2 z2  a, b, c  .
 
x3 y3 z3
Note
  
By theorem 6.6, if a, b, c are non-coplanar and
x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2 ≠ 0 ,
x3 y3 z3
           
then the three vectors p = x1 a + y1 b + z1 c, q= x2 a + y2 b + z2 c, and, r = x3 a + y3 b + z3 c are also
non-coplanar.
Example 6.12
     
If a = −3iˆ − ˆj + 5kˆ, b = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ, c = 4 ˆj − 5kˆ , find a ⋅ (b × c ) .
Solution: By the defination of scalar triple product of three vectors,
−3 −1 5
  
a ⋅ (b × c ) = 1 −2 1 = −3 .
0 4 −5

Example 6.13
Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminus edges are given by the vectors
2i − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ, iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ and 3iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ .
ˆ
Solution
  
We know that the volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminus edges are a , b , c is given by
     
| [a , b , c ] | . Here, a = 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ, b = iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ, c = 3iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ .
2 −3 4
  
Since [a , b , c ] = 1 2 −1 = −7 , the volume of the parallelepiped is | −7 | = 7 cubic units.
3 −1 2
Example 6.14
Show that the vectors iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ, 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ and 3iˆ + ˆj − kˆ are coplanar.
Solution
  
Here, a = iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ, b = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ, c = 3iˆ + ˆj − kˆ
1 2 −3
        
We know that a , b , c are coplanar if and only if [a , b , c ] = 0 . Now, [a , b , c ] = 2 −1 2 = 0 .
3 1 −1
Therefore, the three given vectors are coplanar.
Example 6.15
If 2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ, 3iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ, iˆ + mjˆ + 4kˆ are coplanar, find the value of m .
Solution
2 −1 3
Since the given three vectors are coplanar, we have 3 2 1 = 0 ⇒ m = −3 .
1 m 4
Example 6.16
Show that the four points (6, −7, 0), (16, −19, −4), (0,3, −6), (2, −5,10) lie on a same plane.
Solution
Let A = (6, −7, 0), B = (16, −19, −4), C = (0,3, −6), D = (2, −5,10) . To show that the four points
  
A, B, C , D lie on a plane, we have to prove that the three vectors AB, AC , AD are coplanar.
  
Now, AB = OB − OA = (16iˆ − 19 ˆj − 4kˆ) − (6iˆ − 7 ˆj ) = 10iˆ − 12 ˆj − 4kˆ
     
AC = OC − OA = −6iˆ + 10 ˆj − 6kˆ and AD = OD − OA = −4iˆ + 2 ˆj + 10kˆ .
10 −12 −4
  
We have [ AB, AC , AD] = −6 10 −6 = 0 .
−4 2 10
  
Therefore, the three vectors AB, AC , AD are coplanar and hence the four points A, B, C , and
D lie on a plane.

Example 6.17
        
If the vectors a , b , c are coplanar, then prove that the vectors a + b , b + c , c + a are also coplanar.
Solution
     
Since the vectors a , b , c are coplanar, we have [a , b , c ] = 0. Using the properties of the scalar
triple product, we get
               
[a + b , b + c , c + a ] = [a , b + c , c + a ] + [b , b + c , c + a ]
               
= [a , b , c + a ] + [a , c , c + a ] + [b , b , c + a ] + [b , c , c + a ]
                       
= [a , b , c ] + [a , b , a ] + [a , c , c ] + [a , c , a ] + [b , b , c ] + [b , b , a ] + [b , c , c ] + [b , c , a ]
     
= [a , b , c ] + [a , b , c ] = 2[a, b, c] = 0 .
     
Hence the vectors a + b , b + c , c + a are coplanar.
Example 6.18
            
If a , b , c are three vectors, prove that [a + c , a + b , a + b + c ] = [a , b , c ] .
Solution
Using theorem 6.6, we get
1 0 1
         
[a + c , a + b , a + b + c ] = 1 1 0 [a , b , c ]
1 1 1
  
= [a , b , c ] .
EXERCISE 6.2
     
1. If a = iˆ − 2 ˆj + 3kˆ, b = 2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ, c = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ , find a ⋅ (b × c ) .
2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminous edges are represented by the vectors
−6iˆ + 14 ˆj + 10kˆ, 14 iˆ − 10 ˆj − 6kˆ and 2iˆ + 4 ˆj - 2kˆ .
3. The volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminus edges are 7iˆ + λ ˆj − 3kˆ, iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ,
−3iˆ + 7 ˆj + 5kˆ is 90 cubic units. Find the value of λ .
  
4. If a , b , c are three non-coplanar vectors represented by concurrent edges of a parallelepiped
           
of volume 4 cubic units, find the value of (a + b ) ⋅ (b × c ) + (b + c ) ⋅ (c × a ) + (c + a ) ⋅ (a × b ) .

5. Find the altitude of a parallelepiped determined by the vectors a = −2iˆ + 5 ˆj + 3kˆ, bˆ = iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ
     
and c = −3i + j + 4k if the base is taken as the parallelogram determined by b and c .
6. Determine whether the three vectors 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ, iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ and 3iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ are coplanar.
    
7. Let a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, b = iˆ and c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ . If c1 = 1 and c2 = 2 , find c3 such that a , b and

c are coplanar.

     
8. If a = iˆ − kˆ, b = xiˆ + ˆj + (1 − x)kˆ, c = yiˆ + xjˆ + (1 + x − y )kˆ, show that [a , b , c ] depends on
neither x nor y .
9. If the vectors aiˆ + ajˆ + ckˆ, iˆ + kˆ and ciˆ + cjˆ + bkˆ are coplanar, prove that c is the geometric
mean of a and b .
     
10. Let a , b , c be three non-zero vectors such that c is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b .
  π    1  
If the angle between a and b is , show that [a , b , c ]2 = | a |2 | b |2 .
6 4
6.5 Vector triple product

Definition 6.5
     
For a given set of three vectors a , b , c , the vector a × (b × c ) is called a vector triple product.
Note
 
Given any three vectors a , b , c the following are vector triple products :
                 
(a × b ) × c , (b × c ) × a , (c × a ) × b , c × (a × b ), a × (b × c ), b × (c × a )
Using the well known properties of the vector product, we get the following theorem.
Theorem 6.7
The vector triple product satisfies the following properties.
   
(1) (a1 + a2 ) × (b × c ) = a1 × (b × c ) + a2 × (b × c ), (λ a ) × (b × c ) = λ (a × (b × c )), λ ∈
   
(2) a × ((b1 + b2 ) × c ) = a × (b1 × c ) + a × (b2 × c ), a × ((λb ) × c ) = λ (a × (b × c )), λ ∈
   
(3) a × (b × (c1 + c2 )) = a × (b × c1 ) + a × (b × c2 ), a × (b × (λ c )) = λ (a × (b × c )), λ ∈
Remark
     
Vector triple product is not associative. This means that a × (b × c ) ≠ (a × b ) × c , for some
  
vectors a , b , c .
Justification
       
We take a = iˆ, b = iˆ, c = ˆj . Then, a × (b × c ) = iˆ × (iˆ × ˆj ) = iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj but (iˆ × iˆ) × ˆj = 0 × ˆj = 0 .
     
Therefore, a × (b × c ) ≠ (a × b ) × c .
The following theorem gives a simple formula to evaluate the vector triple product.
Theorem 6.8 (Vector Triple product expansion)

           
For any three vectors a , b , c we have a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c )b − (a ⋅ b )c .
Proof
Let us choose the coordinate axes as follows :

Let x -axis be chosen along the line of action of a , y -axis be chosen in the plane passing through
   
a and parallel to b , and z -axis be chosen perpendicular to the plane containing a and b . Then, we
have


a = a1iˆ

b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj

c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
Now, a ´ (b ´ c ) = a1iˆ´ b1 b2 0
c1 c2 c3
(
= a1iˆ´ b2 c3iˆ - b1c3 ˆj + (b1c2 - b2 c1 ) kˆ )
= -a1b1c3kˆ + a1 (b2 c1 - b1c2 ) ˆj ... (1)
    
( ) (
(a. c ) b - a. b c = a1c1 ´(b1iˆ + b2 ˆj ) - a1b1 c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3kˆ )
= a1 (b2 c1 - b1c2 ) ˆj - a1b1c3kˆ ... (2)
From equations (1) and (2), we get

       
a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c )b − (a ⋅ b )c
Note
        
(1) a ×(b × c ) = α b + β c , where α = a ⋅ c and β = −(a ⋅ b ) , and so it lies in the plane parallel

to b and c .
(2) We also note that
    
(a × b ) × c = −c × (a × b )
    
= −[(c ⋅ b )a − (c ⋅ a )b ]
     
= (a ⋅ c )b − (b ⋅ c )a
    
Therefore, (a × b ) × c lies in the plane parallel to a and b .
   
(3) In (a × b ) × c , consider the vectors inside the brackets, call b as the middle vector and
     
a as the non-middle vector. Similarly, in a × (b × c ), b is the middle vector and c is the
non-middle vector. Then we observe that a vector triple product of these vectors is equal to
λ (middle vector) − µ (non-middle vector)
where λ is the dot product of the vectors other than the middle vector and μ is the dot
product of the vectors other than the non-middle vector.
6.6 Jacobi’s Identity and Lagrange’s Identity

Theorem 6.9 (Jacobi’s identity)
            
For any three vectors a , b , c , we have a × (b × c ) + b × (c × a ) + c × (a × b ) = 0 .
Proof
Using vector triple product expansion, we have
        
a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c )b − (a ⋅ b )c
        
b × (c × a ) = (b ⋅ a )c − (b ⋅ c )a

        
c × (a × b ) = (c ⋅ b )a − (c ⋅ a )b .
Adding the above equations and using the scalar product of two vectors is commutative, we get
         
a × (b × c ) + b × (c × a ) + c × (a × b ) = 0 .
Theorem 6.10 (Lagrange’s identity)
   
        a ⋅c a ⋅d
For any four vectors a , b , c , d , we have (a × b ) ⋅ (c × d ) =     .
b ⋅c b ⋅d
Proof
Since dot and cross can be interchanged in a scalar product, we get
       
(a × b ) ⋅ (c × d ) = a ⋅ (b × (c × d ))
      
= a ⋅ ((b ⋅ d )c − (b ⋅ c )d ) (by vector triple product expansion)
       
= (a ⋅ c )(b ⋅ d ) − (a ⋅ d )(b ⋅ c )
   
a ⋅c a ⋅d
=    
b ⋅c b ⋅d
Example 6.19
        
Prove that [a × b , b × c , c × a ] = [a , b , c ]2 .
Solution
Using the definition of the scalar triple product, we get
           
[a × b , b × c , c × a ] = (a × b ) ⋅ [(b × c ) × (c × a )] . ... (1)
 
By treating (b × c ) as the first vector in the vector triple product, we find
               
(b × c ) × (c × a ) = ((b × c ) ⋅ a )c − ((b × c ) ⋅ c )a = [a , b , c ]c .
Using this value in (1), we get
                    
[a × b , b × c , c × a ] = (a × b ) ⋅ ([a , b , c ]c ) = [a , b , c ](a × b ) ⋅ c = [a , b , c ]2 .
Example 6.20
       
Prove that (a ⋅ (b × c ))a = (a × b ) × (a × c ) .
Solution
 
Treating (a × b ) as the first vector on the right hand side of the given equation and using the
vector triple product expansion, we get
               
(a × b ) × (a × c ) = ((a × b ) ⋅ c )a − ((a × b ) ⋅ a )c = (a ⋅ (b × c ))a .
Example 6.21
   
For any four vectors a , b , c , d , we have
                   
(a × b ) × (c × d ) = [a , b , d ]c − [a , b , c ]d = [a , c , d ]b − [b , c , d ]a .
Solution
  
Taking p = (a × b ) as a single vector and using the vector triple product expansion, we get
      
( a × b ) × (c × d ) = p × (c × d )

     
= ( p ⋅ d )c − ( p ⋅ c ) d
               
= ((a × b ) ⋅ d )c − ((a × b ) ⋅ c )d = [a , b , d ]c − [a , b , c ]d
  
Similarly, taking q = c × d , we get
      
( a × b ) × (c × d ) = ( a × b ) × q
     
= (a ⋅ q )b − (b ⋅ q )a
       
= [a , c , d ]b − [b , c , d ]a
Example 6.22
        
If a = −2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ, b = 3iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ, c = 2iˆ − 5 ˆj + kˆ , find (a × b ) × c and a × (b × c ) . State
whether they are equal.
Solution
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
By definition, a × b = −2 3 −2 = 7iˆ − 7 kˆ .
3 −1 3
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
Then, (a × b ) × c = 7 0 −7 = −35iˆ − 21 ˆj − 35kˆ . ... (1)
2 −5 1
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
b × c = 3 −1 3 = 14iˆ + 3 ˆj − 13kˆ .
2 −5 1
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
Next, a × (b × c ) = −2 3 −2 = −33iˆ − 54 ˆj − 48kˆ . ... (2)
14 3 −13
     
Therefore, equations (1) and (2) lead to (a × b ) × c ≠ a × (b × c ) .
Example 6.23
   
If a = iˆ − ˆj , b = iˆ − ˆj − 4kˆ, c = 3 ˆj − kˆ and d = 2iˆ + 5 ˆj + kˆ , verify that
           
(i) (a × b ) × (c × d ) = [a , b , d ]c − [a , b , c ]d
           
(ii) (a × b ) × (c × d ) = [a , c , d ]b − [b , c , d ]a
Solution (i)
By definition,
iˆ ˆj kˆ iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
a × b = 1 −1 0 = 4iˆ + 4 ˆj , c × d = 0 3 −1 = 8iˆ − 2 ˆj − 6kˆ
1 −1 −4 2 5 1

iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
Then, (a × b ) × (c × d ) = 4 4 0 = −24iˆ + 24 ˆj − 40kˆ ... (1)
8 −2 −6
On the other hand, we have
       
[a , b , d ]c − [a , b , c ]d = 28(3 ˆj − kˆ) − 12(2iˆ + 5 ˆj + kˆ) = −24iˆ + 24 ˆj − 40kˆ ... (2)
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), identity (i) is verified.

The verification of identity (ii) is left as an exercise to the reader.
EXERCISE 6.3
        
1. If a = iˆ − 2 ˆj + 3kˆ, b = 2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ, c = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ , find (i) (a × b ) × c (ii) a × (b × c ) .
    
2. For any vector a , prove that iˆ × (a × iˆ) + ˆj × (a × ˆj ) + kˆ × (a × kˆ) = 2a .
     
3. Prove that [a − b , b − c , c − a ] = 0 .
  
4. If a = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ, b = 3iˆ + 5 ˆj + 2kˆ, c = −iˆ − 2 ˆj + 3kˆ , verify that
                 
(i) (a × b ) × c = (a ⋅ c )b − (b ⋅ c )a (ii) a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c )b − (a ⋅ b )c
      
5. a = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ, b = −iˆ + 2 ˆj − 4kˆ, c = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ then find the value of (a × b ) ⋅ (a × c ) .
        
6. If a , b , c , d are coplanar vectors, show that (a × b ) × (c × d ) = 0 .
        
7. If a = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ, b = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ, c = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ and a × (b × c ) = la + mb + nc , find the
values of l , m, n .
1
8. If aˆ , bˆ, cˆ are three unit vectors such that b̂ and ĉ are non-parallel and aˆ × (bˆ × cˆ) = bˆ , find
2
the angle between â and ĉ .
6.7 Application of Vectors to 3-Dimensional Geometry

Vectors provide an elegant approach to study straight lines and planes in three dimension. All
straight lines and planes are subsets of  3 . For brevity, we shall call a straight line simply as line.
A plane is a surface which is understood as a set P of points in  3 such that , if A, B, and C are any
three non-collinear points of P , then the line passing through any two of them is a subset of P.
Two planes are said to be intersecting if they have at least one point in common and at least one
point which lies on one plane but not on the other. Two planes are said to be coincident if they have
exactly the same points. Two planes are said to be parallel but not coincident if they have no point in
common. Similarly, a straight line can be understood as the set of points common to two intersecting
planes. In this section, we obtain vector and Cartesian equations of straight line and plane by applying
vector methods. By a vector form of equation of a geometrical object, we mean an equation which is
satisfied by the position vector of every point of the object. The equation may be a vector equation or
a scalar equation.

