TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION COMPARATIVE STUDIES

GROUP WORK REPORTS

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE STUDIES
Discuss importance of comparative education under the following:
• Teacher trainee
• Policy makers
• Society
1) To make general statements about how education develops and also test how universally
applicable existing theories in education are
2) To understand our own education system better by knowing its roots and how it has been
influenced by others to be what it is today.
3) To broaden our thinking when dealing with educational issues and problems.
4) To get exposure to knowledge in other humanities and social sciences that also study human affairs
to enable us to see a holistic picture of education.
5) To enable a learner understand the nature of society i.e. have an insight into the country’s school
which are mirrors of society. Schools represent the character of nations.
6) To foster international understanding, peace and co-operation amongst nations of the world.
[discovering and appreciating what exists elsewhere replaces national pride and prejudice with the
objectivity that facilitates international harmony]
7) Helps achieve international standards in education [ in today’s global village, comparison makes us
aware of international trends in education and guides countries on how to give their citizens a
universally conscious and relevant education.
8) To reform or improve our education system by providing a reference point i.e. we are able to
discover which reforms are desirable and possibly;
- How best to implement them,
- What successes to emulate
- What failures to avoid
9) For satisfaction of intellectual curiosity i.e. it satisfies our natural desire to learn more about origin
and development of education in different countries and ours.
10) To understand the differences and similarities between our own educational system and others.
This helps us in appreciating that countries develop educational systems to serve their own national
interests, values and aspirations, based on their unique contexts.
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
 Methodologies are divided into two:
 Traditional
 Modern
1] Descriptive/statistical method
- It emphasizes collection, interpretation, verification and comparison of data in the study.
- E.g. using statistical/analytical charts to facilitate borrowing of useful lessons from foreign countries
e.g. UNESCO in enhancing girl child education.

1
Short comings of descriptive method
- Unreliability of statistical data. E.g. records can be compiled by officials who exaggerate figures to
hide short comings.
- Travel constraints to verify data in international studies.
- Feasibility of data interpretation without regard to social influence and values on how they affect
education.
2) Selective cultural borrowing method
 Based on the assumption that it is possible and prudent to study foreign system of education to
improve one’s own system of education, as long as this is done critically and selectively.
 3) The historical method –It emphasizes that educational policies and practices have both causes
and effects to be found in each society’s unique historical experience or national character.

Procedure
 - Study each national system separately in its historical context
 - Analysis of the forces and factors responsible for noted differences i.e. natural, religious, social
economic and political.
 - Adoption of only those ideas and practices that can be adopted to the recipient country’s historical
context.
4] Scientific Approaches –
(i) Systematic area Study
A] George Bereday
 Uses inter-disciplinary approach to systematically survey and analyze education in different
countries to understand differences and similarities before borrowing and prediction can be
attempted.
 The main steps are –
- Description of aspects of education
- Interpretation and explanation using the inter-disciplinary approach.
- Classification of contrasting and comparable feature
- Comparison
- Conclusion and generalization, focusing on the causes of similarities and differences
B] Problem solving approach – By Brian Holmes
 Main stages:
- Identification of the problem
- Analysis of the problem
- Proposed problem solution
- Specification of context
- Comparison and conclusion
[ii] Scientific Approach
By Harold Miah and Mark Eckstein [1960]
-Problem identification and review of literature
-Definition of central concepts, terms and indicators.
-Selection/sampling of units of study or cases

2
 -Collection of data
-Data analysis and manipulation
-Interpretation of findings or results
-Drawing of conclusions
Importance of Comparative Education Research
 Building up data which is vital to educational planners and policy makers
 Guides educational reforms
 Can be used in the censorship of educational aid from developed to developing countries

EDUCATION AND NATIONAL CHARACTER

DETERMINANTS OF NATIONAL CHARACTER OF EDUCATION
 These are factors that have helped to shape system of education to be the way they are.
 There are features or factors that help to determine and shape each system of education.
 An intricate combination and inter-weaving of several factors determine the national character of
given education system.

 Some factors are dominant in one particular system and recessive in another.
 Determinants of systems of education include: geographical factors, economic factors,
social/cultural factors, historical factors, religious factors, political factors and language influences,
technology e.t.c.

