Electronic Devices 18EC33

Module 2 :
P-N junctions : Forward and Reverse biased junctions, Qualitative description of current flow in a junction,
reverse bias, reverse bias breakdown, zener breakdown, avalanche breakdown, rectifiers, optoelectronic
devices, photodiodes: current and voltage in an illuminated junction, solar cells, photo detectors, LEDs,
Light emitting materials. -
2.1 Forward and Reverse Bias
What is PN junction?
A PN junction is a junction formed with P type semiconductor on one side and n type semiconductor on the
other side as shown in Fig 2.1

Fig 2.1 : PN junction

What happens at PN junction?
Some e- from the N side diffuse through the junction and combine with holes as shown in Fig 2.2.

Fig 2.2 : Diffusion at PN junction

Because of this holes are depleted on P-side and e-s on N side. Hence the name depletion region. Now P side
becomes –Ve and n side +ve. Thus, each free electron that left the n-side parent atom and crosses the junction
to fill the holes in the p-side atom creates positive ion at n-side. Thus, a net positive charge is built at the n-side
of the p-n junction due to the positive ions at the n-side; similarly a net negative charge is built at the p-side of
the p-n junction due to the negative ions at the p-side. This net negative charge at the p-side of the p-n junction
prevents the further flow of free electrons crossing from n-side to p-side because the negative charge present at
the p-side of p-n junction repels the free electrons. Similarly, the net positive charge at n-side of the p-n

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

junction prevents the further flow of holes crossing from p-side to n-side. Positive charge present at n-side and
negative charge present at p-side of p-n junction
2.2 Diffusion Current
It is a current in a semiconductor caused by the diffusion of charge carriers (holes and/or electrons). This is
the current which is due to the transport of charges occurring because of non-uniform concentration of
charged particles in a semiconductor. The drift current, by contrast, is due to the motion of charge carriers
due to the force exerted on them by an electric field. Diffusion current can be in the same or opposite
direction of a drift current.
2.2 : Barrier potential

Positive charges present at n-side and negative charge present at p-side of p-n junction acts as barrier which
prevents the further movement of electrons and holes. Thus, a potential is formed at the pn junction. This
is called the barrier potential. For Si, this is typically 0.7 V and for Ge 0.3V.

Now the minority carrier in n-type, namely holes, will get attracted by the Electric Field set up due to
diffusion of charge carriers, towards the –Ve region on p side. Similarly the minority carriers , namely e-s,
will get attracted to the +ve n-side. This is called drifting. The charges move because of E field. (Refer Fig
2.3)

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

p –side n-side

Fig 2.3 : Diffusion and drift currents

Since we know that no net current can flow across the junction at equilibrium, the current due to the drift
of carriers in the % field must exactly cancel the diffusion current. Furthermore, since there can be no net
buildup of electrons or holes on either side as a function of time, the drift and diffusion currents must
cancel for each type of carrier:

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

Therefore, the electric field E builds up to the point where the net current is zero at equilibrium. The
electric field appears in some region W about the junction, and there is an equilibrium potential difference
V0 across W.
Now what happens when we connect an external source?
The length of each region is small compared to its area, and the doping is usually moderate to heavy; thus
the resistance is small in each neutral region, and only a small voltage drop can be maintained outside the
space charge (transition) region. So it is valid to assume that an applied voltage appears entirely across the
transition region.
The applied voltage
 Changes the electrostatic potential barrier and the width of depletion region
 Changes the electric field within the transition region
 Changes the various components of current at the junction
 Separation of the energy bands is affected

2.3 Forward Bias

Here the p-side is connected to +ve of the external supply and n-side to negative as shown in Fig 2.4

( a) ( b) ( c)
Fig 2.4 : Forward Bias (a) Barrier potential before bias, (b) Barrier potential after bias, (c) forward bias
connection

So what happens?
 Depletion width decreases
 Barrier height is Vo –Vf
 The height of the electron energy barrier is simply the electronic charge q times the height of the
electrostatic potential barrier. Thus the bands are separated less at q[Vo –Vf]under forward bias than at
equilibrium.
 Under forward bias, the Fermi level on the n side EFnis above EFpby the energy qVf.
 In energy units of electron volts, the Fermi levels in the two neutral regions are separated by an
energy (eV) numerically equal to the applied voltage (Vf).

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

What happens to diffusion current?