6.7.1 Different forms of equation of a straight line
A straight line can be uniquely fixed if
• a point on the straight line and the direction of the straight line are given
• two points on the straight line are given
We find equations of a straight line in vector and Cartesian form. To find the equation of a straight line

in vector form, an arbitrary point P with position vector r on the straight line is taken and a relation

satisfied by r is obtained by using the given conditions. This relation is called the vector equation of the
straight line. A vector equation of a straight line may or may not involve parameters. If a vector equation
involves parameters, then it is called a vector equation in parametric form. If no parameter is involved,
then the equation is called a vector equation in non – parametric form.
6.7.2 A
point on the straight line and the direction of the straight line
are given
(a) Parametric form of vector equation
Theorem 6.11

The vector equation of a straight line passing through a fixed point with position vector a and
   
parallel to a given vector b is r = a + tb , where t ∈  .
Proof 
z b
  A
If a is the position vector of a given point A and r is the
position vector of an arbitrary point P on the straight line, then  P
   a
AP = r − a .  l
  r
Since AP is parallel to b , we have
  
r − a = tb , t ∈  ... (1) O y
  
or r = a + tb , t ∈  ... (2) x
This is the vector equation of the straight line in parametric form. Fig. 6.18
Remark
 
The position vector of any point on the line is taken as a + tb .
(b) Non-parametric form of vector equation
    
Since AP is parallel to b , we have AP × b = 0
   
That is, (r − a ) × b = 0 .
This is known as the vector equation of the straight line in non-parametric form.
(c) Cartesian equation  
Suppose P is ( x, y, z ) , A is ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ . Then, substituting r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ ,

a = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ in (1) and comparing the coefficients of iˆ, ˆj , kˆ , we get
x − x1 = tb1 , y − y1 = tb2 , z − z1 = tb3 ... (4)
Conventionally (4) can be written as
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = ... (5)
b1 b2 b3

which are called the Cartesian equations or symmetric equations of a straight line passing
through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and parallel to a vector with direction ratios b1 , b2 , b3 .
Remark
(i) Every point on the line (5) is of the form ( x1 + tb1 , y1 + tb2 , z1 + tb3 ) , where t ∈  .
(ii) Since the direction cosines of a line are proportional to direction ratios of the line, if l , m, n
are the d irection cosines of the line, then the Cartesian equations of the line are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
l m n
(iii) In (5), if any one or two of b1 , b2 , b3 are zero, it does not mean that we are dividing by zero. But
it means that the corresponding numerator is zero. For instance, If b1 ≠ 0, b2 ≠ 0 and b3 = 0 , then
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x1 y − y1
= = should be written as = , z − z1 = 0 .
b1 b2 0 b1 b2
(iv) We know that the direction cosines of x - axis are 1, 0, 0 . Therefore, the equations of x -axis
are
x−0 y−0 z −0
= = or x = t , y = 0, z = 0 , where t ∈  .
1 0 0
x−0 y−0 z −0
Similarly the equations of y -axis and z -axis are given by = = and
0 1 0
x−0 y−0 z −0
= = respectively.
0 0 1
6.7.3 Straight Line passing through two given points

Theorem 6.12
The parametric form of vector equation of a line passing through two given points whose
     
position vectors are a and b respectively is r = a + t (b − a ), t ∈  .

The above equation can be written equivalently in non-parametric form of vector equation as
    
(r − a ) × (b − a ) = 0
(c) Cartesian form of equation z z) y 2,
( x 2,
2
Suppose P is ( x, y, z ) , A is ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x, y ,
z) B
 y , z1)
is ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) . Then substituting r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , ( x1, 1
P
  A
a = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ and b = x2iˆ + y2 ˆj + z2 kˆ in
theorem 6.12 and comparing the  
 r b
ˆ a
coefficients of iˆ, ˆj , k , we get
x − x1 = t ( x2 − x1 ), y − y1 = t ( y2 − y1 ), z − z1 = t ( z2 − z1 )
O y
and so the Cartesian equations of a line passing
through two given points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) x Fig. 6.19
are given by

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
From the above equation, we observe that the direction ratios of a line passing through two
given points ( x1 , y1 , z1) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are given by x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 , which are also given by
any three numbers proportional to them and in particular x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 , z1 − z2 .
Example 6.24
A straight line passes through the point (1, 2, −3) and parallel to 4iˆ + 5 ˆj − 7 kˆ . Find (i) vector
equation in parametric form (ii) vector equation in non-parametric form (iii) Cartesian equations of
the straight line.
Solution
The required line passes through (1, 2, −3) . So, the position vector of the point is iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ .
 
Let a = iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and b = 4iˆ + 5 ˆj − 7 kˆ . Then, we have
  
(i) vector equation of the required straight line in parametric form is r = a + tb , t ∈  .

Therefore, r = (iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) + t (4iˆ + 5 ˆj − 7 kˆ), t ∈  .
   
(ii) vector equation of the required straight line in non-parametric form is (r − a ) × b = 0 .
 
Therefore, (r − (iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ)) × (4iˆ + 5 ˆj − 7 kˆ) = 0 .
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(iii) Cartesian equations of the required line are = = .
b1 b2 b3
Here, ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (1, 2, −3) and direction ratios of the required line are proportional to
x −1 y − 2 z + 3
4,5, −7 . Therefore, Cartesian equations of the straight line are = = .
4 5 −7
Example 6.25

The vector equation in parametric form of a line is r = (3iˆ − 2 ˆj + 6kˆ) + t (2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ) . Find (i) the
direction cosines of the straight line (ii) vector equation in non-parametric form of the line
(iii) Cartesian equations of the line.
Solution
   
Comparing the given equation with equation of a straight line r = a + tb , we have a = 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + 6kˆ

and b = 2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ . Therefore,

(i) If b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , then direction ratios of the straight line are b1 , b2 , b3 . Therefore,
direction ratios of the given straight line are proportional to 2, −1,3 , and hence the direction
2 −1 3
cosines of the given straight line are , , .
14 14 14
   
(ii) vector equation of the straight line in non-parametric form is given by (r − a ) × b = 0 .
 
Therefore, (r − (3iˆ − 2 ˆj + 6kˆ)) × (2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ) = 0 .
(iii) Here ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (3, −2, 6) and the direction ratios are proportional to 2, −1,3 .
x −3 y + 2 z −6
Therefore, Cartesian equations of the straight line are = = .
2 −1 3

Example 6.26
Find the vector equation in parametric form and Cartesian equations of the line passing through
−x − 2 y + 3 2z − 6
(−4, 2, −3) and is parallel to the line = = .
4 −2 3
Solution
x + 2 y +3 z −3 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Rewriting the given equations as = = and comparing with = = ,
−4 −2 3/ 2 b1 b2 b3
 3 1 
we have b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ = −4iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ = − (8iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ) . Clearly, b is parallel to the vector
2 2
8iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ . Therefore, a vector equation of the required straight line passing through the given point
(−4, 2, −3) and parallel to the vector 8iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ in parametric form is

r = (−4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) + t (8iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ), t ∈  .
Therefore, Cartesian equations of the required straight line are given by
x+4 y−2 z +3
= = .
8 4 −3
Example 6.27
Find the vector equation in parametric form and Cartesian equations of a straight passing through
the points (−5, 7, −4) and (13, −5, 2) . Find the point where the straight line crosses the xy -plane.
Solution
The straight line passes through the points (−5, 7, −4) and (13, −5, 2) , and therefore, direction
ratios of the straight line joining these two points are 18, −12, 6 . That is 3, −2,1 .
So, the straight line is parallel to 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ . Therefore,

 Required vector equation of the straight line in parametric form is r = (−5iˆ + 7 ˆj − 4kˆ) + t (3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) or

r = (13iˆ − 5 ˆj + 2kˆ) + s (3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) where s, t ∈  .
x+5 y−7 z +4 x − 13 y + 5 z − 2

Required cartesian equations of the straight line are = = or = = .
3 −2 1 3 −2 1
An arbitrary point on the straight line is of the form
(3t − 5, −2t + 7, t − 4) or (3s + 13, −2 s − 5, s + 2)
Since the straight line crosses the xy -plane, the z -coordinate of the point of intersection is zero.
Therefore, we have t − 4 = 0 , that is, t = 4 , and hence the straight line crosses the xy -plane at
(7, −1, 0) .
Example 6.28
x + 3 y −1
Find the angle between the straight line = = − z with coordinate axes.
2 2
Solution
2iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ 1 ˆ
If b̂ is a unit vector parallel to the given line, then bˆ = = (2i + 2 ˆj − kˆ) . Therefore,
ˆ ˆ ˆ
| 2i + 2 j − k | 3
from the definition of direction cosines of b̂ , we have

2 2 1
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ = − ,
3 3 3
where α , β , γ are the angles made by b̂ with the positive x -axis, positive y -axis, and positive
z -axis, respectively. As the angle between the given straight line with the coordinate axes are same as the
2 2  −1 
angles made by b̂ with the coordinate axes, we have α = cos −1   , β = cos −1   , γ = cos −1   ,
3 3  3 
respectively.
6.7.4 Angle between two straight lines

(a) Vector form
     
The acute angle between two given straight lines r = a + sb and r = c + td is same as that of the
   
  |b ⋅d |  |b ⋅d | 
angle between b and d . So, cos θ =   or θ = cos     .
−1
|b | |d | |b | |d |
Remark
     
(i) The two given lines r = a + sb and r = c + td are parallel
   
Û θ = 0 Û cos θ = 1 Û | b ⋅ d | = | b | | d | .

       
(ii) The two given lines r = a + sb and r = c + td are parallel if, and only if b = λ d , for some
scalar λ .
       
(iii) The two given lines r = a + sb and r = c + td are perpendicular if, and only if b ⋅ d = 0 .
(b) Cartesian form

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
If two lines are given in Cartesian form as = = and = = ,
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
then the acute angle θ between the two given lines is given by
 | b1d1 + b2 d 2 + b3 d3 | 
θ = cos −1  
 b +b 2 +b 2 d 2 +d 2 +d 2
2 
 1 2 3 1 2 3 
Remark
(i) The two given lines with direction ratios b1 , b2 , b3 and d1 , d 2 , d3 are parallel if, and only if
b1 b2 b3
= = .
d1 d 2 d3
(ii) The two given lines with direction ratios b1 , b2 , b3 and d1 , d 2 , d3 are perpendicular if and only
if b1d1 + b2 d 2 + b3 d3 = 0 .
(iii) If the direction cosines of two given straight lines are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 , then the angle
between the two given straight lines is cos θ =| l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 | .

Example 6.29

Find the acute angle between the lines r = (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ) and the straight line
passing through the points (5,1, 4) and (9, 2,12) .

Solution

We know that the line r = (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ) is parallel to the vector 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ .
Direction ratios of the straight line joining the two given points (5,1, 4) and (9, 2,12) are 4,1,8
and hence this line is parallel to the vector 4iˆ + ˆj + 8kˆ .
Therefore, the acute angle between the given two straight lines is
 
 |b ⋅d |   
θ = cos     , where b = 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ and d = 4iˆ + ˆj + 8kˆ .
−1
|b | |d |
 | (2iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ (4iˆ + ˆj + 8kˆ) |  2
Therefore, θ = cos −1   = cos −1   .
 | 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ | | 4iˆ + ˆj + 8kˆ |  3
 
Example 6.30
x − 4 y z +1 x −1 y +1 z − 2
Find the acute angle between the straight lines = = and = = and state
2 1 −2 4 −4 2
whether they are parallel or perpendicular.
Solution
Comparing the given lines with the general Cartesian equations of straight lines,
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = =
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
we find (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (2,1, −2) and (d1 , d 2 , d3 ) = (4, −4, 2) . Therefore, the acute angle between the
two straight lines is
 | (2)(4) + (1)(−4) + (−2)(2) |  π
θ = cos −1   = cos −1 (0) =
 22 + 12 + (−2) 2 2 2 2 
4 + (−4) + 2  2

Thus the two straight lines are perpendicular.
Example 6.31
Show that the straight line passing through the points A(6, 7,5) and B (8,10, 6) is perpendicular
to the straight line passing through the points C (10, 2, −5) and D(8,3, −4) .
Solution
The straight line passing through the points A(6, 7,5) and B (8,10, 6) is parallel to the vector
   
b = AB = OB − OA = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ and the straight line passing through the points C (10, 2, −5) and
 
D(8,3, −4) is parallel to the vector d = CD = −2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ . Therefore, the angle between the two
 
straight lines is the angle between the two vectors b and d . Since
 
b ⋅ d = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ (−2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = 0 .
the two vectors are perpendicular, and hence the two straight lines are perpendicular.

Aliter
We find that direction ratios of the straight line joining the points A(6, 7,5) and B(8,10, 6) are
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (2,3,1) and direction ratios of the line joining the points C (10, 2, −5) and D(8,3, −4) are
(d1 , d 2 , d3 ) = (−2,1,1) . Since b1d1 + b2 d 2 + b3 d3 = (2)(−2) + (3)(1) + (1)(1) = 0 , the two straight lines are
perpendicular.
Example 6.32
x −1 2 − y z − 4 x −3 y −3 5− z
Show that the lines = = and = = are parallel.
4 6 12 −2 3 6
Solution
x −1 2 − y z − 4
We observe that the straight line = = is parallel to the vector 4iˆ − 6 ˆj + 12kˆ and
4 6 12
x −3 y −3 5− z
the straight line = = is parallel to the vector −2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 6kˆ .
−2 3 6
Since 4iˆ − 6 ˆj + 12kˆ = −2(−2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 6kˆ) , the two vectors are parallel, and hence the two straight
lines are parallel.
EXERCISE 6.4
1. Find the non-parametric form of vector equation and Cartesian equations of the straight line
passing through the point with position vector 4iˆ + 3 ˆj − 7 kˆ and parallel to the vector
2iˆ − 6 ˆj + 7 kˆ .
2. Find the parametric form of vector equation and Cartesian equations of the straight line
x −1 y + 3 8 − z
passing through the point (−2,3, 4) and parallel to the straight line = = .
−4 5 6
3. Find the points where the straight line passes through (6, 7, 4) and (8, 4,9) cuts the xz and
yz planes.
4. Find the direction cosines of the straight line passing through the points (5, 6, 7) and (7,9,13) .
Also, find the parametric form of vector equation and Cartesian equations of the straight line
passing through two given points.
5. Find the acute angle between the following lines.
 
(i) r = (4iˆ − ˆj ) + t (iˆ + 2 ˆj − 2kˆ), r = (iˆ − 2 ˆj + 4kˆ) + s (−iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ)
x+4 y−7 z +5 
(ii) = = , r = 4kˆ + t (2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) .
3 4 5
(iii) 2 x = 3 y = − z and 6 x = − y = −4 z .
6. The vertices of ∆ABC are A(7, 2,1), B(6, 0,3) , and C (4, 2, 4) . Find ∠ABC .
7. If the straight line joining the points (2,1, 4) and (a − 1, 4, −1) is parallel to the line joining the
points (0, 2, b − 1) and (5,3, −2) , find the values of a and b .
x −5 2 − y 1− z 2 y +1 1− z
8. If the straight lines = = and x = = are perpendicular to each
5m + 2 5 −1 4m −3
other, find the value of m .
9. Show that the points (2,3, 4), (−1, 4,5) and (8,1, 2) are collinear.