1] Geographical factors
 Geography of a region is in most cases natural, not determined by man
 It is inevitable for man to behave or act in accordance with the geography and nature in particular.
 Geography influences the nature of school buildings and equipment, the means and methods of
transport to school, the age at which children start school etc.
Climatic conditions
 Have influenced systems of education in various countries of the world, e.g. extreme temperatures
in Europe have affected:
(i) Accessibility to schools by young children. Enrolment is usually delayed sometimes even up to
seven years.
(ii) The time at which schools can start in the morning and end in the afternoon.
(iii) Time for vacations. Schools take vacation during cold winter and also during summer.
 (iv) Education activities. Hot season suitable for outdoor activities, while winter is used for
skirting
 Geographical conditions also influence distribution of population in the country, hence the
functioning of systems of education.
 E.g. Australia has the second largest desert in the world. Population is either concentrated in urban
centre or widely scattered in the country side.
 Australia has two systems of education: one for urban areas and another for rural areas.
 Australian urban schools are big and well-equipped, with adequate qualified teachers and
administrative personnel, while rural schools are small with one teacher to teach up to forty
learners.
 Farms are far from the nearest school and daily attendance of school is difficult.

3
 It is difficult for families to educate their children, hence central government is responsible for
their administration financing.
 Most Students receive education through correspondence and occasional visits by travelling
inspectors.
 The government provides the means and organization of correspondence tuition and travelling for
teachers.
 Climatic conditions experienced in arid and semi-arid areas of the tropical zones influence
activities in system of education,
 [More learning takes place in the morning or during morning hours when it is cool and very little
learning in the afternoon because of excessive heat].

2] Economic factors
 They determine the content and methods of an education system.
 Indigenous traditional education people were trained depending on the economic conditions and
needs of the community.
 Formal education is only possible where production exceeds consumption e.g. Poorer societies
have tended to be contented with minimum education for their children, while richer societies
keep their children longer in school because they can afford to meet the costs.
 In countries where there is enough grants for systems of education, minimum requirements per
student are met and thus quality of education is high. E.g. in Britain, France and Japan there are
enough grants allocated to their system of education to support programmes.
 In 3rd world countries the funds are scarce even paying of teachers is a problem. The economic
conditions have:
- Influenced the content and methods of learning,
- Resulted in lack of adequate qualified teachers,
- Caused lack of essential resource materials e.g. textbooks
 Where there is subsistence economy [i.e. people are just able to make ends meet] education must
be informal, occurring in the process of job performance.
 Such an economy is characteristic of primitive civilization which also harbor a contempt for
academic or intellectual pursuit [formal education] which results in surplus economy.

3] Social and cultural factors

 A culture of society is the total way of life of that society. Education system must reflect the
values of the people it serves.
 Thus education ensures cultural continuity mainly through fostering the growth and development
of national characteristics that will act as a stabilizing force.
 It is through education system that society strives to protect and perpetuate its traditions and its
aspirations.
Each education when studied and analyzed, reveals the cultural patterns or the way of life of each
society. The key to the behavior of different groups lies primarily in a study of physical surrounding
and social conditions

4] Historical Factors
 Different countries of the world have varied histories which have helped in shaping their systems
of education.

4
 What we see in systems of education is as a result of history.
 Thus similarities and differences in systems of education the world over have a history behind
them.
 Colonialism has been an important historical factor that has helped to shape systems of education.
 At Berlin Conference in 1815 [the scramble for Africa] European powers shared Africa like a cake.
 The colonies had to take up what was in their colonizer's countries back home.
 Features in education in the developed countries are reflected in their former colonies.
 The missionary’s factor has been also an important determinant in the shaping of systems of
education in Africa.
 Christian missionaries mainly from Britain, France, Holland, Switzerland, United States of America,
etc. have largely influenced the development of systems of education in Africa.
 Most of these missionaries brought with them some of the characteristic features of their home
countries’ and planted them in the systems of education in Africa.
 Therefore, the present systems of education in many countries of Africa, Asia, North and South
America are products of past colonial penetration.
 Their struggle is to develop systems of education that will enhance national self-identity and
cultural autonomy which can contribute to the sustainable economic growth.

5) Political factors
 The political system of a country influences the extent to which policies of reform in its system of
education are subjected to debate.
 It dictates the kind of administration the system will have.
 Political philosophies adopted by countries party, helps determine the features in their system of
education.
 E.g. socialism communism, capitalism, Socialism advocates for the nationalization of the means of
production.
 Such a change in the social order can only be achieved in side by side with a reform in education,
through a state with full control of education and the curriculum.
 The citizens must be trained by the state, for the state and in state institutions.
 The details of the curriculum are to be decided by the state authorities and involve functional
training of citizens.
 E.g. Mexico, Bulgaria and Cuba introduced socialist education.

Common features of Socialist Education

- The monopoly of state in education
- Secularism
- Physical and military training
- Political indoctrination in and out of school
- Emphasis on science subjects
 The freedom of individuals and idea of tolerance are not accepted
 France also has a centralized system of education based on its political philosophy.
 The United States of America has a system of education which is decentralized based on the
capitalist political philosophy of the country.