With forward bias, the barrier is lowered (to V0 - Vf), and more electrons in the n-side conduction band
have sufficient energy to diffuse from n to p over the smaller barrier. Therefore, the electron diffusion
current can be quite large with forward bias. Similarly, more holes can diffuse from p to n under forward
bias because of the lowered barrier.
What happens to drift current?
The drift current is relatively insensitive to the height o f the potential barrier. Here, the drift current is due
to minority carriers, which are not affected by the potential barrier, significantly.
2.4 Reverse Bias
The p-side is connected to the –Ve of the supply and the n-side to +ve as shown in Fig 2.5

Fig 2.5 (a) Reverse bias ( b) increase in barrier potential

So what happens?
 Depletion width increases
 Barrier height is Vo +Vr
 The bands are separated more at q[Vo +Vr] under reverse bias than at equilibrium.
 Under reverse bias, the Fermi level on the p side EFp is above EFn by the energy qVr.
 In energy units of electron volts, the Fermi levels in the two neutral regions are separated by an
energy (eV) numerically equal to the applied voltage (Vr).
What happens to diffusion current?
For reverse bias the barrier becomes so large (V0 + Vr) that almost nil electrons in the n-side conduction
band or holes in the p-side valence band have enough energy to surmount it. Therefore, the diffusion
current is usually negligible for reverse bias.
What happens to drift current?
The drift current is not significantly affected. The supply of minority carriers on each side of the junction
required to participate in the drift component of current is generated by thermal excitation of electron-hole
pairs. The resulting current due to drift of generated carriers across the junction is commonly called the
generation current since its magnitude depends entirely on the rate of generation of EHPs. This is the main
current in RB.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

I = I(diff.)-|/(gen.)| = 0 for V = 0 (No bias)

Applying a FB increases the probability of diffusion of an e- (hole) by a factor of exp(qV/kT) . So the
diffusion current increases by the same amount. If the absolute value of generation current is Io, then at
equilibrium (no bias) the diffusion current is also Io . With forward bias, then the diffusion current is
Io(exp(qV/kT) ). The total current is forward current – the generation current. It is given by,

Io - Absolute generation current ( No external excitation) ;

q- Electron charge
V – applied Voltage
k- Boltzmann’s constant (1.38065 × 10−23 J/K);
T- absolute temp

In the above expression ; V is +ve for FB and –Ve for RB. If V is greater than a few q/KT, the first term is
much greater than 1 and current increases exponentially in FB. (note here current is from p to n). Under
RB, V is –ve, and first term is negligible and current is –Io. Current is from n to p. This current is called
reverse saturation current. Because of exponential term, the pn diode is highly non-linear. The V-I
characteristic is shown in Fig 2.6.

Fig 2.6 : V-I characteristic of PN junction

2.5 Reverse Bias operation

Under equilibrium condition

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The electric field E is given by –dV(x)/dx ; From this the contact potential is given by

Vo = -

The minority carrier concentration on each side of a p-n junction to vary with the applied bias because of
variations in the diffusion of carriers across the junction. The equilibrium ratio of hole concentrations on
each side with bias is given by

Here we are using the voltage (Vo-V), where V is +ve or –Ve depending on FB or RB. Taking ratio of the
two equations we can write,

With forward bias( V is positive) there is a greatly increased minority carrier hole concentration at the
edge of the transition region on the n side(Xno) than was the case at equilibrium. Conversely, the hole
concentration p(Xno) under reverse bias (V negative) is reduced below the equilibrium value pn. The
exponential increase of the hole concentration with forward bias is an example of minority carrier injection
The excess hole concentration at the edge of the transition on the n-side is given by

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

Similarly, the excess e- concentration at the edge of the transition on the p-side is

For reverse bias

-Ve +Ve
 Carriers are being swept down the barrier at the junction to the other side.
 They are not being replaced by an opposing diffusion of carriers.
 Reverse bias saturation occurs because of drift of carriers down the barrier
 the rate of drift depends on the rate of minority carriers arrive by diffusion from the neutral material
supplied by thermal generation.

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There are very few holes and e-s in the depletion region.
Reverse Bias Breakdown
We have found that a p-n junction biased in the reverse direction exhibits a small, essentially voltage-
independent saturation current. This is true until a critical BREAKDOWN reverse bias is reached, for
which reverse breakdown occurs.At this critical voltage (Vbr) the reverse current through the diode
increases sharply, and relatively large currents can flow with little further increase in voltage as shown in
Fig 2.6.

Fig 2.6 : Reverse breakdown

The Reverse Current is (E-VBR )/R, referring to Fig 2.6.
In reverse bias,
1. e- will be drawn towards the terminal of n side and holes will be draw towards terminal of p side.
2. At this condition electron hole recombination will not happen and hence minority carrier
movement is absent.
3. The depletion width increases
4. Depletion width block majority carrier current and only minority carrier current flows.
5. This current is called reverse saturation current.
6. If Reverse voltage is large, the depletion region breaksdown.

There are two mechanisms for breakdown

1. Zener Breakdown (At low voltages)
2. Avalanche Breakdown (At higher Voltages)

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2.5.1 Zener Breakdown

Fig 2.7 : Zener Breakdown

1. Heavily doped pn junctions with narrow depletion region.
2. With RB, the E field increases.
3. Pulls e-s from VB of p side. Hence , EHP pairs are formed across the depletion region.
4. Large number of minority carriers in depletion region.
5. At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage , will cause large current.
6. Current direction is from n to pside.