6.7.5 Point of intersection of two straight lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
If = = and = = are two lines, then every point on the
a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
line is of the form ( x1 + sa1 , y1 + sa2 , z1 + sa3 ) and ( x2 + tb1 , y2 + tb2 , z2 + tb3 ) respectively. If the lines
are intersecting, then there must be a common point. So, at the point of intersection, for some values
of s and t , we have
( x1 + sa1 , y1 + sa2 , z1 + sa3 ) = ( x2 + tb1 , y2 + tb2 , z2 + tb3 )

Therefore, x1 + sa1 = x2 + tb1 , y1 + sa2 = y2 + tb2 , z1 + sa3 = z2 + tb3
By solving any two of the above three equations, we obtain the values of s and t . If s and t
satisfy the remaining equation, the lines are intersecting lines. Otherwise the lines are non-intersecting .
Substituting the value of s , (or by substituting the value of t ), we get the point of intersection of two
lines.
If the equations of straight lines are given in vector form, write them in cartesian form and
proceed as above to find the point of intersection.
Example 6.33
x −1 y − 2 z − 3 x − 4 y −1
Find the point of intersection of the lines = = and = = z.
2 3 4 5 2
Solution
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
Every point on the line = = = s (say) is of the form (2 s + 1, 3s + 2, 4 s + 3) and
2 3 4
x − 4 y −1
every point on the line = = z = t (say) is of the form (5t + 4, 2t + 1, t ) . So, at the point of
5 2
intersection, for some values of s and t , we have
(2 s + 1, 3s + 2, 4 s + 3) = (5t + 4, 2t + 1, t )
Therefore, 2 s − 5t = 3, 3s − 2t = −1 and 4 s − t = −3 . Solving the first two equations we get
t = −1, s = −1 . These values of s and t satisfy the third equation. Therefore, the given lines intersect.
Substituting, these values of t or s in the respective points, the point of intersection is (−1, −1, −1) .
6.7.6 Shortest distance between two straight lines

We have just explained how the point of intersection of two lines are found and we have also
studied how to determine whether the given two lines are parallel or not.
Definition 6.6
Two lines are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane.
Note
If two lines are either parallel or intersecting, then they are coplanar.
Definition 6.7
Two lines in space are called skew lines if they are not parallel and do not intersect

Note
If two lines are skew lines, then they are non coplanar. L1
If the lines are not parallel and intersect, the distance

between them is zero. If they are parallel and non-intersecting,
the distance is determined by the length of the line segment
perpendicular to both the parallel lines. In the same way, the
shortest distance between two skew lines is defined as the length
of the line segment perpendicular to both the skew lines. Two L2
lines will either be parallel or skew.
Fig. 6.20
Theorem 6.13
     
The shortest distance between the two parallel lines r = a + sb and r = c + tb is given by
   
| (c − a ) × b |
d=  , where | b | ¹ 0 .
|b |
Proof
     
The given two parallel lines r = a + sb and r = c + tb are
A(a )
denoted by L1 and L2 respectively. Let A and B be the points L1
 
on L1 and L2 whose position vectors are a and c respectively.

a−
c
The two given lines are parallel to b . d

Let AD be a perpendicular to the two given lines. If θ is
  θ
the acute angle between AB and b , then D
B (c ) L2
     b
| AB × b | | (c − a ) × b |
sin θ =   =    ... (1)
| AB | | b | | c − a | | b | Fig. 6.21
But, from the right angle triangle ABD ,
d d d
sin θ = = = ... (2)
AB | AB | | c − a |
   
| (c − a ) × b |
From (1) and (2), we have d =  , where | b | ¹ 0 .
|b |
Theorem 6.14
     
The shortest distance between the two skew lines r = a + sb and r = c + td is given by
     
| (c − a ) ⋅ (b × d ) |
δ =   , where | b × d | ≠ 0
|b ×d |
Proof
     
The two skew lines r = a + sb and r = c + td are denoted by L1 and L2 respectively.
 
Let A and C be the points on L1 and L2 with position vectors a and c respectively.

From the given equations of skew lines, we observe that L1 is b ×d
   
parallel to the vector b and L2 is parallel to the vector d . So, b × d
d
is perpendicular to the lines L1 and L2 . C( c)
D L2
Let SD be the line segment perpendicular to both the lines L1
  
and L2 . Then the vector SD is perpendicular to the vectors b and d δ
 
and therefore it is parallel to the vector b × d .
 
b ×d 
So,   is a unit vector in the direction of SD . Then, the S A(a ) L
|b ×d | 1
  b
shortest distance | SD | is the absolute value of the projection of AC
Fig. 6.22

on SD . That is,
 
     b ×d
δ = | SD | = | AC . (Unit vector in the direction of SD )| = (c − a ) ⋅  
|b ×d |
     
| (c − a ) ⋅ (b × d ) |
δ =   , where | b × d | ≠ 0 .
|b ×d |
Remark
     
(i) It follows from theorem (6.14) that two straight lines r = a + sb and r = c + td intersect
   
each other (that is, coplanar) if (c − a ) ⋅ (b × d ) = 0 .
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
(2)
If two lines = = and = = intersect each other
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
(that is, coplanar), then we have
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
b1 b2 b3 =0
d1 d2 d3
Example 6.34
Find the parametric form of vector equation of a straight line passing through the point of intersection of
 x−2 y−4 z +3
the straight lines r = (iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ) and = = , and perpendicular to both
1 2 4
straight lines.
Solution

The Cartesian equations of the straight line r = (iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ) is
x −1 y − 3 z +1
= = = s (say)
2 3 2
Then any point on this line is of the form (2 s + 1, 3s + 3, 2 s − 1) ... (1)
x−2 y−4 z +3
The Cartesian equation of the second line is = = = t (say)
1 2 4
Then any point on this line is of the form (t + 2, 2t + 4, 4t − 3) ... (2)

If the given lines intersect, then there must be a common point. Therefore, for some s, t ∈  ,
we have (2 s + 1, 3s + 3, 2 s − 1) = (t + 2, 2t + 4, 4t − 3) .
Equating the coordinates of x, y and z we get
2 s − t = 1, 3s − 2t = 1 and s − 2t = −1 .
Solving the first two of the above three equations, we get s = 1 and t = 1 . These values of s and
t satisfy the third equation. So, the lines are intersecting.
Now, using the value of s in (1) or the value of t in (2), the point of intersection (3, 6,1) of these
two straight lines is obtained.
iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
If we take b = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ and d = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ , then b × d = 2 3 2 = 8iˆ − 6 ˆj + kˆ is a vector
1 2 4
perpendicular to both the given straight lines. Therefore, the required straight line passing through (3, 6,1)
and perpendicular to both the given straight lines is the same as the straight line passing through
(3, 6,1) and parallel to 8iˆ − 6 ˆj + kˆ . Thus, the equation of the required straight line is

r = (3iˆ + 6 ˆj + kˆ) + m(8iˆ − 6 ˆj + kˆ), m ∈  .
Example 6.35

Determine whether the pair of straight lines r = (2iˆ + 6 ˆj + 3kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 4kˆ) ,

r = (2 ˆj − 3kˆ) + s (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) are parallel. Find the shortest distance between them.
Solution
Comparing the given two equations with
     
r = a + sb and r = c + sd ,
   
we have a = 2iˆ + 6 ˆj + 3kˆ, b = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 4kˆ, c = 2 ˆj − 3kˆ, d = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ
 
Clearly, b is not a scalar multiple of d . So, the two vectors are not parallel and hence the two
lines are not parallel.
The shortest distance between the two straight lines is given by
   
| (c − a ) ⋅ (b × d ) |
δ =  
|b ×d |
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
Now, b × d = 2 3 4 = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ
1 2 3
   
So, (c − a ) ⋅ (b × d ) = (−2iˆ − 4 ˆj − 6kˆ) ⋅ (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) = 0 .
Therefore, the distance between the two given straight lines is zero.Thus, the given lines intersect
each other.

Example 6.36

Find the shortest distance between the two given straight lines r = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 4kˆ) + t (−2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ)
x −3 y z + 2
and = = .
2 −1 2
Solution
The parametric form of vector equations of the given straight lines are

r = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 4kˆ) + t (−2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ)

and r = (3iˆ − 2kˆ) + t (2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ)
     
Comparing the given two equations with r = a + tb , r = c + sd
   
we have a = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 4kˆ, b = −2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ, c = 3iˆ − 2kˆ, d = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ .
 
Clearly, b is a scalar multiple of d , and hence the two straight lines are parallel. We know that
  
| (c − a ) × b |
the shortest distance between two parallel straight lines is given by d =  .
|b |
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
Now, (c − a ) × b = 1 −3 −6 = 12iˆ + 14 ˆj − 5kˆ
−2 1 −2
|12iˆ + 14 ˆj − 5kˆ | 365

Therefore, d = = .
| −2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ | 3
Example 6.37
Find the coordinate of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (−1, 2,3) to the straight
 ˆ
line r = (i − 4 ˆj + 3kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ) . Also, find the shortest distance from the given point to the
straight line.
Solution

Comparing the given equation r = (iˆ − 4 ˆj + 3kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ) with D
    
r = a + tb , we get a = iˆ − 4 ˆj + 3kˆ , and b = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ . We denote the given
b
point (−1, 2,3) by D , and the point (1, −4,3) on the straight line by F . If F
is the foot of the perpendicular from D to the straight line, then F is of the
  
form (2t + 1, 3t − 4, t + 3) and DF = OF − OD = (2t + 2)iˆ + (3t − 6) ˆj + tkˆ . F Line
  Fig. 6.23
Since b is perpendicular to DF , we have
 
b ⋅ DF = 0 ⇒ 2(2t + 2) + 3(3t − 6) + 1(t ) = 0 ⇒ t = 1
Therefore, the coordinate of F is (3, -1, 4)
Now, the perpendicular distance from the given point to the given line is

DF = | DF |= 42 + (−3) 2 + 12 = 26 units.

EXERCISE 6.5
1. Find the parametric form of vector equation and Cartesian equations of a straight line passing

through (5, 2,8) and is perpendicular to the straight lines r = (iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) + s (2iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) and

r = (2iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ) + t (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ) .
 
2. Show that the lines r = (6iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ) + s (iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) and r = (3iˆ + 2 ˆj − 2kˆ) + t (2iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ)
are skew lines and hence find the shortest distance between them.
x −1 y +1 z −1 x −3 y −m
3. If the two lines = = and = = z intersect at a point, find the value
2 3 4 1 2
of m .
x −3 y −3 x − 6 z −1
4. Show that the lines = , z −1 = 0 and = , y − 2 = 0 intersect. Also find
3 −1 2 3
the point of intersection.
5. Show that the straight lines x + 1 = 2 y = −12 z and x = y + 2 = 6 z − 6 are skew and hence find
the shortest distance between them.
6. Find the parametric form of vector equation of the straight line passing through (−1, 2,1) and

parallel to the straight line r = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ) + t (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) and hence find the shortest distance
between the lines.
7. Find the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (5, 4, 2)
x +1 y − 3 z −1
to the line = = . Also, find the equation of the perpendicular.
2 3 −1
6.8 Different forms of Equation of a plane

We have already seen the notion of a plane.
Definition 6.8
A vector which is perpendicular to a plane is called a normal to the plane.
Note
Every normal to a plane is perpendicular to every straight line lying on the plane.
A plane is uniquely fixed if any one of the following is given:
• a unit normal to the plane and the distance of the plane from the origin
• a point of the plane and a normal to the plane
• three non-collinear points of the plane
• a point of the plane and two non-parallel lines or non-parallel vectors which are
parallel to the plane
• two distinct points of the plane and a straight line or non-zero vector parallel to the
plane but not parallel to the line joining the two points.
Let us find the vector and Cartesian equations of planes using the above situations.
6.8.1 Equation of a plane when a normal to the plane and the distance of
the plane from the origin are given
(a) Vector equation of a plane in normal form
Theorem 6.15
The equation of the plane at a distance p from the origin and perpendicular to the unit normal

vector d̂ is r ⋅ dˆ = p .

z
Proof
dˆ
Consider a plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin is p .
Let A be the foot of the perpendicular from O to the plane.
A

Let d̂ be the unit normal vector in the direction of OA .
 pdˆ
P
Then OA = pdˆ . 
r
 O y
If r is the position vector of an arbitrary point P on the plane,
  x
then AP is perpendicular to OA . Fig. 6.24
  
Therefore, AP ⋅ OA = 0 ⇒ (r − pdˆ ) ⋅ pdˆ = 0

⇒ (r − pdˆ ) ⋅ dˆ = 0
 ˆ
which gives r ⋅ d = p . ... (1)
The above equation is called the vector equation of the plane in normal form.
(b) Cartesian equation of a plane in normal form
Let l , m, n be the direction cosines of d̂ . Then we have dˆ = liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ .
Thus, equation (1) becomes

r ⋅ (liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ) = p

If P is (x,y,z), then r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
Therefore, ( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ) ⋅ (liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ) = p or lx + my + nz = p ... (2)
Equation (2) is called the Cartesian equation of the plane in normal form.
Remark
(i) If the plane passes through the origin, then p = 0 . So, the equation of the plane is
lx + my + nz = 0. 
 d
(ii) If d is normal vector to the plane, then dˆ =  is a unit normal to the plane. So, the vector
|d |

 d     
equation of the plane is r ⋅  = p or r ⋅ d = q , where q = p | d | . The equation r ⋅ d = q is
|d |
the vector equation of a plane in standard form.
Note
  
In the standard form r ⋅ d = q , d need not be a unit normal and q need not be the perpendicular
distance.
6.8.2 Equation of a plane perpendicular to a vector and passing through

a given point
n
(a) Vector form of equation

Consider a plane passing through a point A with position vector a

and n is a normal vector to the given plane. A P

Let r be the position vector of an arbitrary point P on the plane. Fig. 6.25

 
Then AP is perpendicular to n .
    
So, AP ⋅ n = 0 which gives (r − a ) ⋅ n = 0 . ... (1)

which is the vector form of the equation of a plane passing through a point with position vector a and

perpendicular to n .
Note
          
(r − a ) ⋅ n = 0 ⇒ r ⋅ n = a ⋅ n ⇒ r ⋅ n = q , where q = a ⋅ n .
(b) Cartesian form of equation
 
If a, b, c are the direction ratios of n , then we have n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ . Suppose, A is ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
then equation (1) becomes (( x − x )iˆ + ( y − y ) ˆj + ( z − z )kˆ) ⋅ (aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ) = 0 . That is,
1 1 1
a ( x − x1 ) + b( y − y1 ) + c( z − z1 ) = 0
which is the Cartesian equation of a plane, normal to a vector with direction

ratios a, b, c and passing through a given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) .
6.8.3 Intercept form of the equation of a plane

  z
Let the plane r ⋅ n = q meets the coordinate axes at A, B, C
C (0, 0, c)
respectively such that the intercepts on the axes are

OA = a, OB = b, OC = c . Now position vector of the point A is aiˆ . 0)
 b,
Since A lies on the given plane, we have aiˆ ⋅ n = q which gives (0,
(a, 0
B y
O
 q
iˆ ⋅ n = . Similarly, since the vectors bjˆ and ckˆ lie on the given plane, x A
, 0)
a
 q  q  Fig. 6.26
we have ˆj ⋅ n = and kˆ ⋅ n = . Substituting r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ in
b c
     q q q
r ⋅ n = q , we get xiˆ ⋅ n + yjˆ ⋅ n + zkˆ ⋅ n = q. So x   + y   + z   = q .
a b c
Dividing by q, we get, x + y + z = 1 . This is called the intercept form of equation of the plane
a b c
having intercepts a, b, c on the x, y, z axes respectively.
Theorem 6.16
The general equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 of first degree in x, y, z represents a plane.
Proof
The equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 can be written in the vector form as follows
 
( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ) ⋅ (aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ) = −d or r ⋅ n = −d .
Since this is the vector form of the equation of a plane in standard form, the given equation

ax + by + cz + d = 0 represents a plane. Here n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ is a vector normal to the plane.
Note
In the general equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 of a plane, a, b, c are direction ratios of the normal
to the plane.