5
 The British colonial policy was based on principle of decentralization and on the building up of
common wealth of nations, each should be free to develop into its own culture and national
character.
 South Africa, a former is British colony, where racial segregation was prominent; the system of
education was patterned on racial lines i.e. The Whites, Asians, Colored and the Africans.
 The Apartheid as a political ideology based on the principle of {separation but equal development}
helped to determine the system of education in South Africa.
 It influenced the system of education to be the way it is currently.

6] Language Factors
 Language is a system of symbols of a people. It is a tool of expression and all human races possess
it.
 Every community or group of communities had an original language of its own which suits its
environment and stage of cultural development.
 Through language individuals become members of community and it is important in building the
character of a nation.
 Adopting a foreign language as a medium of instruction in schools may result in a lot of confusion.
 This is because the longer a child is under the influence of its native tongue the more difficult it
would be to grow naturally into the modes and expression and content of ideas of another
language.
 Through the nature language, the child has the first expression of the self and the world.
 In East Africa, Kiswahili has slowly influenced features in system of education i.e. in Kenya,
Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi.
 The curricula have items based on Kiswahili. E.g. Kiswahili is compulsory in primary school in
Kenya and Tanzania.
 Kiswahili is used as a medium instruction in all primary schools in Tanzania.
 French is widely spoken in former French colonies, e.g. Cameroon, Tunisia, Madagascar, Senegal,
Rwanda and Burundi.
 In Africa, colonization influenced the language of instruction in schools.
 In British colonies pupils were taught in their vernacular in the lower elementary school
curriculum and English in the other levels.
 The French put more emphasis on French as a medium of instruction.
 Colonialism has left a tear on most of the former colonies system of education.
 Indeed, up to today most of the inherited systems of education still suffer from what was
established by the colonial administration.

7] Religious Factors
 Religion and beliefs have been known to help in shaping aspects in the system of education.
 Present systems of education in Africa have been influenced by the works which was initiated by
European Christian Missionaries. E.g. school days are from Monday to Friday and resting on
Saturday and Sunday.
 Religious organizations have been and still are involved in educational development, partly to
advance their religion and spread ideas on religion to other people.
In Africa, the Catholic, Protestants and Muslim etc, have all influenced features in systems of
education in the areas they occupied.

6
8) Technology
 Advancement on technology has influenced education system too. The mode of study in our
tertiary learning institutions has embraced technology.
 We have students doing their degree course online [no physical contact with the tutor], there is
the virtual classroom [where teacher is far away or engaged but learners during their class.
 Technology has been misused to aid in national examination malpractice

KENYAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

 Kenya's educational system has its roots in the British colonial system.
 Initially separate schools were set up for the European, Asian, Arabs and African populations.
 This education system changed after independence in 1963.
 There was need to develop an education system that would be sensitive to the needs of a young
independent state
 This led to the establishment of the Ominde Commission which was mandated to look into the
education system and come up with recommendation on educational reforms that were required.
 The Ominde Report of 1964 recommended a need to change the structure of the education
system.
 It also came up with the national goals of education.

GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA

 Each country expresses the purpose of its education differently. In Kenya this purpose is expressed
in form of national goals of education;
1. Foster national patriotism and promote national Unity
2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development
3. Promote Individual development and self-fulfillment
4. Promote sound moral and religious values
5. Promote social equality and responsibility
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultural heritage
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection

1] Foster national patriotism and promote national unity

 Education in Kenya must foster a sense of nationhood and promote national unity.
 Education should help young people acquire a sense of nationhood by removing conflict and
promoting positive attitude of mutual respect which enables them to live together in harmony and
make positive contribution to national life.
2] Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development.
Education should meet the economic and social needs of national development. It should equip the
youth of the country to play an effective and productive role in the life of the nation
 Economic needs: the system of education should produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise
and personal qualities required to support the growing economy.
 Social needs: education in Kenya must prepare children for those changes in attitude, values and
relationships which are necessary for smooth progress of rapidly developing economy.

7
 3] Promote individual development and self-fulfillment:
 Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and
personality.
 It should help every child to develop his potential interests and abilities.
 A vital aspect of individual development is character building.
 Education should foster sound moral and religious values in order to help children to grow up into
self-disciplined, self-reliant and integrated citizens.
4] Promote sound moral and religious values
 Education should foster moral development among learners.
 Education should foster religious values through teaching of religious education.
5] Promote equality and responsibility
 Education should promote social equality and foster the sense of social responsibility with an
education system which provides equal opportunities for all.
 Education should give children varied challenging opportunities for collective activities and
corporate social services.
6] Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultural heritage
 Education should respect, foster and develop Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
 It should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures and its valid
place in contemporary society.