Fig 2.8 : Tunneling Effect

Due to RB, a large number of empty conduction band on n-side, align with valence band of p-side. If the
barrier is small, then the e-s from p-side tunnel to n-side. This tunneling effect is called Zener effect. (fig
2.8)
The basic requirements for tunneling current are

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 A large number of electrons separated from a large number of empty states by a narrow barrier of
finite height.
 Tunneling probability depends upon the width of the barrier it is important that the metallurgical
junction be sharp and the doping high, so that the transition region W extends only a very short distance
from each side of the junction.
 If the junction is not abrupt, or if either side of the junction is lightly doped, the transition region W
will be too wide for tunneling
 At low voltages the depletion width does not change too much with reverse bias.
 In the simple covalent bonding model the Zener effect can be thought of as field ionization of the
host atoms at the junction. At a critical field strength, electrons participating in covalent bonds may be torn
from the bonds by the field and accelerated to the n side of the junction. The electric field required for this
type of ionization is on the order of 10^6 V/cm.
 If Zener breakdown (tunneling) does not take place, avalanche breakdown takes place.
So when does Zener Breakdown not happen?
Failure to attain high doping or sharp junctions will result in no tunneling current.
2.5.2 Avalanche Breakdown
In a lightly doped junction the tunneling is negligible due to the large distance between bands.
 The breakdown mechanism involves the impact ionization of host atoms by energetic carriers.
 Normal lattice scattering can cause the creation of EHPs if the carrier being scattered has sufficient
energy.
 These single event scattering interactions are results in carrier multiplication.
 When the electron scatters it creates an EHP.
 Each of these carriers then has a chance to be accelerated and collide with the lattice creating a new
EHP.
 This process may continue and is referred to as avalanche breakdown. (Fig 2. 9)

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Fig 2.9 : Avalanche Breakdown

The original electron and the generated electron are both swept to the n side of the junction, and the
generated hole is swept to the p side. The degree of multiplication can become very high if carriers
generated within the transition region also have ionizing collisions with the lattice. For example, an
incoming electron may have a collision with the lattice and create an EHP; each of these carriers has a
chance of creating a new EHP, and each of those can also create an EHP, and so forth. We can make an
approximate analysis of avalanche multiplication by assuming that a carrier of either type has a
probability P of having an ionizing collision with the lattice while being accelerated a distance W through
the transition region.
If we have nin electrons entering from the p side, there will be Pnin ionizing collisions and an EHP
(secondary carriers) for each collision. After the Pnin collisions by the primary electrons, we have the
primary plus the secondary electrons, nin (1 + P). After a collision, each EHP moves in effectively a
distance of W within the transition region. If an EHP is created at the center of the region, the electron
drifts a distance W/2 to n and the hole W/2 to p. Thus the probability that an ionizing collision will occur
due to the motion of the secondary carriers is still P in this simplified model. For ninP secondary pairs there
will be (ninP)P ionizing collisions and ninP2 tertiary pairs. Summing up the total number of electrons out of
the region at n after many collisions, we have

As probability P of ionization increases , the carrier multiplication increases. The current is limited by the
external circuit. An empirical
Formula is

n varies from 3-6, depending on material used for the junction. The critical reverse voltage for breakdown
increases with the band gap of the material, since more energy is required for an ionizing collision. Also,
the peak electric field within W increases with increased doping on the more lightly doped side of the
junction. Therefore, Vbr decreases as the doping increases.

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2.6 Rectifier
2.6.1 Diode
A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the electric
current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse direction. If the diode
is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand, if the diode is reverse biased, it
blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction semiconductor diode is also called as p-n junction
semiconductor device.

The barrier potential caused by diffusion of the carriers across the junctions is given by

Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, ND and NA are impurity concentrations and ni is intrinsic carrier
concentration. The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of
temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or VT of the junction. At room temperature, this is about 26
millivolts.
Characteristics of diode
 p-n junction is unilateral in behavious. It conducts current in only one dierection.
 Ideal diode characteristic --- Diode is modelled as a switch. Its either closed (in FB) or open (in
RB). Simplest model and approximation works for some applications. (fig 2.10)

Fig 2.10 : Diode ideal characteristic

 In practice, diodes start conducting only when the barrier potential is overcome. So a series battery
can be used to model this. (fig 2.11)

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Fig 2.11 : Diode conduction after barrier potential

 VF is forward drop. Around 0.7V in Si and 0.3V in Ge. This is also an ideal diode, with offset
voltage, used to represent barrier potential.
 When conduction is established, the material will have a finite resistance. We can add a series
resistance to model this. Fig 2.12

Fig 2.12 : Linear model

 All these are approximations, and are called piece wise linear models. Here the reverse current
(generation current , saturation current) is taken to be zero.