Example 6.38
Find the vector and Cartesian form of the equations of a plane which is at a distance of 12 units
from the origin and perpendicular to 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ .
Solution

Let d = 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and p = 12 .
If d̂ is the unit normal vector in the direction of the vector 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ ,

d 1
then d =  = (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) .
ˆ
|d | 7
 
If r is the position vector of an arbitrary point ( x, y, z ) on the plane, then using r ⋅ dˆ = p , the
 1
vector equation of the plane in normal form is r ⋅ (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) = 12 .
7
 1
Substituting r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zk in the above equation, we get ( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ) ⋅ (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) = 12 .
ˆ
7
Applying dot product in the above equation and simplifying, we get 6 x + 2 y − 3 z = 84, which is the
Cartesian equation of the required plane.
Example 6.39
If the Cartesian equation of a plane is 3 x − 4 y + 3 z = −8 , find the vector equation of the plane in
the standard form.
Solution

If r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ is the position vector of an arbitrary point ( x, y, z ) on the plane, then the given
equation can be written as ( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ) ⋅ (3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 3kˆ) = −8 or ( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ) ⋅ (−3iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ) = 8 . That

is, r ⋅ (−3iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ) = 8 which is the vector equation of the given plane in standard form.
Example 6.40
Find the direction cosines of the normal to the plane and length of the perpendicular from the

origin to the plane r ⋅ (3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 12kˆ) = 5 .
Solution

Let d = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 12kˆ and q = 5 .
1
If d̂ is the unit vector in the direction of the vector 3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 12kˆ , then dˆ = (3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 12kˆ) .
13
Now, dividing the given equation by 13 , we get
 3 4 12  5
r ⋅  iˆ − ˆj + kˆ  =
 13 13 13  13

which is the equation of the plane in the normal form r ⋅ dˆ = p .
1
From this equation, we infer that dˆ = (3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 12kˆ) is a unit vector normal to the plane from
13
3 −4 12
the origin. Therefore, the direction cosines of d̂ are , , and the length of the perpendicular
13 13 13
5
from the origin to the plane is .
13

Example 6.41
Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the point with position
vector 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and normal to vector 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ .
Solution
 
If the position vector of the given point is a = 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and n = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ , then the equation
      
of the plane passing through a point and normal to a vector is given by (r − a ) ⋅ n = 0 or r ⋅ n = a ⋅ n .
 
Substituting a = 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and n = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ in the above equation, we get

r ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ) = (4iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ)
 
Thus, the required vector equation of the plane is r ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ) = 3 . If r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ then we
get the Cartesian equation of the plane 2 x − y + z = 3 .
Example 6.42
A variable plane moves in such a way that the sum of the reciprocals of its intercepts on the
coordinate axes is a constant. Show that the plane passes through a fixed point
Solution
The equation of the plane having intercepts a, b, c on the x, y, z axes respectively is
x y z
+ + = 1 . Since the sum of the reciprocals of the intercepts on the coordinate axes is a constant,
a b c
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
we have + + = k , where k is a constant, and which can be written as   +   +   = 1 .
a b c ak  bk  ck 
x y z 1 1 1
This shows that the plane + + = 1 passes through the fixed point  , ,  .
a b c k k k
EXERCISE 6.6
1. Find the vector equation of a plane which is at a distance of 7 units from the origin having
3, −4,5 as direction ratios of a normal to it.
2. Find the direction cosines of the normal to the plane 12 x + 3 y − 4 z = 65 . Also, find
the non-parametric form of vector equation of a plane and the length of the perpendicular to
the plane from the origin.
3. Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the point with position
vector 2iˆ + 6 ˆj + 3kˆ and normal to the vector iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ .
4. A plane passes through the point (−1,1, 2) and the normal to the plane of magnitude 3 3
makes equal acute angles with the coordinate axes. Find the equation of the plane.

5. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane r ⋅ (6iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ) = 12 on the coordinate axes.
6. If a plane meets the coordinate axes at A, B, C such that the centriod of the triangle ABC is
the point (u , v, w) , find the equation of the plane.

6.8.4 Equation of a plane passing through three given non-collinear points
Theorem 6.17
  
If three non-collinear points with position vectors a , b , c are given, then the vector equation of the
plane passing through the given points in parametric form is
         
r = a + s (b − a ) + t (c − a ) , where b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0 and s, t ∈  .
Proof z
Consider a plane passing through three non-collinear points
   D
A, B, C with position vectors a , b , c respectively. Then atleast two
P
     B
of them are non-zero vectors. Let us take b ≠ 0 and c ≠ 0 . Let r be
A
the position vector of an arbitrary point P on the plane. Take a point
   C
D on AB (produced) such that AD is parallel to AB and DP is

parallel to AC . Therefore, O y
     
AD = s (b − a ), DP = t (c − a ) .
x
Now, in triangle ADP , we have Fig. 6.27
            
AP = AD + DP or r − a = s (b − a ) + t (c − a ) , where b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0 and s, t ∈ 
     
. That is, r = a + s (b − a ) + t (c − a ) .
This is the parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through the given three
non-collinear points.
z
Let A, B, and C be the three non collinear points on the plane with
  
position vectors a , b , c respectively. Then atleast two of them are A B
      
non-zero vectors. Let us take b ≠ 0 and c ≠ 0 . Now AB = b − a and
a C
      

b
AC = c − a . The vectors (b − a ) and (c − a ) lie on the plane. Since c P
  r
  
a , b , c are non-collinear, AB is not parallel to AC . Therefore, O y
   
(b − a ) × (c − a ) is perpendicular to the plane.
x
 Fig. 6.28
If r is the position vector of an arbitrary point P ( x, y, z ) on the
plane, then the equation of the plane passing through the point A with
    
position vector a and perpendicular to the vector (b − a ) × (c − a ) is given by
           
(r − a ) ⋅ ((b − a ) × (c − a )) = 0 or [r − a , b − a , c − a ] = 0
This is the non-parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through three
non-collinear points.
(c) Cartesian form of equation

If ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) are the coordinates of three non-collinear points A, B, C with
  
position vectors a , b , c respectively and ( x, y, z ) is the coordinates of the point P with position vector
    
r , then we have a = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ, b = x2iˆ + y2 ˆj + z2 kˆ, c = x3iˆ + y3 ˆj + z3 kˆ and r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ .

Using these vectors, the non-parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through the
given three non-collinear points can be equivalently written as
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
which is the Cartesian equation of the plane passing through three non-collinear points.
6.8.5 Equation of a plane passing through a given point and parallel to

two given non-parallel vectors.

Consider a plane passing through a given point A with position vector a and parallel to two
  
given non-parallel vectors b and c . If r is the position vector of an arbitrary point P on the plane,
       
then the vectors (r − a ), b and c are coplanar. So, (r − a ) lies in the plane containing b and c . Then,
   
there exists scalars s, t ∈  such that r − a = sb + tc which implies
   
r = a + sb + tc , where s, t ∈  ... (1)
This is the parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through a given point and
parallel to two given non-parallel vectors .
Equation (1) can be equivalently written as
   
(r − a ) ⋅ (b × c ) = 0 ... (2)
which is the
non-parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through a given point and
parallel to two given non-parallel vectors .

   
If a = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ, b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ, c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ and r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , then the equation
(2) is equivalent to
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
b1 b2 b3 = 0
c1 c2 c3
This is the Cartesian equation of the plane passing through a given point and parallel to two given
non-parallel vectors.
6.8.6 Equation of a plane passing through two given distinct points and

is parallel to a non-zero vector
The parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through two given distinct points A
  
and B with position vectors a and b , and parallel to a non-zero vector c is

        
r = a + s (b − a ) + tc or r = (1 − s )a + sb + tc ... (1)
  
where s, t ∈ , (b − a ) and c are not parallel vectors.

Equation (1) can be written equivalently in non-parametric vector form as
    
(r − a ) ⋅ ((b − a ) × c ) = 0 ... (2)
  
where (b − a ) and c are not parallel vectors.

    
If a = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ, b = x2iˆ + y2 ˆj + z2 kˆ, c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ ≠ 0 and r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , then
equation (2) is equivalent to
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
c1 c2 c3
This is the required Cartesian equation of the plane.

Example 6.43
Find the non-parametric form of vector equation, and Cartesian equation of the plane passing

through the point (0,1, −5) and parallel to the straight lines r = (iˆ + 2 ˆj − 4kˆ) + s (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 6kˆ) and

r = (iˆ − 3 ˆj + 5kˆ) + t (iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) .
Solution
 
We observe that the required plane is parallel to the vectors b = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 6kˆ, c = iˆ + ˆj − kˆ and
  
passing through the point (0,1, −5) with position vector a . We observe that b is not parallel to c .
   
Then the vector equation of the plane in non-parametric form is given by (r − a ) ⋅ (b × c ) = 0 . …(1)
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
Substituting a = ˆj − 5kˆ and b × c = 2 3 6 = −9iˆ + 8 ˆj − kˆ in equation (1), we get
1 1 −1

(r − ( ˆj − 5kˆ)) ⋅ (−9iˆ + 8 ˆj − kˆ) = 0 , which implies that

r ⋅ (−9iˆ + 8 ˆj − kˆ) = 13 .

If r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ is the position vector of an arbitrary point on the plane, then from the above
equation, we get the Cartesian equation of the plane as −9 x + 8 y − z = 13 or 9 x − 8 y + z + 13 = 0 .
Example 6.44
Find the vector parametric, vector non-parametric and Cartesian form of the equation of the plane
x −1 2 y +1 z +1
passing through the points (−1, 2,0), (2, 2 − 1) and parallel to the straight line = = .
1 2 −1
Solution

The required plane is parallel to the given line and so it is parallel to the vector c = iˆ + ˆj − kˆ and
 
the plane passes through the points a = −iˆ + 2 ˆj , b = 2iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ .


( )
 vector equation of the plane in parametric form is r = a + s b − a + tc , where s, t ∈ 

( ) ( ) ( )
which implies that r = −iˆ + 2 ˆj + s 3iˆ − kˆ + t iˆ + ˆj − kˆ , where s, t ∈  .
    
 vector equation of the plane in non-parametric form is (r − a ) ⋅ ((b − a ) × c ) = 0 .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
Now, (b − a ) × c = 3 0 −1 = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ ,
1 1 −1
 
we have (r − (−iˆ + 2 ˆj )) ⋅ (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) = 0 ⇒ r ⋅ (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) = 3

 If r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ is the position vector of an arbitrary point on the plane, then from the
above equation, we get the Cartesian equation of the plane as x + 2 y + 3 z = 3 .
EXERCISE 6.7
1. Find the non-parametric form of vector equation, and Cartesian equation of the plane
x −1 y +1 z − 3
passing through the point (2,3, 6) and parallel to the straight lines = = and
2 3 1
x + 3 y − 3 z +1
= =
2 −5 −3
2. Find the non-parametric form of vector equation, and Cartesian equations of the plane passing
through the points (2, 2,1), (9,3,6) and perpendicular to the plane 2 x + 6 y + 6 z = 9 .
3. Find parametric form of vector equation and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through
the points (2, 2,1), (1, −2,3) and parallel to the straight line passing through the points ( 2,1, −3)
and ( −1,5, −8 ) .
4. Find the non-parametric form of vector equation and cartesian equation of the plane passing through
the point (1, −2, 4) and perpendicular to the plane x + 2 y − 3 z = 11 and parallel to the line
x+7 y+3 z
= = .
3 −1 1
5. Find the parametric form of vector equation, and Cartesian equations of the plane containing
 
the line r = (iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ) + t (2iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ) and perpendicular to plane r ⋅ (iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ) = 8 .
6. Find the parametric vector, non-parametric vector and Cartesian form of the equations of the
plane passing through the three non-collinear points (3, 6, −2), (−1, −2, 6) , and (6, 4, –2).
7.
Find the non-parametric form of vector equation, and Cartesian equations of the plane

( ) ( ) (
r = 6iˆ − ˆj + kˆ + s −iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ + t −5iˆ − 4 ˆj − 5kˆ .)
6.8.7 Condition for a line to lie in a plane
We observe that a straight line will lie in a plane if every point on the line, lie in the plane and
the normal to the p lane is perpendicular to the line.
        
(i) If the line r = a + tb lies in the plane r ⋅ n = d , then a ⋅ n = d and b ⋅ n = 0 .
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(ii) If the line = = lies in the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 , then
a b c
Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0 and aA + bB + cC = 0 .

Example 6.45
x −3 y −4 z +3
Verify whether the line = = lies in the plane 5 x − y + z = 8 .
−4 −7 12
Solution
Here, ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ( 3, 4, −3) and direction ratios of the given straight line are ( a, b, c ) = ( −4, −7,12 ) .
Direction ratios of the normal to the given plane are ( A, B, C ) = ( 5, −1,1) .
We observe that, the given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ( 3, 4, −3) satisfies the given plane 5 x − y + z = 8
Next, aA + bB + cC = (−4)(5) + (−7)(−1) + (12)(1) = −1 ≠ 0 . So, the normal to the plane is not
perpendicular to the line. Hence, the given line does not lie in the plane.
6.8.8 Condition for coplanarity of two lines

(a) Condition in vector form b
  b ×d
   
The two given non-parallel lines r = a + sb and r = c + td are A(a )
L1
coplanar. So they lie in a single plane. Let A and C be the points whose
   L
position vectors are a and c . Then A and C lie on the plane. Since b C (c ) 2
  
and d are parallel to the plane, b × d is perpendicular to the plane. So d
  
AC is perpendicular to b × d . That is, Fig. 6.30
 
( c − a ) ⋅ (b × d )
 
= 0
This is the required condition for coplanarity of two lines in vector form.

(b) Condition in Cartesian form
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
Two lines = = and = = are coplanar if
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
b1 b2 b3 = 0
d1 d2 d3
This is the required condition for coplanarity of two lines in Cartesian form.
6.8.9 Equation of plane containing two non-parallel coplanar lines

  
Let r = a + sb and r = c + td be two non-parallel coplanar lines. Then b × d ≠ 0 . Let P be any

point on the plane and let r0 be its position vector. Then, the vectors r0 − a, b, d as well as r0 − c, b, d

are also coplanar. So, we get r0 − a = tb + sd or r0 − c = tb + sd . Hence, the vector equation in

parametric form is r = a + tb + sd or r = c + tb + sd .

  
Let r = a + sb and r = c + td be two non-parallel coplanar lines. Then b × d ≠ 0 . Let P be any

point on the plane and let r0 be its position vector. Then, the vectors r0 − a, b, d as well as r0 − c, b, d

( )( ) ( )( )
are also coplanar. So, we get r0 − a . b × d = 0 or r0 − c . b × d = 0 . Hence, the vector equation in

( )( )
non-parametric form is r − a . b × d = 0 or r − c . b × d = 0 . ( )( )
(C) Cartesian form of equation of plane
In Cartesian form the equation of the plane containing the two given coplanar lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = is given by
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
b1 b2 b3 = 0 or
d1 d2 d3
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
b1 b2 b3 = 0
d1 d2 d3

Example 6.46


( ) ( 
) (
Show that the lines r = −iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ + s 3iˆ + 5 ˆj + 7 kˆ and r = 2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 6kˆ + t iˆ + 4 ˆj + 7 kˆ ) ( )
are coplanar. Also,find the non-parametric form of vector equation of the plane containing these lines.
Solution
Comparing the two given lines with
     
r = a + tb , r = c + sd
   
we have, a = −iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ, b = 3iˆ + 5 ˆj + 7 kˆ, c = 2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 6kˆ and d = iˆ + 4 ˆj + 7 kˆ
   
We know that the two given lines are coplanar , if ( c − a ) ⋅ b × d = 0 ( )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
Here, b × d = 3 5 7 = 7iˆ − 14 ˆj + 7 kˆ and c − a = 3iˆ + 7 ˆj + 11kˆ
1 4 7
 
( c − a ) ⋅ ( b × d ) = ( 3iˆ + 7 ˆj + 11kˆ ) ⋅ ( 7iˆ − 14 ˆj + 7kˆ ) = 0 .
 