2.6.2 Rectifier

Fig 2.13 : Rectifier

In +ve half cycle, diode is FB. So it is closed. Voltage across load is same as supply voltage. In –Ve half
cycle, diode is open. So voltage across load is zero, as no current flows. The rectified wave has a positive
DC component, that can be filtered and extracted as shown in Fig 2.13.
What characteristics should diodes designed for rectifiers have ?
 Should be as close to ideal characteristic as possible.
 Reverse saturation current should be negligible.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

 Forward current should exhibit little voltage dependence or in other words, very low forward
resistance.
 Offset voltage VF should be small
 Reverse breakdown voltage should be large.
 All requirements may not be met. So we need to compromise.
Band Gap is of prime importance in choosing material for diode.
Why??
 When band gap is large, the intrinsic carrier concentration is low. Further, the reverse saturation
current decreases with large band gap. This is because with larger band gaps, the thermal energy is not
sufficient for e- to transit from VB to CB. ( GOOD)
 With larger band gap, it can work at higher temperatures, as thermal generation of EHP is reduced.
 This is important , when the diode carries large currents in FB, and gets heated.
But what happens to potential barrier?
The offset voltage increases with band gap increase. However, this is outweighed by the low intrinsic
concentration. Si is preferred over Ge for power rectifiers because of
 Wider band gap
 Lower leakage current
 Higher breakdown voltage
 Easier fabrication.
Effect of doping levels
The depletion region consists of motionless charges such as positive ions and negative ions. The mobile
charge carriers such as free electrons are absent in depletion region (charge free region). The p-side of the
depletion region has negative ions and n-side of the depletion region has positive ions.
The width of depletion region is depends on the amount of impurities added to the semiconductor, as the
number of charge carriers is dependent on the doping levels.
What happens when doping is high?
• In heavily doped semiconductors, recombination rate is very fast because of large number of charge
carriers. Hence, the free electrons (majority charge carriers) fill the holes in the positive ions at n-side
before they cross the p-n junction. The positive ion (charged atom), which gains the electron, becomes a
neutral atom. Similarly, the holes (majority charge carriers) occupy the electron place in the negative ion
before they cross the p-n junction. The negative ion, which loses the free electron, becomes a neutral atom.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

• Hence, the positive ions at n-side and negative ions at p-side (which acts like a barrier) are
decreased over a given period. This decreases the width of depletion region. Thus, the width of depletion
region in the heavily doped semiconductor decreases over a given period.

What happens with light doping?

• In the lightly doped semiconductors, the recombination rate is very slow. Hence, the free electrons
from n-side cross the junction and fill the holes in the atoms at p-side before they recombine with the
positive ions at n-side. The atom, which gains an extra electron at p-side, becomes a negative ion.
Similarly, the holes from p-side cross the junction and occupy the electrons place at n-side before they
recombine with the negative ions at p-side. The atom, which loses the valence electron at n-side, becomes a
positive ion.
• Hence, the positive ions at n-side and the negative ions at p-side are increased over a given period.
This increases the width of depletion region. Thus, the width of depletion region increases in the lightly
doped semiconductors over a given period.
What happens to Vbr with doping levels?
• The width of the depletion region in a p-n junction diode is inversely proportional to the doping
concentration of the n and p sides. So, as doping increases, the depletion region width becomes narrower.
• Electric field is given by E = -dV/dx, that is by the gradient of the barrier potential, for a p-n
junction diode.
• Thus, smaller the width of the depletion region, larger will be the electric field. This high electric
field will exert a force on the electrons and holes bounded via covalent bonds, and cause them to move
across the junction by breaking the bond.
• Thus, large number of electron-hole pairs sweep across the junction due to this high electric field,
and thereby, breakdown occurs. Zener breakdown
In a junction, if one side is heavily doped and other lightly doped, the latter determines the properties of the
junction. A high resistivity region (light doping) should be used atleast on one side, to increase Vbr. This

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

will however, increase the forward resistance. Hence, more heating when diode conducts. So to reduce
resistance, lightly doped region is designed with higher area and lesser length.
R = ρL/A.
What are the issues here?
 Large area means difficulty in uniform fabrication
 Localized flows can cause breakdown
 Length cannot be too short.
Punch through
When we have short lightly doped region, the transition width W, that increases with increase in reverse
bias, may extend into the lightly doped region, and it is possible for W to fill the entire length of the lightly
doped side. This results in a punch through breakdown, below Vbr.
So whats the solution??
Using a guard ring.
This effect can be reduced by beveling the edge or by diffusing a guard ring to isolate the junction from the
edge of the sample. The electric field is lower at the beveled edge of the sample than it is in the main body
of the device.