Then,
Therefore the two given lines are coplanar.Then we find t he non parametric form of vector
equation of the plane containing the two given coplanar lines. We know that the plane containing the
two given coplanar lines is
   
(r − a) ⋅ b × d = 0(
)
which implies that ( r − ( −iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ ) ) ⋅ ( 7iˆ − 14 ˆj + 7 kˆ ) = 0 . Thus, the required non-parametric


vector equation of the plane containing the two given coplanar lines is r ⋅ iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ = 0 . ( )

EXERCISE 6.8

Show that the straight lines r = (5iˆ + 7 ˆj − 3kˆ) + s (4iˆ + 4 ˆj − 5kˆ) and
1.

( ) ( )
r = 8iˆ + 4 ˆj + 5kˆ + t 7iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ are coplanar. Find the vector equation of the plane in which
they lie.
x −2 y −3 z −4 x −1 y − 4 z − 5
2.
Show that the lines = = and = = are coplanar. Also, find
1 1 3 −3 2 1
the plane containing these lines.
x −1 y − 2 z − 3 x − 3 y − 2 z −1
3.
If the straight lines = = 2 and = 2 = are coplanar, find the
1 2 m 1 m 2
distinct real values of m.
x −1 y +1 z x +1 y +1 z
4.
If the straight lines = = and = = are coplanar, find λ and equations
2 λ 2 5 2 λ
of the planes containing these two lines.
6.8.10 Angle between two planes

The angle between two given planes is same as the angle between their normals.
Theorem 6.18
   
The acute angle θ between the two planes r ⋅ n1 = p1 and r ⋅ n2 = p2 is given by
 
 n1 ⋅ n2 
θ = cos    
−1
 n1 n2 
θ
p1
=
θ)
=
Proof
r ⋅ 
n1
−
    (9
0 
If θ is the acute angle between two planes r ⋅ n1 = p1 and r ⋅ n2 = p2 , then 0−  n2
9
n1
 
−θ
θ is the acute angle between their normal vectors n1 and n2 .

°
90
θ
   
 n1 ⋅ n2   n1 ⋅ n2   
Therefore, cos θ =     ⇒ θ = cos 
−1
   ... (1) r ⋅ n2 = p2
 n1 n2   n1 n2 
Fig. 6.30
Remark
     
(i) If two planes r ⋅ n1 = p1 and r ⋅ n2 = p2 are perpendicular, then n1 ⋅ n2 = 0
     
(ii) If the planes r ⋅ n1 = p1 and r ⋅ n2 = p2 are parallel, then n1 = λ n2 , where λ is a scalar
   
(iii) Equation of a plane parallel to the plane r ⋅ n = p is r ⋅ n = k , k ∈ 
Theorem 6.19
The acute angle θ between the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and
 a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 is given by θ = cos −1  
 a 2 +b2 +c 2 a 2 +b 2 +c 2 
 1 1 1 2 2 2 

Proof
 
If n1 and n2 are the vectors normal to the two given planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and
 
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 respectively. Then, n1 = a1iˆ + b1 ˆj + c1kˆ and n2 = a2iˆ + b2 ˆj + c2 kˆ
Therefore, using equation (1) in theorem 6.18 the acute angle θ between the planes is given by
 a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 
θ = cos −1  
 a 2 +b2 +c 2 a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2 
 1 1 1
Remark
(i) The planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 are perpendicular if
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
a1 b1 c1
(ii) The planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 are parallel if = =
a2 b2 c2
(iii) Equation of a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz = p is ax + by + cz = k , k ∈ 
Example 6.47

( )
Find the acute angle between the planes r ⋅ 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ = 11 and 4 x − 2 y + 2 z = 15 .
Solution


( )
The normal vectors of the two given planes r ⋅ 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ = 11 and 4 x − 2 y + 2 z = 15 are
 
n1 = 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ and n2 = 4iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ respectively.
If θ is the acute angle between the planes, then we have

 
 n1 ⋅ n2  −1 
θ = cos     = cos 
−1
( )(
 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ ⋅ 4iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ
)  = cos −1
 2
  
 n1 n2   2iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ 4iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ   3 
 
6.8.11 Angle between a line and a plane

n
+t
We know that the angle between a line and a plane is the

b
=
a
complement of the angle between the normal to the plane and

r
the line
θ
  
°−
 
90
Let r = a + tb be the equation of the line and r ⋅ n = p be θ


the equation of the plane. We know that b is parallel to the given

line and n is normal to the given plane. If θ is the acute angle
r ⋅n = p

between the line and the plane, then the acute angle between n Fig. 6.31
 π 
and b is  − θ  . Therefore,
2   
π  b ⋅n
cos  − θ  = sin θ =  
2  b n


 b ⋅ n 
So, the acute angle between the line and the plane is given by θ = sin −1     ... (1)
b n
 
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
In Cartesian form if = = and ax + by + cz = p are the equations of the line and
a1 b1 c1
 
the plane, then b = a1iˆ + b1 ˆj + c1kˆ and n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ . Therefore, using (1), the acute angle θ
between the line and plane is given by

 aa1 + bb1 + cc1 
θ = sin −1  
 a 2 + b2 + c2 a12 + b12 + c12 

Remark
(i) If the line is perpendicular to the plane, then the line is parallel to the normal to the plane.
    a b c
So, b is perpendicular to n . Then we have b = λ n where λ ∈  ,which gives 1 = 1 = 1 .
a b c
(ii) If the line is parallel to the plane, then the line is perpendicular to the normal to the plane.
 
Therefore, b ⋅ n = 0 ⇒ aa1 + bb1 + cc1 = 0
Example 6.48


( ) ( )
Find the angle between the straight line r = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ + t iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and the plane
2x − y + z = 5 .
Solution 
       b ⋅ n 
The angle between a line r = a + tb and a plane r ⋅ n = p with normal n is θ = sin −1     .
b n 
  

Here, b = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and n = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ .
 æ
 b ⋅ n  -1 ç
ç (iˆ - ˆj + kˆ)×(2iˆ - ˆj + kˆ) ö÷÷÷ æ 2 2 ö÷
So,we get θ = sin −1 
  =
sin çç ÷÷ = sin -1 ççç ÷÷
 b n  çèçç iˆ - ˆj + kˆ 2iˆ - ˆj + kˆ ÷÷ èç 3 ø÷
  ø
6.8.12 Distance of a point from a plane

(a) Equation of a plane in vector form
Theorem 6.20
  
The perpendicular distance from a point with position vector u to the plane r ⋅ n = p is given by
 
u ⋅n − p
δ=  .
n
Proof

Let A be the point whose position vector is u .

Let F be the foot of the perpendicular from the point A to the plane
   A(u )
r ⋅ n = p . The line joining F and A is parallel to the normal vector n and n
  
hence its equation is r = u + tn . δ
  
But F is the point of intersection of the line r = u + tn and the
     
given plane r ⋅ n = p . If r1 is the position vector of F, then r1 = u + t1n F
  
for some t1 ∈  , and r1 ⋅ n = p .Eliminating r1 we get

  r ⋅n = p
   p − (u ⋅ n ) Fig. 6.32
( u + t1n ) ⋅ n = p which implies t1 =  2 .
n
 
      (u ⋅ n ) − p  
Now, FA = u − ( u + t1n ) = −t1n =  2 n
 n 
 
Therefore, the length of the perpendicular from the point A to the given plane is
  ( u ⋅ n ) − p   ( u ⋅ n ) − p
δ = FA =  2 n = 
 n  n
 
The position vector of the foot F of the perpendicular AF is given by
  
r1 = u + t1n or
 
   p − u ⋅n 
r1 =
u +  2 n
 n 
(b) Equation of a plane in Cartesian form

In Caretesian form if A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is the given point with position vector u and ax + by + cz = p
 
is the Cartesian equation of the given plane, then u = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ and n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ . Therefore,
 
|u ⋅n − p |
using these vectors in δ =  , we get the perpendicular distance from a point to the plane in
|n|
Cartesian form as
ax + by + cz − p ax + by + cz − p
δ= 1 2 1 2 1 2 = 1 2 1 2 1 2
a +b +c a +b +c
Remark
The perpendicular distance from the origin to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
d
δ=
a 2 + b2 + c2
Example 6.49


(
Find the distance of a point (2,5, −3) from the plane r ⋅ 6iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ = 5 . )
Solution
  
Comparing the given equation of the plane with r ⋅ n = p , we have n = 6iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ .


We know that the perpendicular distance from the given point with position vector u to the
 
  u ⋅n − p 
plane r ⋅ n = p is given by δ =  . Therefore, substituting u = ( 2,5, −3) = 2iˆ + 5 ˆj − 3kˆ and
n

n = 6iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ in the formula, we get
δ=
 
u ⋅n − p
=
( )(
2iˆ + 5 ˆj − 3kˆ ⋅ 6iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ − 5 )
= 2 units.

n 6iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ
Example 6.50
Find the distance of the point ( 5, −5, −10 ) from the point of intersection of a straight line passing
through the points A ( 4,1, 2 ) and B ( 7,5, 4 ) with the plane x − y + z = 5 .
Solution
The Cartesian equation of the straight line joining A and B is
x − 4 y −1 z − 2
= = = t (say).
3 4 2
Therefore, an arbitrary point on the straight line is of the form ( 3t + 4, 4t + 1, 2t + 2 ) . To find the
point of intersection of the straight line and the plane, we substitute x = 3t + 4, y = 4t + 1, z = 2t + 2 in
x − y + z = 5 , and we get t = 0 . Therefore,the point of intersection of the straight line is (4, 1, 2). Now,
the distance between the two points (4, 1, 2) and ( 5, −5, −10 ) is
2 2 2
(4 - 5) + (1 + 5) + (2 +10) = 181 units.
6.8.13 Distance between two parallel planes

Theorem 6.21
The distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0 is given
d1 − d 2
by .
a 2 + b2 + c2
Proof
Let A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be any point on the plane ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0 , then we have
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d 2 = 0 ⇒ ax1 + by1 + cz1 = −d 2
The distance of the plane ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 from the point A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is given by
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d1 d1 − d 2

δ = =
a 2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c2
Hence, the distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0 is

d1 − d 2
given by δ = .
a 2 + b2 + c2

Example 6.51
Find the distance between the parallel planes x + 2 y − 2 z + 1 = 0 and 2 x + 4 y − 4 z + 5 = 0 .
Solution
We know that the formula for the distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and
d1 − d 2 5
ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0 is δ = . Rewrite the second equation as x + 2 y − 2 z + =0.
a 2 + b2 + c2 2
5
Comparing the given equations with the general equations, we get a = 1, b = 2, c = −2, d1 = 1, d 2 = .
2
Substituting these values in the formula, we get the distance
5
1−
d1 − d 2 2 1
δ= = = units.
1 + 2 + ( −2 ) 2
2 2 2
a +b +c 2 2 2
Example 6.52

( ) 
(
Find the distance between the planes r ⋅ 2iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ = 6 and r ⋅ 6iˆ − 3 ˆj − 6kˆ = 27 )
Solution
 
Let u be the position vector of an arbitrary point on the plane r ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ) = 6 . Then, we have

u ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ) = 6 . ... (1)

If δ is the distance between the given planes, then δ is the perpendicular distance from u to the
plane

r ⋅ (6iˆ − 3 ˆj − 6iˆ) = 27 .
   
| u ⋅ n − p | u ⋅ (6iˆ − 3 ˆj − 6kˆ) − 27 3(u ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ)) − 27 (3(6) − 27
Therefore, δ =  = = = = 1 unit.
|n| 62 + (−3) 2 + (−6) 2 9 9
6.8.14 Equation of line of intersection of two planes

   
Let r ⋅ n = p and r ⋅ m = q be two non-parallel planes. We know
⋅m =
r
  m
q
that n and m are perpendicular to the given planes respectively.

So, the line of intersection of these planes is perpendicular to both n × m
   
n and m . Therefore, it is parallel to the vector n × m . Let
 
n × m = l iˆ + l ˆj + l kˆ
1 2 3
Consider the equations of two planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = p and

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = q . The line of intersection of the two given planes

intersects atleast one of the coordinate planes. For simplicity, we r ⋅n = p
n
assume that the line meets the coordinate plane z = 0 . Substitute
z=0 and obtain the two equations a1 x + b1 y − p = 0 and Fig. 6.33
a2 x + b2 y − q = 0 .Then by solving these equations, we get the values of x and y as x1 and y1 respectively.

So, ( x1 , y1 , 0 ) is a point on the required line, which is parallel to l1iˆ + l2 ˆj + l3 kˆ . So, the equation of the
x − x1 y − y1 z − 0
line is = = .
l1 l2 l3
6.8.15 Equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of two

given planes
Theorem 6.22
The vector equation of a plane which passes through the line of intersection of the planes
       
r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d 2 is given by ( r ⋅ n1 − d1 ) + λ ( r ⋅ n2 − d 2 ) = 0 , where λ ∈  .
Proof
(r n1 d1 ) (r n2 d 2 ) 0

Consider the equation
   
( r ⋅ n1 − d1 ) + λ ( r ⋅ n2 − d 2 ) = 0 ... (1)

The above equation can be simplified as
  
r ⋅ ( n1 + λ n2 ) − ( d1 + λ d 2 ) = 0 ... (2)

   r n
Put n = n1 + λ n2 , d = ( d1 + λ d 2 ) . 2 d2
Then the equation (2) becomes
  r .n1 d1
r ⋅n = d ... (3)
Fig. 6.34
The equation (3) represents a plane. Hence (1) represents a plane.
 
Let r1 be the position vector of any point on the line of intersection of the plane. Then r1 satisfies
   
both the equations r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d 2 . So, we have
 
r1 ⋅ n1 = d1 ... (4)
 
and r2 ⋅ n2 = d 2 ... (5)

By (4) and (5), r1 satisfies (1). So, any point on the line of intersection lies on the plane (1). This
proves that the plane (1) passes through the line of intersection.
The cartesian equation of a plane which passes through the line of intersection of the planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 is given by
( a1 x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 ) + λ ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 z − d 2 ) = 0
Example 6.53


Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes r ⋅ iˆ + ˆj + kˆ + 1 = 0 ( )

( )
and r ⋅ 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 5kˆ = 2 and the point ( −1, 2,1) .
Solution
We know that the vector equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
       
r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d 2 is given by ( r ⋅ n1 − d1 ) + λ ( r ⋅ n2 − d 2 ) = 0
  
Substituting r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , n1 = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ , n2 = 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 5kˆ , d1 = 1, d 2 = −2 in the above
equation, we get
( x + y + z + 1) + λ ( 2 x − 3 y + 5 z − 2 ) = 0

3
Since this plane passes through the point ( −1, 2,1) , we get λ = , and hence the required equation
5
of the plane is 11x − 4 y + 20 z = 1 .
Example 6.54
Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes 2 x + 3 y − z + 7 = 0
and x + y − 2 z + 5 = 0 and is perpendicular to the plane x + y − 3 z − 5 = 0 .
Solution
The equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes 2 x + 3 y − z + 7 = 0 and
x + y − 2 z + 5 = 0 is ( 2 x + 3 y − z + 7 ) + λ ( x + y − 2 z + 5 ) = 0 or
( 2 + λ ) x + ( 3 + λ ) y + ( −1 − 2λ ) z + ( 7 + 5λ ) = 0
since this plane is perpendicular to the given plane x + y − 3 z − 5 = 0 , the normals of these two planes
are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, we have
(1)( 2 + λ ) + (1)( 3 + λ ) + ( −3)( −1 − 2λ ) z = 0
which implies that λ = −1 .Thus the required equation of the plane is
( 2 x + 3 y − z + 7 ) − ( x + y − 2 z + 5) = 0 ⇒ x + 2 y + z + 2 = 0 .
6.9 Image of a Point in a Plane

  
Let A be the given point whose position vector is u . Let r ⋅ n = p be the equation of the plane.
 