• Similarly, the junction at the lightly doped p guard ring breaks down at higher voltage than the p+-n
junction. Since the depletion region is wider in the p ring than in the p+ region, the average electric field is
smaller at the ring for a given diode reverse voltage.
• In fabricating a p+-n or a p-n+ junction, it is common to terminate the
lightly doped region with a heavily doped layer of the same type.

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The result is a p+-n-n+

• p+-n layer serving as the active junction,
• p heavily doped. n lightly doped. n+ heavily doped guard around n.
OR
p+p-n+ device
• an active p-n+ junction.
• P lightly doped, n heavily doped.
• Heavily doped guard p+ around p.
• The lightly doped center region determines the avalanche breakdown voltage. If this region is short
compared with the minority carrier diffusion length, the excess carrier injection for large forward currents
can increase the conductivity of the region significantly.
• This type of conductivity modulation, which reduces the forward resistance R, can be very useful
for high-current devices. On the other hand, a short, lightly doped center region can also lead to punch-
through under reverse bias.
The mounting of a rectifier junction is critical to its ability to handle power. For diodes used in low-power
circuits, glass or plastic encapsulation or a simple header mounting is adequate. However, high-current
devices that must dissipate large amounts of heat require special mountings to transfer thermal energy away
from the junction. A typical Si power rectifier is mounted on a molybdenum or tungsten disk to match the
thermal expansion properties of the Si. This disk is fastened to a large stud of copper or other thermally
conductive material that can be bolted to a heat sink with appropriate cooling.

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2.7 : Photo Diode

A photodiode is a PN Junction Diode that consumes light energy to produce electric current. Sometimes it
is also called as photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor and depicted as shown in Fig 2.14. When
photons of energy greater than 1.1 eV hit the diode, electron-hole pairs are created.

Fig 2.14 : Photo Diode

If a photon of sufficient energy enters a depleted region of a diode, it could hit an atom with enough energy
to release an electron from the atomic structure, thus creating a free electron and a hole i.e an atom with an
empty electron state. The electron has a negative charge, and the hole a positive charge. These electron-
hole pairs drift apart and are swept from the junction - due to the built-in electric field of the depletion
region. As a result, the holes move toward the anode and the electrons move toward the cathode, thereby
producing photocurrent. The sum of photocurrents and dark currents, which flow with or without light, is
the total current passing through the photodiode.
Definition?
Two-terminal devices designed to respond to photon absorption are called photodiodes. Some photodiodes
have extremely high sensitivity and response speed
Two phenomenon at Junction are
 Carriers generated within the depletion region W are separated by the junction field, electrons
being collected in the n region and holes in the p region.
 Minority carriers generated thermally within a diffusion length of each side of the junction diffuse
to the depletion region and are swept to the other side by the electric field.
Key points
 The energy of a photon is given by hγ (product of Planck’s Constant and frequency)
 If the junction is uniformly illuminated by photons with hv > Eg, an added generation rate gop
(EHP/cm3-s).

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 These EHPs add to the drift current

 The number of holes created per second within a diffusion length of the transition region on the n
side is ALpgop. Similarly ALngop electrons are generated per second within Ln of xpo and AWgop
carriers are generated within W.
 The resulting current due to collection of these optically generated carriers by the junction is

 P(xno) is minority carrier hole concentration on edge of transition region on n side with bias. Pn in
equilibrium. So in forward bias hole concentration increases as compared to that in equilibrium. So
the concentration under reverse bias is less than that at equilibrium. This is minority charge
injection.
 A FB creates excess injections of holes into n region and e- to p region.
 Excess hole injection on the n-side due to FB is given by

 Likewise excess e- injection on p-side due to FB is

 The injected holes on the n-side combine with e-, by diffusion. If the length of the n side is more
than diffusion length then we get an exponential hole concentration. Refer Fig 2.15
 Similarly on the p side, it’s the e- concentration.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

Fig 2.15 : Carrier concentrations

So current now is

I-V curve is lowered as shown in Fig 2.16.

Fig 2.16 : I-V charactreristics

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When V=0, SC, I = -Ipo. The open circuit voltage is given by

The term represents equilibrium thermal generation – recombination rate. As the minority carrier
concentration is increased by optical generation of EHPs, the lifetime „ becomes shorter, and
pn/τn, becomes larger (pn is fixed, for a given Nd and T). Therefore Voc is limited by Vo, the
forward bias voltage. The appearance of a forward voltage across an illuminated junction is called
Photovoltaic effect.