Let v be the position vector of the mirror image A′ of A in the plane. Then AA ' is perpendicular to

the plane. So it is parallel to n . Then
       
AA′ = λ n or v − u = λ n ⇒ v = u + λ n ... (1)
 
u +v
Let M be the middle point of AA′ . Then the position vector of M is . But M lies on
2
the plane.
 
u +v  
So,   ⋅ n = p . ... (2) A(u )
 2 
n
Sustituting (1) in (2), we get
    
 u + λn + u   2  p − ( u ⋅ n ) 
⋅n = p ⇒ λ =
M
 2
 2  | n |

Therefore, the position vector of A′ r ⋅n = p
  A′(v )
  2[ p − (u ⋅ n )]
is v = u +  Fig. 6.35
| n |2
Note
 
The mid point of M of AA′ is the foot of the perpendicular from the point A to the plane r ⋅ n = p . So
the position vector of the foot M of the perpendicular is given by .

    
u + v u 1   2[ p − (u ⋅ n )  
= + u +  n
2 2 2 | n |2 

6.9.1 The coordinates of the image of a point in a plane
 
Let ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) be the point u whose image in the plane is required. Then u = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ .
Let ax + by + cz = d be the equation of the given plane.Writing the equation in the vector form we
  
get r ⋅ n = p where n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ .Then the position vector of the image is
 
  2  p − ( u ⋅ n )  
v =u+  n.
| n |2

If v = v1iˆ + v2 ˆj + v3 kˆ , then v1 = a1 + 2aα , v2 = a2 + 2aα , v3 = a3 + 2aα
2  p − ( aa1 + ba2 + ca3 ) 

where α =  .
a 2 + b2 + c2
Example 6.55

(
Find the image of the point whose position vector is iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ in the plane r ⋅ iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ = 38 .)
Solution
  
Here, u = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ , n = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ , p = 38 . Then the position vector of the image v of
 
 ˆ   2 
 p − ( u ⋅ n )  
u = i + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ is given by v = u + 2 n.
|n|
(( )(
2 38 − iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ ⋅ iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ  ))
 ˆ
( )
v = i + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ +  (
 iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ .
)
( ˆ )( ˆ
iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4k ⋅ iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4k )
 æ 38 -17 ö÷
( )
That is, v = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ + 2 çç
çè 21 ÷÷ø ( )
iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ = 3iˆ + 6 ˆj + 11kˆ .
Therefore, the image of the point with position vector iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ is 3iˆ + 6 ˆj + 11kˆ .
Note
The foot of the perpendicular from the point with position vector iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ in the given plane is
(iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) + (3iˆ + 6 ˆj + 11kˆ)

= 2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 7 kˆ .
2
6.10 Meeting Point of a Line and a Plane

Theorem 6.23
  
The position vector of the point of intersection of the straight line r = a + tb and the plane
   
    p − (a ⋅ n )  
r ⋅ n = p is a +     b , provided b × n ¹ 0 .
 b ⋅n 
Proof
  
Let r = a + tb be the equation of the given line which is not parallel to the given plane whose
   
equation is r ⋅ n = p . So, b × n ¹ 0 .

    
Let u be the position vector of the meeting point of the line with the plane. Then u satisfies both r = a + tb
 
and r ⋅ n = p for some value of t , say t1 . So, We get
  
=
u = a + tb ... (1)

b
n
+t
 
a
u ⋅ n = p ...(2)

b
  
( )
a + t1b ⋅ n = p M
   
or a ⋅ n + t1 b ⋅ n = p ( )

  r ⋅n = p
p − (a ⋅ n)
or t1 =   ...(3)
b ⋅n Fig. 6.36

 
   p − (a ⋅ n )   
u = a +     b , b ⋅ n ≠ 0
 b ⋅ n 
Example 6.56

(
Find the coordinates of the point where the straight line r = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ + t 3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 2kˆ ) ( )
intersects the plane x − y + z − 5 = 0 .
Solution
 
Here, a = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ, b = 3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 2kˆ .

( 
)
The vector form of the given plane is r ⋅ iˆ − ˆj + kˆ = 5 . Then n = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and p = 5 .
  
We know that the position vector of the point of intersection of the line r = a + tb and the plane
 
     p − (a ⋅ n)    
r ⋅ d = p is given by u = a +     b , where b × n ¹ 0 .
 b ⋅n 
 
Clearly, we observe that b × n ¹ 0 .
Now,
 
  =
(
ˆ ˆ )(
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
p − a ⋅ n 5 − 2i − j + 2k ⋅ i − j + k )
= 0 . Therefore,the position vector of the point of
b ⋅n ( )(
3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 2kˆ ⋅ iˆ − ˆj + kˆ )
intersection of the given line and the given plane is

( ) ( )
r = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ + ( 0 ) 3iˆ + 4 ˆj + 2kˆ = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ
That is, the given straight line intersects the plane at the point ( 2, −1, 2 ) .
Aliter
x − 2 y +1 z − 2
The Cartesian equation of the given straight line is = = = t (say)
3 4 2
We know that any point on the given straight line is of the form ( 3t + 2, 4 t − 1, 2 t + 2 ) . If the
given line and the plane intersects, then this point lies on the given pane x − y + z − 5 = 0 .
So, ( 3t + 2 ) − ( 4 t − 1) + ( 2 t + 2 ) − 5 = 0 ⇒ t = 0 .
Therefore, the given line intersects the given plane at the point (2, -1, 2)

EXERCISE 6.9
1. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes

( )
r ⋅ 2iˆ − 7 ˆj + 4kˆ = 3 and 3 x − 5 y + 4 z + 11 = 0 , and the point ( −2,1,3) .
2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
2
x + 2 y + 3 z = 2 and x − y + z = 3 , and at a distance from the point ( 3,1, −1) .
3

( ) (
3. Find the angle between the line r = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ + t iˆ + 2 ˆj − 2kˆ and the plane )

(
r ⋅ 6iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ = 8 )

( )
4. Find the angle between the planes r ⋅ iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ = 3 and 2 x − 2 y + z = 2 .
5. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point ( 3, 4, −1) and is parallel to the
plane 2 x − 3 y + 5 z + 7 = 0 . Also, find the distance between the two planes.
6. Find the length of the perpendicular from the point (1, −2,3) to the plane x − y + z = 5 .
y
7. Find the point of intersection of the line x − 1 = = z + 1 with the plane 2 x − y + 2 z = 2 . Also,
2
find the angle between the line and the plane.
8. Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular and length of the perpendicular from the
point ( 4,3,2) to the plane x + 2 y + 3 z = 2 .
EXERCISE 6.10
    
1. If a and b are parallel vectors, then [a , c , b ] is equal to
(1) 2 (2) −1 (3) 1 (4) 0
  
2. If a vector α lies in the plane of β and γ , then
           
(1) [α , β , γ ] = 1 (2) [α , β , γ ] = −1 (3) [α , β , γ ] = 0 (4) [α , β , γ ] = 2
        
3. If a ⋅ b = b ⋅ c = c ⋅ a = 0, then the value of [a , b , c ] is
   1   
(1) | a | | b | | c | (2) | a | | b | | c | (3) 1 (4) −1
3
     
4. If a , b , c are three unit vectors such that a is perpendicular to b , and is parallel to c then
  
a × (b × c ) is equal to
   
(1) a (2) b (3) c (4) 0
        
   a ⋅ (b × c ) b ⋅ (c × a ) c ⋅ (a × b )
5. If [a , b , c ] = 1, then the value of    +    +    is
(c × a ) ⋅ b ( a × b ) ⋅ c (c × b ) ⋅ a
(1) 1 (2) −1 (3) 2 (4) 3
6. The volume of the parallelepiped with its edges represented by the vectors
iˆ + ˆj , iˆ + 2 ˆj , iˆ + ˆj + π kˆ is
π π π
(1) (2) (3) π (4)
2 3 4

      1  
7. If a and b are unit vectors such that [a , b , a ´b ] = , then the angle between a and b is
4
π π π π
(1) (2) (3) (4)
6 4 3 2
 ˆ ˆ ˆ  ˆ ˆ  ˆ     
8. If a = i + j + k , b = i + j , c = i and (a × b ) × c = λ a + µ b , then the value of λ + µ is
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 6 (4) 3
           
9. If a , b , c are non-coplanar, non-zero vectors such that [a , b , c ] = 3 , then {[a × b , b × c , c × a ]}2
is equal to
(1) 81 (2) 9 (3) 27 (4)18
 
      b +c
10. If a , b , c are three non-coplanar unit vectors such that a × (b × c ) = , then the angle
2
 
between a and b is
π 3p π
(1) (2) (3) (4) π
2 4 4
     
11. If the volume of the parallelepiped with a × b , b × c , c × a as coterminous edges is 8 cubic
       
units, then the volume of the parallelepiped with (a × b ) × (b × c ), (b × c ) × (c × a ) and
   
(c × a ) × (a × b ) as coterminous edges is,
(1) 8 cubic units (2) 512 cubic units (3) 64 cubic units (4) 24 cubic units
        
12. Consider the vectors a , b , c , d such that (a × b ) × (c × d ) = 0 . Let P1 and P2 be the planes
   
determined by the pairs of vectors a , b and c , d respectively. Then the angle between P1 and
P2 is
(1) 0° (2) 45° (3) 60° (4) 90°

            
13. If a × (b × c ) = (a × b ) × c , where a , b , c are any three vectors such that b ⋅ c ≠ 0 and a ⋅ b ≠ 0 ,
 
then a and c are
(1) perpendicular (2) parallel
π π
(3) inclined at an angle (4) inclined at an angle
3 6
   
14. If a = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj − kˆ, b = iˆ + 2 ˆj − 5kˆ, c = 3iˆ + 5 ˆj − kˆ, then a vector perpendicular to a and lies
 
in the plane containing b and c is
(1) −17iˆ + 21 ˆj − 97 kˆ (2) 17iˆ + 21 ˆj − 123kˆ
(3) −17iˆ − 21 ˆj + 97 kˆ (4) −17iˆ − 21 ˆj − 97 kˆ
x − 2 y +1 x −1 2 y + 3 z + 5
, z = 2 and
15. The angle between the lines
= = = is
3 −2 1 3 2
p p p p
(1) (2) (3) (4)
6 4 3 2

x − 2 y −1 z + 2
16. If the line = = lies in the plane x + 3 y − α z + β = 0, then (α , β ) is
3 −5 2
(1) (−5,5) (2) (−6, 7) (3) (5, −5) (4) (6, −7)
 
17. The angle between the line r = (iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) + t (2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ) and the plane r ⋅ (iˆ + ˆj ) + 4 = 0 is
(1) 0° (2) 30° (3) 45° (4) 90°

18. The coordinates of the point where the line r = (6iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ) + t (−iˆ + 4kˆ) meets the plane

r .(iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) = 3 are
(1) (2,1, 0) (2) (7, −1, −7) (3) (1, 2, −6) (4) (5, −1,1)
19. Distance from the origin to the plane 3 x − 6 y + 2 z + 7 = 0 is
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
20. The distance between the planes x + 2 y + 3 z + 7 = 0 and 2 x + 4 y + 6 z + 7 = 0 is
7 7 7 7
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
21. If the direction cosines of a line are , , , then
c c c
(1) c = ±3 (2) c = ± 3 (3) c > 0 (4) 0 < c < 1

22. The vector equation r = (iˆ − 2 ˆj − kˆ) + t (6 ˆj − kˆ) represents a straight line passing through the
points
(1) (0, 6, −1) and (1, −2, −1) (2) (0, 6, −1) and (−1, −4, −2)
(3) (1, −2, −1) and (1, 4, −2) (4) (1, −2, −1) and (0, −6,1)
23. If the distance of the point (1,1,1) from the origin is half of its distance from the plane
x + y + z + k = 0 , then the values of k are
(1) ±3 (2) ±6 (3) −3,9 (4) 3, −9
 
24. If the planes r .(2iˆ − λ ˆj + kˆ) = 3 and r .(4iˆ + ˆj − µ kˆ) = 5 are parallel, then the value of λ and
µ are
1 1 1 1
(1) , −2 (2) − , 2 (3) − , −2 (4) ,2
2 2 2 2
25. If the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane 2 x + 3 y + λ z = 1 , λ > 0 is
1
, then the value of λ is
5
(1) 2 3 (2) 3 2 (3) 0 (4) 1

SUMMARY
     
1. For a given set of three vectors a , b and c , the scalar (a × b ) ⋅ c is called a scalar triple product
  
of a , b , c.
  
2. The volume of the parallelepiped formed by using the three vectors a , b , and c as
  
co-terminus edges is given by (a × b ) ⋅ c .
3. The scalar triple product of three non-zero vectors is zero if and only if the three vectors are coplanar.
  
4. Three vectors a , b , c are coplanar, if, and only if there exist scalars r , s, t Î  such that atleast
   
one of them is non-zero and ra + sb + tc = 0 .
         
5. If a, b, c and p, q, r are any two systems of three vectors, and if p = x1 a + y1 b + z1 c,
x1 y1 z1
             
q = x2 a + y2 b + z2 c, and, r = x3 a + y3 b + z3 c , then  p, q, r  = x2 y2 z2  a, b, c  .
x3 y3 z3
     
6. For a given set of three vectors a , b , c , the vector a × (b × c ) is called vector triple product .
           
7. For any three vectors a , b , c we have a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c )b − (a ⋅ b )c .
8. Parametric form of the vector equation of a straight line
 that passes through a given point
  
with position vector a and parallel to a given vector b is r = a + tb , where t ∈ .
9. Cartesian equations of a straight line that passes through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and parallel to a
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
vector with direction ratios b1 , b2 , b3 are = = .
b1 b2 b3
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
10. Any point on the line = = is of the form ( x1 + tb1 , y1 + tb2 , z1 + tb3 ) , t ∈ .
b1 b2 b3
11. Parametric form of vector equation of a straight line that passes through two given points
     
(
with position vectors a and b is r = a + t b − a , t ∈ . )
12. Cartesian equations of a line that passes through two given points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
are = = .
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
     
13. If θ is the acute angle between two straight lines r = a + sb and r = c + td , then
 
 b ⋅d 
θ = cos −1    
b d 
 
14. Two lines are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane.
15. Two lines in space are called skew lines if they are not parallel and do not intersect
16. The shortest distance between the two skew lines is the length of the line segment perpendicular
to both the skew lines.
     
17. The shortest distance between the two skew lines r = a + sb and r = c + td is
   
δ =  
(
(c − a ) ⋅ b × d )  
, where | b × d | ≠ 0 .
b ×d

         
( )
18. Two straight lines r = a + sb and r = c + td intersect each other if ( c − a ) ⋅ b × d = 0
  
      (c − a ) × b
19. The shortest distance between the two parallel lines r = a + sb and r = c + tb is d =  ,
b

where | b | ¹ 0
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
20. If two lines = = and = = intersect, then
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
b1 b2 b3 = 0
d1 d2 d3
21. A straight line which is perpendicular to a plane is called a normal to the plane.
22. The equation of the plane at a distance p from the origin and perpendicular to the unit normal

vector d̂ is r ⋅ dˆ = p ( normal form)
23. Cartesian equation of the plane in normal form is lx + my + nz = p

24. Vector form of the equation of a plane passing through a point with position vector a and
   
perpendicular to n is ( r − a ) ⋅ n = 0 .
25. Cartesian equation of a plane normal to a vector with direction ratios a,b,c and passing through
a given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0 .
 