Fig 2.17 : Photo Diode operations in different quadrants

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

Light absorption in a bulk semiconductor with an energy gap spanning the top of its valence band EV and
the bottom of its conduction band Ec. Photons with an energy that well exceeds the gap can produce
electron–hole pairs but energy is lost in a rapid thermalization process (blue). Solar photons with energies
below the gap cannot excite an electron–hole pair and their energy is lost (red). Refer Fig 2.18. Only
photons with energies matching the gap can efficiently be harvested without energy loss (green). b, A new
energy-harvesting pathway opens up when a semiconductor is interfaced with a metal (orange). When the
metal's Fermi level EF is above the valance band of the semiconductor, some sub-bandgap photons can
photo generate hot electrons that are sufficiently energetic to be injected into the semiconductor's
conduction band. As a result, these photons can now be harvested.

Fig 2. 18 : Bandgap and absorption

2.8 Solar Cells
The voltage is restricted to values less than the contact potential, which is in turn is generally less than the
band gap voltage Eg/q. For Si the voltage Voc is less than about 1 V. The current generated depends on the
illuminated area, but typically Iop is in the 10-100 mA range for a junction with an area of about 1 cm2.
The I-V characteristic is in the fourth quadrant as shown in Fig 2.19. Arrays of solar cells are used. Solar
cells can supply power for the electronic equipment aboard a satellite over a long period of time, which is a
distinct advantage over batteries. The array of junctions can be distributed over the surface of the satellite
or can be contained in solar cell "paddles" attached to the main body of the satellite

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Fig 2.19 : Operating point of Solar cell

2.8.1 Design considerations

1. Surface area 2. Doping 3. Junction depth

To utilize a maximum amount of available optical energy, it is necessary to design a solar cell with a large
area junction located near the surface of the device. planar junction is formed by diffusion or ion
implantation, and the surface is coated with appropriate materials to reduce reflection and to decrease
surface recombination.
1. The junction depth d must be less than Lp (diffusion length of holes) in the n material to allow holes
generated near the surface to diffuse to the junction before they recombine; similarly, the thickness of the p
region must be such that electrons generated in this region can diffuse to the junction before recombination
takes place. This requirement implies a proper match between the electron diffusion length Ln, the
thickness of the p region, and the mean optical penetration depth 1/a
2. It is desirable to have a large contact potential V0 to obtain a large photo voltage, and therefore heavy
doping is indicated; on the other hand, long lifetimes are desirable and these are reduced by doping too
heavily.
3. The series resistance of the device be very small so that power is not lost to heat due to ohmic losses in
the device itself. A series resistance of only a few ohms can seriously reduce the output power of a solar

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

cell . Since the area is large, the resistance of the p-type body of the device can be made small. However,
contacts to the thin n region require special design. If this region is contacted at the edge, current must flow
along the thin n region to the contact, resulting in a large series resistance.
To prevent this effect, the contact can be distributed over the n surface by providing small contact fingers.
These narrow contacts serve to reduce the series resistance without interfering appreciably with the
incoming light. The I-V characteristics are plotted as shown in Fig 2.20. by inverting the actual I-V curve.

2.8.2 Solar cell characteristics

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

Equivalent circuit of PV cell

Fill –Factor

The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the output resistance of the solar cell at its maximum
power point. If the resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic resistance of the solar cell,
then the maximum power is transferred to the load and the solar cell operates at its maximum power
point.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

A straight-forward method of estimating the series resistance from a solar cell is to find the
slope of the I-V curve at the open-circuit voltage point. An estimate for the value of the
shunt resistance of a solar cell can be determined from the slope of the I-V curve near the
short-circuit current point.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

2.9 Photodectetor, LED

When the photodiode is operated in the third quadrant of its I- V characteristic the current is
essentially independent of voltage but is proportional to the optical generation rate. Such a device
provides a useful means of measuring illumination levels or of converting time-varying optical
signals into electrical signals.

In most optical detection applications the detector's speed of response, or bandwidth, is critical. For
example, if the photodiode is to respond to a series of light pulses 1 ns apart, the photogenerated
minority carriers must diffuse to the junction and be swept across to the other side in a time much
less than 1 ns. The carrier diffusion step in this process is time consuming and should be eliminated
if possible. Therefore, it is desirable that the width of the depletion region W be large enough so
that most of the photons are absorbed within W rather than in the neutral p and n regions

When an EHP is created in the depletion region, the electric field sweeps the electron to the n side
and the hole to the p side. Since this carrier drift occurs in a very short time, the response of the
photodiode can be quite fast. When the carriers are generated primarily within the depletion layer
W, the detector is called a depletion layer photodiode. Obviously, it is desirable to dope at least one
side of the junction lightly so that W can be made large. The appropriate width for W is chosen as a
compromise between sensitivity and speed of response.
If W is wide, most of the incident photons will be absorbed in the depletion region, leading to a high
sensitivity. Also, a wide W results in a small junction capacitance [see Eq. (5-62)], thereby reducing
the RC time constant of the detector circuit. On the other hand, W must not be so wide that the time
required for drift of photo generated carriers out of the depletion region is excessive, leading to low
bandwidth

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

One convenient method of controlling the width of the depletion region is to build a p-i-n
photodetector . The "i" region need not be truly intrinsic, as long as the resistivity is high. When
this device is reverse biased, the applied voltage appears almost entirely across the i region. If the
carrier lifetime within the i region is long compared with the drift time, most of the photo generated
carriers will be collected by the n and p regions.

An important figure of merit for a photodetector is the external quantum efficiency ηQ, defined as
the number of carriers that are collected for every photon impinging on the detector. For a
photocurrent density Jop, we collect Jop/q carriers per unit area per second. For an incident optical
power density of Pop, the number of photons shining on the detector per unit area per second is
Pop/hγ. Therefore,

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

For a photodiode that has no current gain, the maximum ηQ is unity. If low-level optical signals are
to be detected, it is often desirable to operate the photodiode in the avalanche region of its
characteristic. In this mode each photo generated carrier results in a significant change in the
current because of avalanche multiplication, leading to gain and external quantum efficiencies of
greater than 100%. Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are useful as detectors in fiber-optic systems.
The type of photodiode described here is sensitive to photons with energies near the band gap
energy {intrinsic detectors). If hv is less than Eg, the photons will not be absorbed; on the other
hand, if the photons are much more energetic than Eg, they will be absorbed very near the surface,
where the recombination rate is high.
Optical power absorbed, P(x), in the depletion region can be written in terms of incident optical
power, Po is given by

P(x) P0 (1 e s ( ) x

)
Absorption coefficient strongly depends on wavelength. The upper wavelength cutoff for any
semiconductor can be determined by its energy gap as follows:

 (m)  1.24
c
E g (eV)
Therefore, it is necessary to choose a photodiode material with a band gap corresponding to a
particular region of the spectrum. Detectors sensitive to longer wavelengths can be designed such
that photons can excite electrons into or out of impurity levels (extrinsic detectors). However, the
sensitivity of such extrinsic detectors is much less than intrinsic detectors, where electron-hole pairs
are generated by excitation across the band gap. By using lattice-matched multilayers of compound
semiconductors, the band gap of the absorbing region can be tailored to match the wavelength of
light being detected. Wider band gap material can then be used as a window through which the light
is transmitted to the absorbing region.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

The type of photodiode described here is sensitive to photons with energies near the band gap
energy {intrinsic detectors). If hv is less than Eg, the photons will not be absorbed; on the other
hand, if the photons are much more energetic than Eg, they will be absorbed very near the surface,
where there combination rate is high. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a photodiode material
with a band gap corresponding to a particular region of the spectrum. Detectors sensitive to longer
wavelengths can be designed such that photons can excite electrons into or out of impurity levels
(extrinsic detectors). However, the sensitivity of such extrinsic detectors is much less than intrinsic
detectors, where electron-hole pairs are generated by excitation across the band gap.
By using lattice-matched multilayers of compound semiconductors, the band gap of the absorbing
region can be tailored to match the wavelength of light being detected. Wider band gap material can
then be used as a window through which the light is transmitted to the absorbing region. Matching
of lattice structures between two different semiconductor materials allows a region of band
gap change to be formed in a material without introducing a change in crystal structure.

In making a photodiode using InGaAs as the active material, it is possible to bring the light through
the wider band gap of InAlAs , thus greatly reducing surface recombination effects. In the case of
avalanche photodiodes requiring narrow-band-gap material, it is often advantageous to absorb the
light in the narrow-gap semiconductor (e.g., InGaAs) and transport the resulting carriers to a
junction made in wider band gap material (e.g., InAlAs), where the avalanche multiplication takes
place at high fields. Such separation of the absorption and multiplication (SAM) APDs avoids the
excessive leakage currents typical of reverse-biased junctions in narrow-gap materials.