26. Intercept form of the equation of the plane r ⋅ n = q , having intercepts a, b, c on the x, y, z
x y z
axes respectively is + + = 1 .
a b c
27. Parametric form of vector equation of the plane passing through three given non-collinear
     
( )
points is r = a + s b − a + t ( c − a )
28. Cartesian equation of the plane passing through three non-collinear points is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0 .
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
29. A straight will lie on a plane if every point on the line, lie in the plane and the normal to the
plane is perpendicular to the line.
         
( )
30. The two given non-parallel lines r = a + sb and r = c + td are coplanar if ( c − a ) ⋅ b × d = 0 .
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
31. Two lines = = and = = are coplanar if
b1 b2 b3 d1 d2 d3
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
b1 b2 b3 = 0
d1 d2 d3
  
32. Non-parametric form of vector equation of the plane containing the two coplanar lines r = a + sb
          
( ) ( )
and r = c + td is ( r − a ) ⋅ b × d = 0 or ( r − c ) ⋅ b × d = 0 .
 
    
−1 n1 ⋅ n2

33. The acute angle θ between the two planes r ⋅ n1 = p1 and r ⋅ n2 = p2 is θ = cos    
n n 
 1 2 


  b ⋅ n 
   
34. If θ is the acute angle between the line r = a + tb and the plane r ⋅ n = p , then θ = sin −1    
b n 
 
  
35. The perpendicular distance from a point with position vector u to the plane r ⋅ n = p is given
 
by δ = | u ⋅ n− p |
|n|
36. The perpendicular distance from a point ( x2 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane ax + by + cz = p is
| ax1 + by1 + cz1 − p |
d= .
a 2 + b2 + c2
37. The perpendicular distance from the origin to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
d
δ =

a 2 + b2 + c2
38. The distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0 is
d1 − d 2
given by .
a 2 + b2 + c2
39. The vector equation of a plane which passes through the line of intersection of the planes
       
r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d 2 is given by (r ⋅ n1 − d1 ) + λ (r ⋅ n2 − d 2 ) = 0 , where λ Î  is an.
40. The equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 is given by
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 ) + l (a2 x + b2 y + c2 z − d 2 ) = 0
    
41. The position vector of the point of intersection of the line r = a + tb and the plane r ⋅ n = p
 
   p − (a ⋅ n)     
is u = a +     b , where b ⋅ n ≠ 0 .
 b ⋅n 
   
42. If v is the position vector of the image of u in the plane r ⋅ n = p ,then
 
  2  p − ( u ⋅ n )  
v =u+ n .
| n |2
ICT CORNER

related to your text book. Click on the chapter named "Applications of
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Select the work sheet "Scalar Triple Product"

ANSWERS
Exercise 1.1
 1 1 −1  2 −2 1 
 2 −4   −3 1 1  (iii) 1  2 1 −2 
1. (i)   (ii)    
 −6 −3  3
 9 −5 −1 1 +2 2 
 6 −1 −1  1 1 −1
1  −3 −4  1  1 1  2 3
2. (i)   (ii)  −1 6 −1 (iii)  −3 1 1  4. A-1 = 

2  −1 −2  28 2 7  −1 –5 
 −1 −1 6   9 −5 −1
6 2 1   0 −2 0   2 0 −2 
  1
8. ± 5 2 2  9. ±  6 2 −6  10.  0 2 0 

6
6 2 3   −3 0 6   2 0 2 
3 1  0 1 
12.
1 −2  13.
0 0  15. HELP
   
Exercise 1.2
1. (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 3 2. (i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 3
 −2 −3 1  −40 16 9 
 −2 1     13 −5 −3
3. (i)   (ii)
 −3 −3 1 (iii)
 
 −5 2   −2 −4 1  5 −2 −1
Exercise 1.3
1. (i) x = −11, y = 4 (ii)
x = 2, y = −4
(iii) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4 (iv) x = 3, y = −2, z = 1
x = 2, y = 1, z = −1
2. 3. ` 18000, ` 600
4. 18 days, 36 days 5. ` 2000, ` 1000, ` 3000
Exercise 1.4
1
1. (i) x = −2, y = 3 (ii) x = , y = 3
2
(iii) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4 (iv)
x = 1, y = 3, z =3
2. 84 3. 50% acid is 6 litres, 25% acid is 4 litres
4. Pump A : 15 minutes, P
ump B : 30 minutes
5.
` 30/-, ` 10/-, ` 30/-, yes
Exercise 1.5
1. (i) x = −1, y = 4, z = 4 (ii) x = 3, y = 1, z = 2
2. a = 2, b = 1, c = 6 3. ` 30000, ` 15000, ` 20000
4. a = 1, b = 3, c = −10 , yes
Exercise 1.6
1 1
x = (7 - 5t ), y = (5t -1), z = t , t Î 
1. (i) x = y = z = 1 (ii)
10 10
Answers.indd 282 31-01-2020 17:05:55

1
(iii) No solution (iv) x = ( s − t + 2), y = s, z = t and s, t ∈
2
2. (i) k = 1 (ii)
k ≠ 1, k ≠ −2 (iii)
k = −2
3. (i) λ = 5 and μ ≠ 9 λ = 5, µ = 9
(ii) λ ≠ 5 and μ ∈  (iii)
Exercise 1.7
1. (i) x = −t , y = −2t , z = t , t ∈ (ii) Trivial solutions only
λ =8
2. (i) λ ≠ 8 (ii)
2C2 H 6 + 7O2 → 6 H 2O + 44CO
3. Co2 2
Exercise 1.8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(2) (3) (2) (3) (4) (2) (4) (4) (2) (1)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(2) (4) (1) (2) (4) (3) (2) (1) (4) (4)
21 22 23 24 25
(2) (4) (4) (4) (1)
Exercise 2.1
−1 − i
1. 2. 1 + i 3. 0 4. 0
5. 1 6. 1 − i
Exercise 2.2
1. (i) 4 + i (ii) 8 − i (iii) 7 + 5i (iv) 1 + 17i
(v) 15 + 8i (vi) 15 + 8i
x = −1 , y = 1
3.
Exercise 2.3
1
− z1 = −2 − 5i , z1−1 =
3. ( 2 − 5i )
29
1
− z2 = 3 + 4i , z2−1 = ( −3 + 4i )
25
1
− z3 = −1 − i , z3−1 =
(1 − i )
2
Exercise 2.4
5 2 14i
1. (i) 7 − 5i (ii) (1 − i ) (iii) −
4 5 5
x
2. (i) (ii) y (iii) − y − 4
x + y2
2
1 1 1
3. ( −1 − 2i ) , ( −11 + 2i ) (4) (7 − i )
25 5 2
6. (i) 6 (ii) 3
283 Answers
Answers.indd 283 31-01-2020 17:05:55

2 CONTENTS
Exercise 2.5
1. (i)
(ii) 2 2 (iii) 32 (iv) 50
5
11 + 6i
3.
 3 1 
8. 10 10. (i) ± 
 2
+i  (ii) ±
2
( )
2 + i 2 2 (iii) ± ( 2 − 3i )
Exercise 2.6
2
3. (i) y = 3 (ii) x − y = 0 (iii) x + y = 0 (iv) x 2 + y 2 = 1
8
4. (i) 2 + i,3 (ii) −1 + 2i,1 (iii) 2 − 4i,
2 2
3
5. (i) x + y − 8 x − 240 = 0 (ii) 6 x + 1 = 0
Exercise 2.7
  π  π
1. (i) 4  cos  2k π +  + i sin  2k π +   , k ∈ 
  3  3
  π  π 
(ii) 2 3  cos  2kπ −  + i sin  2kπ −   , k ∈ 
  6  6 
  3π   3π  
(iii) 2 2  cos  2kπ −  + i sin  2kπ −  , k ∈
  4   4  
  5π   5π  
(iv) 2  cos  2kπ +  + i sin  2kπ +  , k ∈
  12   12  
1 −i
2. (i) (1 + i ) (ii)
2 2
Exercise 2.8
π 5π
3. 1 5. 3cis , − 3, 3cis 7. −1
3 3
iπ i5π i5π
9. (i) 2 2 e12 (ii) 2 2 e 12 (iii) 2 2 e 4
Exercise 2.9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(1) (1) (1) (2) (3) (1) (4) (1) (1) (1)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(2) (2) (4) (2) (2) (3) (1) (3) (4) (4)
21 22 23 24 25
(2) (3) (4) (1) (1)
EXERCISE 3.1
1. 60
x3 - 3x + 2 = 0
2. (i) x3 - 6 x 2 + 11x - 6 = 0 (ii) (iii) x3 - 4 x 2 - 4 x + 16 = 0
3. (i) x3 + 4 x 2 + 12 x + 32 = 0 (ii) 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 0 (ii) x 3 - 2 x 2 + 3 x - 4 = 0
Answers.indd 284 31-01-2020 17:05:56

1 α 2ac - b 2
4. 2,3, 5. 10 6.
3
6, 4,-1 7.
å βγ
=
ad
x3 + x -12 = 0
8. 2 x 2 - 3 x - 20 = 0 11.
Exercise 3.2
1. When k < 0 , the polynomial has real roots.
When k = 0 or k = 8 , the roots are real and equal.
When 0 < k < 8 the roots are imaginary.
When k > 8 the roots are real and distinct.
2. x 2 − 4 x + 7 = 0 3. x 2 − 6 x + 13 = 0 4. x 4 − 16 x 2 + 4
Exercise 3.3
1 2 4 2 1± 3
1. -3,3, 2 . , , 2 3. , 2,6 4. k = 2, 2,
2 3 3 3 2
1 + 37 1- 37 1 3
5.
1- 2i,1 + 2i, 3, - 3, , 6. (i) 1, ,3 (ii) −1 , 1 , 7. ±3, ± 5
2 2 2 2 4
Exercise 3.4
ì
ï ü
-1 + 2 5 -1 - 2 5 ï
1. (i) {-2,3, -7,8} (ii) 3 , 3 , 3 + 17 , 3 - 17 2. ï
í1, -2, , ï
ý
ï
ï 2 2 ï
ï
î þ
Exercise 3.5
n p 1 2
1. (i) np + (-1) , n Î  , no solution for sin x = 4 (ii) 2, − ,
2 4 3
b 2 9a 3
2. (i) x = 1 (ii) no rational roots 3. 4n 4. ,
4a b 2
1 1 -3 + 5 -3 - 5
5. (i) 2, 3, , (ii) +1, -1,
,
2 3 2 2
1 1
2,3 7. ,3, - and – 2
6.
3 2
Exercise 3.6
1. It has at most four positive roots and at most three negative roots.
2. It has at most two positive roots and no negative roots.
4. It has one positive real root and one negative real root.
5. no positive real roots and no negative real roots.
Exercise 3.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(4) (1) (3) (1) (3) (4) (1) (3) (1) (2)
285 Answers
Answers.indd 285 31-01-2020 17:05:57

CONTENTS
Exercise 4.1
π
1. (i) x = nπ , n = 0, ±1, ±2,... ± 10 (ii) x = ( 4n − 1) , n = 0, ± 1
2
2π π π
2. (i) 1, (ii) 1, 6π (iii) 4, π 4. (i) (ii) −
7 3 4
π
x =0
5. 6. (i) {−1, 1} (ii) [ 0, 1] 7.
3
Exercise 4.2
π
1. (i) x = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 4, ± 5, − 6 (ii) x = ( 2n + 1) π , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, − 3
2
π π
− ∉ [ 0, π ]
2. 3. True 4.
6 3
5π π 24π
5. (i) (ii) − (iii) 6. (i) [ −5, 5] (ii) [ −1, 1]
6 6 119
1 17 π
7. 0 < x < 8. (i) 0 (ii)
3 12
Exercise 4.3
π p
1. (i) [−3, 3] (ii)  2. (i) (ii) -
4 6
7π 2 5 24
3. (i) (ii) 1947 (iii) −0.2021 4. (i) ∞ (ii) − (iii)
4 25 25
Exercise 4.4
π π π π π 5π
1. (i) (ii) (iii) − 2. (i) − (ii) cot −1 (2) − (iii) −
6 6 4 3 6 6
Exercise 4.5
π π
1. (i) − (ii) − (iii) 5 − 2π
2 4
1 2x +1
2. (i) 2x − x 2 (ii) 2 (iii)
9x − 6x + 2 3 − 4x − 4x2
π 17 π
3. (i) (ii) 0 (iii) 8.
6 6 4
a −b p
9. (i) x = 13 (ii) x = (iii) x = 2np, x = np + , n ∈
1 + ab 4
(iv) x = 3
10. 3
Answers.indd 286 31-01-2020 17:05:58

Exercise 4.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(3) (2) (3) (1) (2) (1) (3) (1) (4) (4)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(3) (2) (2) (1) (3) (3) (2) (2) (4) (4)
Exercise 5.1
x 2 + y 2 ± 10 y = 0 2. ( x − 2) 2 + ( y + 1) 2 = 50
1.
x 2 + y 2 + 4 x + 4 y + 4 = 0 or x 2 + y 2 + 20 x + 20 y + 100 = 0 4. x 2 + y 2 − 4 x − 6 y − 12 = 0
3.
x 2 + y 2 − 5 x + 3 y − 22 = 0
5. 6. x 2 + y 2 = 1
x2 + y 2 − 6x − 4 y + 4 = 0
7. 8. ±12
x - 5 y + 8 = 0, 5 x + y -12 = 0
9. 10. out side, inside, outside
1  17 3  3
11. (i) ( 0, −2 ) , 0
(ii) (−3, 2),3 (iii)  , −1 , (iv)  , −1 ,
2  2 2  2
p = q = 3 , (1, 0),5
12.
Exercise 5.2
( y + 2 ) = 12 ( x − 1) (iv)
2
1. (i) y 2 = 16 x (ii)
3 x 2 = −4 y (iii) y 2 = 16 x
2
x2 y 2 x y2 16 x 2 y 2 x2 y 2
2. (i) + = 1 (ii) + = 1 (iii) + = 1 (iii) + =1
36 27 9 25 625 25 8 16
( x − 2 ) ( y − 1) = 1 (iii)
2 2
9 x2 9 y 2 x2 9 y 2
3. (i) − = 1 (ii) − − =1
16 20 12 24 16 64
4.
Equation of Length of
Vertex Focus
directrix latus rectum
i. ( 0, 0 ) ( 4, 0 ) x = −4 16
ii. ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 6 ) y = −6 24
iii. ( 0, 0 ) ( −2, 0 ) x=2 8
iv. (1, −2 ) (1, -4) y=0 8
v. (1, 2 ) ( 3, 2 ) x = −1 8
287 Answers
Answers.indd 287 31-01-2020 17:05:59

5.
CONTENTS
Type of conic Centre Vertices Foci Directrices
25
i. Ellipse ( 0, 0 ) ( ±5, 0 ) ( ±4, 0 ) x=±
4
10
ii. Ellipse ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, ± 10 ) ( 0, ± 7 ) y=±
7
25
iii. Hyperbola ( 0, 0 ) ( ±5, 0 ) ( ±13, 0 ) x=±
13
16
iv. Hyperbola ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, ±4 ) ( 0, ±5) y=±
5