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

In certain APDs, one can grade the alloy composition between the high-band-gap multiplication
regions and the lower-band-gap absorption region to avoid any band-edge discontinuities, which
can trap photo generated carriers. The photocurrent and dark current both increase with bias
because of avalanche multiplication. Wants to maximize the difference ΔI between the photocurrent
Ip and the dark current Id. The ratio of ΔI at different voltages to that at a low reference voltage is
defined as the gain of the APD. Another important property of detectors is the signal-to-noise ratio,
which is the amount of usable information compared with the background noise in the detector. In
the case of photoconductors, the major source of noise is random thermal motion of the carriers,
leading to fluctuations in the dark current (called Johnson noise). The noise current increases with
temperature (~kT) and with the conductance of the material in the dark. Therefore, the
photoconductor noise at a given temperature can be reduced by increasing the dark resistance. Yet
another source of noise at low frequencies is 1/f or flicker noise, due to carrier trapping and
detrapping at defects.
In a p-i-n diode, the dark current is smaller and the dark resistance much higher than in a
photoconductor, and the main source of noise is random thermal generation-recombination of EHPs
within this region (called shot noise).The shot noise is ultimately due to the quantization of the
charge on electrons and holes. The noise in a p-i-n device is considerably lower than that in a
photoconductor, as well as in APDs. Avalanche photodiodes have the advantage of providing gain
through the avalanche multiplication effect. The disadvantage is increased noise relative to the p-i-
n, due to random fluctuations in the avalanche process. This noise is reduced if the impact
ionization in the high-field region is due to only one type of carrier, since more fluctuations in the
ionization process occur when both electrons and holes participate. In Si, the ability of electrons to
create EHPs in an impact ionization event is much higher than for holes. Therefore, Si APDs can be
operated with high gain and relatively low noise.
The various sources of noise determine the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio in a photodetector. One
quantifies it as a noise-equivalent power (NEP), which is the minimum detectable signal that would
produce the same rms output as the noise. The detectivity of the photodetector is then defined as D
= 1/NEP. The NEP depends on the area of the photodetector as well as the bandwidth. The specific
detectivity, D*, is then defined as that for a detector of unit area and a bandwidth of 1 Hz. Clearly,
once the bandwidth requirements are met, it is desirable to choose a photodetector with the highest
D*.
Light Emitting Diode
The working principle of the Light emitting diode is based on the quantum theory. The quantum
theory says that when the electron comes down from the higher energy level to the lower energy
level then, the energy emits from the photon. The photon energy is equal to the energy gap between
these two energy levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the forward biased, then the current flows
through the diode. The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused by the both flow of holes in

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

the opposite direction of current and flow of electrons in the direction of the current. Hence there
will be recombination due to the flow of these charge carriers. The recombination indicates that the
electrons in the conduction band jump down to the valence band. When the electrons jump from
one band to another band the electrons will emit the electromagnetic energy in the form of photons
and the photon energy is equal to the forbidden energy gap. If Eg is gap in ev, then Eg=1.24/ λ.
From the above equation, we can say that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is inversely
proportional to the forbidden gap. In general silicon, germanium semiconductors this forbidden
energy gap is between the condition and valence bands are such that the total radiation of
electromagnetic wave during recombination is in the form of the infrared radiation. We can’t see
the wavelength of infrared because they are out of our visible range.
In a semiconductor with an indirect band gap, such as Si or Ge, the recombination releases heat to
the lattice. On the other hand, in a material characterized by direct recombination, considerable light
may be given off from the junction under forward bias. This effect, called injection
electroluminescence. An important metric is the external quantum efficiency, ηext= (internal
radiative efficiency) x (extraction efficiency). The internal efficiency is a function of the quality of
the material and the structure and composition of the layer. Defects in the material will clearly lead
to nonradiative recombination. However, even if the internal efficiency is high, not all emitted
photons are extracted from the LED.
Materials used in LED
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-red,
orange, and yellow
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

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Electronic Devices 18EC33

An LED had a planar surface, the photons incident on the semiconductor-air interface at angles
greater than a critical angle would undergo total internal reflection and ultimately be lost via
absorption within the semiconductor. Hence, typically, LEDs are made with a dome-type
encapsulation, which acts as a lens so that more of the photons can be extracted.
Light emitting materials
1. There is a wide variation in band gaps and, therefore, in available photon energies,
extending from the ultraviolet (GaN, 3.4 eV) into the infrared (InSb, 0.18 eV).
2. Using ternary and quaternary compounds, number of energy levels can be increased.
3. Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAs1−xPx) is a semiconductor material, an alloy of gallium
arsenide and gallium phosphide. It exists in various composition ratios indicated in its
formula by the fraction x.
4. Gallium arsenide phosphide is used for manufacturing red, orange and yellow light-emitting
diodes. It is often grown on gallium phosphide substrates to form a
GaP/GaAsP heterostructure. When the percentage of As is reduced and P is increased in this
material, the resulting band gap varies from the direct 1.43-eV gap of GaAs (infrared) to the
indirect 2.26-eV gap of GaP (green).
5. Infrared emitters such as GaAs, InP, and mixed alloys of these compounds are particularly
well suited to fiber-optical communication systems or TV remote controls.
6. A light emitter and a photodiode form an optoelectronic pair, which provides complete
electrical isolation between input and output, since the only link between the two devices is
optical. In an optoelectronic isolator, both devices may be mounted on a ceramic substrate
and packaged together to form a unit that passes information while maintaining isolation.
7. The InAlGaP system is useful for red, yellow, and orange wavelengths
8. AlGalnN is a strong emitter in the blue and green.
9. There is lot of research in achievement of high-efficiency red, green, and blue emitters,
because those colors are the three primary colors of the spectrum. By combining these color
LEDs (or in conjunction with suitable phosphors), one can form intense white light sources
(-500 lumens) with luminous efficiencies ~2 times greater than those of conventional
incandescent lightbulbs.

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