8. Type of
Centre Vertices Foci Directrices
Conic
321
y= ,
8
i. Ellipse ( 3, 4 ) ( 3, 21) , ( 3, −13) (3,12), ( 3, −4 )
−257
y=
8
47
x= ,
3
ii. Ellipse ( −1, 2 ) ( −11, 2 ) , ( 9, 2 ) (−7, 2), (5, 2)
−53
x=
3
174
x= ,
17
iii. Hyperbola ( −3, 4 ) ( −18, 4 ) , (12, 4 ) (−20, 4), (14, 4)
-276
x=
17
25
y= + 2,
(−1, 2 + 41) 41
iv. Hyperbola ( −1, 2 ) ( −1, 7 ) , (−1, −3)
(−1, 2 − 41) −25
y= +2
41
v. Ellipse ( 4, −2 )
( 4, −2 + 3 2 ) , (4, −2 + 6), y = −2 + 3 6,
(4, −2 − 3 2) (4, −2 − 6) y = −2 − 3 6
vi. Hyperbola ( 2, −3) ( 3, −3) , (1, −3) 1

(2 + 10 − 3), x= + 2,
(2 − 10, −3) 10
−1
x= +2
10
Answers.indd 288 31-01-2020 17:05:59

Exercise 5.3
1. hyperbola 2 circle 3. ellipse 4. circle 5. hyperbola 6. parabola
Exercise 5.4
x − y − 3 = 0, x − 9 y + 13 = 0 2. 10 x - 3 y + 32 = 0, 10 x - 3 y - 32 = 0
1.
( −3,1) 4.
3. x− y+4=0
4 x - 3 y - 6 = 0,3 x + 4 y - 42 = 0
x − 2 y + 8 = 0 6.
5.
Exercise 5.5
1. 8.4 m 2. 26.6 m 3. 3 m
y 2 = 4.8 x, 1.3m 5.
4. 3.52m, 5.08m 6. 90.82m, 148.91m
2 2 4 x2 y 2
7. 8. tan −1   10.
3 3m 9. − =1
3 3 9 16
Exercise 5.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(1) (3) (4) (3) (3) (1) (1) (3) (2) (2) (1) (4) (3)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 ---
(3) (1) (4) (4) (1) (1) (2) (2) (3) (3) (3) (2) ---
Exercise 6.1
11. 80 units 12. 69 units
3 −11 −7
13. 179 , , , 14. −96i + 115 j + 15kˆ
179 179 179
Exercise 6.2
1. 24 2. 720 cubic units 3. −5
2 3
±12
4. 5. 6. coplanar 7. 2
5
Exercise 6.3
1. (i) −2i + 14 j − 22kˆ (ii)
22i + 14 j + 2kˆ 5. −74
π
l = 0 , m = 10 , n = −3
7. 8. θ =
3
Exercise 6.4
 
1. r - 4 ( ( )) (
i + 3j - 7 kˆ ´ 2i - 6j + 7 kˆ = 0 x − 4 y − 3 z + 7
,
2
)
=
−6
=
7

2. ( ) (
r = −2i + 3 j + 4kˆ + t −4i + 5 j − 6kˆ ,
−4
=
5
)
x + 2 y −3 z −4
=
−6
æ 32 47 ö÷
3. ç , 0, ÷ , ( 0,16, −11)
èçç 3 3 ø÷
289 Answers
Answers.indd 289 31-01-2020 17:06:00

CONTENTS
2 3 6  
( ˆ ) (   ˆ
 , ,  , r = 5i + 6 ˆj + 7 k + t 2i + 3 j + 6k or
4.
7 7 7
)


( ) (
r = 7i + 9 j + 13kˆ + t 2i + 3 j + 6kˆ , )
x −5 y −6 z −7 x − 7 y − 9 z − 13
= = or = =
2 3 6 2 3 6
p p p 2
5. (i) 0° (ii) (iii) 6. a = 18, b =
7. 8. 1
6 2 2 3
Exercise 6.5

1. ( ) ( )
r = 5i + 2j + 8kˆ + t 2i + j − 2kˆ , t ∈ ,
x -5 y - 2 z -8
2
=
1
=
-2
7 9
2. units 3. 4. (6, 2,1) 5. 2 units
5 2
83 x −5 y −4 z −2
6. units 7. (1, 6, 0), = =
6 −4 2 −2
Exercise 6.6
  3i − 4 j + 5kˆ  12 3 −4   12iˆ + 3 ˆj − 4kˆ 
r ⋅
1.  =7 2. , , ; r .   = 5 ; 5
 5 2  13 13 13 13
   
  
( ˆ )
r ⋅ i + 3 j + 5k = 35 ; x + 3 y + 5 z = 35 4.
3.
   ˆ
( )
r ⋅ i + j +k = 2; x+ y + z = 2
x y z
x -intercept = 2 , y- intercept = 3 , z- intercept = −4
5. 6. + + =3
u v w
Exercise 6.7

( )
r ⋅ i − 2 j + 4kˆ = 20 ; x − 2 y + 4 z − 20 = 0
1.

( )
r ⋅ 3i + 4 j − 5kˆ = 9 ; 3 x + 4 y − 5 z − 9 = 0
2.

( ) ( ) ( )
r = 2i + 2j + kˆ + s -i - 4j + 2kˆ + t 3i - 4j + 5kˆ s, t Î  ;
3.
12 x − 11 y − 16 z + 14 = 0

( )
r ⋅ i + 10 j + 7 kˆ = 9 ; x + 10 y + 7 z − 9 = 0
4.

( ) ( ) ( )
r = i - j + 3kˆ + s 2i - j + 4kˆ + t i + 2j + kˆ s, t Î  ; 9 x − 2 y − 5 z + 4 = 0
5.

( ) ( ) ( ) 
(
r = 3i + 6j - 2kˆ + s -4i - 8j + 8kˆ + t 3i - 2j s, t Î  ; r ⋅ 2i + 3 j + 4kˆ = 16 ;
6. )
2 x + 3 y + 4 z − 16 = 0
7.

( )
r ⋅ 3i + 5 j − 7 kˆ = 6 ; 3 x + 5 y − 7 z − 6 = 0
Exercise 6.8

1. (
r × 17i - 47j - 24kˆ = -172 )
2. x + 2 y − z − 4 = 0

3. m = ± 2 4. −2, 2, y + z + 1 = 0, y − z + 1 = 0

Answers.indd 290 31-01-2020 17:06:00

Exercise 6.9
15 x − 47 y + 28 z − 7 = 0
1. 2. 5 x − 11 y + z − 17 = 0
 8  2 
sin −1  
3. 4. cos −1  
 21  3 6 
4 1
2 x - 3 y + 5 z + 11 = 0 ,
5. 6. units
38 3
 2 
( 2, 2, 0 ) , Sin−1  
7. 8. (3,1, -1) ; 14 units.
3 6 
Exercise 6.10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(4) (3) (1) (2) (1) (3) (1) (1) (1) (2)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(3) (1) (2) (4) (4) (2) (3) (4) (2) (1)
21 22 23 24 25
(2) (3) (4) (3) (1)
291 Answers
Answers.indd 291 31-01-2020 17:06:01

GLOSSARY
CHAPTER 1
Upper bound மேல் எல்லை
APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES
AND DETERMINANTS
Lower bound கீழ் எல்லை
Adjoint matrix சேர்ப்பு அணி
Polar form துருவ வடிவம்
Inverse matrix நேர்மாறு அணி
அடுக்குக்குறி
Rank தரம் Exponential form
வடிவம்
Elementary சாதாரண
முக்கோணவியல்
transformation உருமாற்றங்கள் Trigonometric form
வடிவம்
Echelon form ஏறுபடி வடிவம்
Absolute value எண்ணளவு
வெளிப்படைத்
Trivial solution
தீர்வு
வெளிப்படையற்ற Modulus மட்டு மதிப்பு
Non-trivial solution
தீர்வு
விரிவுபடுத்தப்பட்ட Argument or amplitude வீச்சு
Augmented matrix
அணி
Consistent முரண்பாடற்ற Principal argument முதன்மை வீச்சு
சுழற்சித்தான
Pivot
உறுப்பு Euler’s form ஆய்லர் வடிவம்
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
COMPLEX NUMBER
THEORY OF EQUATION
Complex numbers கலப்பு எண்கள் Complex conjugate இணைக்கலப்பெண்
root theorem மூலத் தேற்றம்
Imaginary unit கற்பனை அலகு
Leading coefficient முதன்மைக் கெழு
Rectangular form செவ்வக வடிவம் Leading term முதன்மை உறுப்பு
ஒற்றை முதன்மை
Argand Plane ஆர்கன்ட் தளம்
Monic polynomial உறுப்பு பல்லுறுப்புக்
க�ோவை
ஒரு
Conjugate of a கலப்பெண்ணின் பல்லுறுப்புக்
Non-polynomial
complex number இணைக் க�ோவையற்ற
equation
கலப்பெண் சமன்பாடு
Glossary.indd 292 31-01-2020 17:45:34

Non real complex மெய்யற்ற
Reciprocal inverse நேர்மாறு தலைகீழி
number கலப்பெண் identities முற்றொருமைகள்
நாற்படி
Quartic polynomial பல்லுறுப்புக் பிரதிபலிப்பு
Reflection identities
க�ோவை முற்றொருமைகள்
Radical solution அடிப்படைத்தீர்வு நேர்மாறு

Cofunction inverse
துணைச் சார்பு
Rational root விகிதமுறு identities
முற்றொருமைகள்
Theorem மூலத்தேற்றம்
Reciprocal equation தலைகீழ் சமன்பாடு CHAPTER 5
தலைகீழ் ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY II AND

Reciprocal FUNCTIONS
பல்லுறுப்புக்
polynomial
க�ோவை
Circle வட்டம்
Simple root எளிய மூலம்
பூஜ்ஜிய
Parabola பரவளையம்
Zero polynomial பல்லுறுப்புக்
க�ோவை
Ellipse நீள்வட்டம்
CHAPTER 4
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC Hyperbola அதிபரவளையம்

FUNCTION
நேர்மாறு Algebraic இயற்கணித
Inverse trigonometric techniques நுட்பங்கள்
முக்கோணவியல்
functions
சார்புகள்
Geometrical வடிவியல்
problems கணக்குகள்
Principal value முதன்மை மதிப்பு
Astronomy வானியல்
Amplitude வீச்சு
Conics கூம்பு வளைவுகள்
Period காலம்
Focus குவியம்
முதன்மை
Principal domain
சார்பகம் Directrix இயக்குவரை
Periodic function காலமுறைச் சார்பு மையத்தொலைத்

Eccentricity
தகவு
293 Glossary
Glossary.indd 293 31-01-2020 17:45:34

CHAPTER 6
Focal chord குவி நாண்
VECTOR ALGEBRA AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Vertex முனை
Box product பெட்டிப் பெருக்கல்

Latus rectum செவ்வகலம்
Line of
வெட்டுக்கோடு
intersection
Major axis நெட்டச்சு
Moment திருப்புத்திறன்
Minor axis குற்றச்சு
Normal செங்குத்து
Transverse axis துணையச்சு
Parallelepiped இணைகரத்திண்மம்
Conjugate axis குறுக்கச்சு
Parameter துணையலகு
Auxiliary circle துணை வட்டம்
Plane தளம்
Incircle உள் வட்டம்
Rotaional
த�ொலைத் சுழல் விசை
Asymptotes force
த�ொடுக�ோடுகள்
ஒரு தள அமையாக்
சிதைந்த Skew lines
Degenerate forms க�ோடுகள்
வடிவங்கள்
Double napped Torque முறுக்குத்திறன்

இரட்டைக் கூம்பு
cone
Parametric துணையலகுச் Triple product முப்பெருக்கல்

equation சமன்பாடுகள்
Director circle இயக்கு வட்டம்
நீள்வட்ட
Elliptic orbit
சுற்றுப்பாதை
Reflective பிரதிபலிப்பு
property பண்புகள்
Glossary.indd 294 31-01-2020 17:45:34

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
(1) Higher Algebra - S. Barnard, and J. M. Child, Macmillan & Co Ltd, New York.
(2) A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications - Dennis D. Zill, and Patrik D.
Shanahan, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, London.
(3) Complex Variables and Applications - James ward Brown, and Ruel V.Churchill, McGraw-
Hill Higher education, New Delhi.
(4) Elementary Theory of Equations - Dickson, L. E., New York: Wiley, pp. 36-37, 1914.
(5) Polynomials and Polynomial Inequalities.Borwein, P. and Erdélyi, New York: Springer,
Verlag, p. 4, 1995.
(6) Beyond the Quartic Equation - King, R. B.,Boston, MA: Birkhäuser, 1996.
(7) Fundamentals of College Algebra - Charles D. Miller, Margaret L. Lial, David I. Schneider:
Scott & Foresman/Little & Brown Higher Education, 3rd edition 1990,
(8) Trigonometry – John R. Durbin, John wiley & Sons.
(9) Trigonometry – Michael Corral.
(10) Notes from Trigonometry – Steven Butler.
(8) College Algebra – Robert Blitzer
(9) College Algebra – Ron Larson
(10) A text book two dimensional Geometry - (i) Satpal (ii) Harbans Lal
(11) Vector Calculus - Jerrold E. Marsden, Anthony Tromba
(12) Vector Algebra - Schaum’s Outline Series
(13) Analytical Geometry and Calculus, with vectors - McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
295 Books for Reference
Books for Reference.indd 295 31-01-2020 17:06:36

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Front Pages.indd 1 31-01-2020 16:23:36

First Edition - 2019

Revised Edition - 2020

(Published under New Syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational Research

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Front Pages.indd 2 31-01-2020 16:23:36

• Awareness on the scope of higher educational opportunities; courses,

• Overview of the unit

• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

• To increase the span of attention of concepts

• Recapitulation of the salient points of each chapter for recalling the

• Assessing student’s understanding of concepts and get them acquainted

Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading.

• To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive examinations such

• Frequently used Mathematical terms have been given with their

Front Pages.indd 3 31-01-2020 16:23:37

CHAPTER TITLE Page No. Month

2 Complex Numbers 52 Jul

Front Pages.indd 4 31-01-2020 16:23:37

E-book Assessment DIGI links

Front Pages.indd 5 03-02-2020 18:13:01

Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) Main Indian Navy Sailors Recruitment

Eligibility Class 12 passed

EXAMS Job Opportunities

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 1 31-01-2020 17:10:27

1.2.1 Adjoint of a Square Matrix

by Aij . Thus the cofactor of aij is Aij = ( −1)i + j M ij .

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 2 31-01-2020 17:10:37

In particular, adj A of a square matrix of order 3 is given below:

By using the above equations, we get

 a11 a12 a13   A11 A21 A31   A 0 0 1 0 0 

 A11 A21 A31   a11 a12 a13   A 0 0 1 0 0 

where I 3 is the identity matrix of order 3.

3 Applications of Matrices and Determinants

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 3 31-01-2020 17:10:48

Hence, A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A I 3 .

1.2.2 Definition of inverse matrix of a square matrix

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 4 31-01-2020 17:10:55

Therefore, A−1 exists. Now, we get

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 5 31-01-2020 17:11:04

1.2.3 Properties of inverses of matrices

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 6 31-01-2020 17:11:15

Theorem 1.7 (Reversal Law for Inverses)

Theorem 1.8 (Law of Double Inverse)

7 Applications of Matrices and Determinants

Chapter 1 Matrices.indd 7 31-01-2020 17:11:29

(iii) For any non-singular matrix B of order n, we have =

Put B = adj A. Then, we get ( adj A) (adj ( adj A)) = | adj A | I n .

So, since adj A =| A |n −1 , we get ( adj A ) (adj ( adj A )) = | A |n −1 I n .

Pre-multiplying both sides by A, we get A ( adj A ) ( adj ( adj A ) ) = A | A |n −1 I n . ( ) ( )

CHAPTER TITLE Page No. Month

2 Complex Numbers 52 Jul

 a11 a12 a13 a1n   x1   a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + + a1n xn  b1 