 It should also instill in the youth a sense of respect for unfamiliar cultures.
7] Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.
 Education should foster positive attitudes towards other countries and the international
community as Kenya is part of the international community.
 Education fosters international conscious through:
- Teaching other foreign languages
- Exchange programmes
- Use of modern technology [internet]
8] Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection
 Education should foster a sense of responsibility towards environmental protection among Kenyan
youth.
 Planting trees in our school compound and learner taking care as trees grow enhances this
attitude.
 Practicing proper waste management and disposal at school and home is equally crucial

STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION

Kenya has had several education systems as follows:
i. 4:4:4 System
 [1949-1963] this was during colonial period. Learners spend 4 years in primary, 4 years in
intermediate, 4 years in secondary school.
ii. 7:4:2:3 System
 [1964-1984] the Ominde commission recommended this structure in 1964.
 It entails 7 years in primary,

8
  4 years in secondary,
 2 years in high school and
 3 years in university education.
 It was then replaced by the 8-4-4 system in 1985.
iii. 8:4:4 System
 This was recommended by Mackay Report in 1981.
 It entails 8 years in primary,
 4 years in secondary and
 4 years in university.
 8:4:4 system of education came into force in 1985 and was operational up to 2017.
iv. 2:6:3:3:3 – Competency Based Curriculum CBC System
 This was recommended by the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development KICD in 2017, piloted in
selected primary schools in term one 2018 and rolled out in May 2018 in lower primary.
 It consists of 2 years in pre-primary education
 6 years in Primary education,
 3 years in Junior Secondary
 3 years in Senior Secondary and
 3 years (minimum) in University education.
 The CBC system is grouped into four general categories i.e.
a. Early Year Education EYE
 This level involves mastery of basic skills upon the learners.
 The group consists of preprimary and lower primary
Pre-Primary
 This first entry and takes 2 years and a learner enters the education system at the minimum age of
4 years old.
 The first class is PP1 – short for Pre-Primary 1 followed by PP2.
 This is what used to be referred to as Nursery.
Lower Primary
 After Pre-Primary the learner enters the Grade level.
 This consists of 3 levels – Grade 1, Grade 2 and Grade 3
 In order to proceed to Middle school the KNEC gives a learner an exam or assessment.
 This exam together with combination of class based assessment shall determine if a learner is fit
to proceed to the next level.
b. Middle School
 This consists of Upper Primary and Lower Primary
Upper Primary
 Consists of 3 level – Grade 4, Grade 5 and Grade 6
 At the end of Grade 6 KNEC gives an assessment exam to determine the readiness for the Lower
Secondary level.

Lower Secondary

9
  It consists of 3 levels i.e. Grade 7, Grade 8 and Grade 9.
 At the end of Grade 9 KNEC gives an assessment to determine the readiness for the Senior School.
c. Senior School
 This is also called Upper Secondary
 At this stage learners now start to specialize based on their career choices.
 Time taken here will enable them to see where they fit in their career.
 Careers are generally categorized into;
o Arts and Sports Science
o Social Sciences
o STEM
 Based on the category the learner has decided the learner will transition to Grade 10, Grade 11
and Grade 12.
d. Tertiary Education – TVET or University
 After Senior School the learner based on their career choices will either attend a Technical and
Vocational Education and Training TVET or University or can engage in entrepreneurial business.
e. University Education
 If they choose tertiary education and training they will undergo a minimum of 3 years.
 Some course careers require longer time frames.

REASONS FOR CHANGES IN EDUCATION STRUCTURE

A] From 4:4:4 education system to 7:4:2:3 education system.
- Need to have common curriculum for all schools in the country.
- Need to provide academic type of education to Kenyan youth which colonial government had
denied.
- Need to produce necessary manpower required by the economy after independence.
- Demand to make curriculum content relevant to needs of Kenyan youth
- Need to preserve our rich cultural heritage through our education system.
B] From 7:4:2:3 education system to 8:4:4 education system
- The education system was accused of being too academic.
- Many unemployed graduates who were looking for white collar jobs.
- Education system was highly selective i.e. only prepared learners to progress to next level.
- System failed to equip learners with technical skills necessary to make them self-reliant.
C] From 8:4:4 education system to 2:6:3:3:3 education system
- Failure of education system to identify learner’s talents and nurture them.
- Need to identify learner’s talent early and nurture it in course of learning.
- Need to incorporate and streamline early childhood education in our country.
- Need to incorporate vocational and technical education at secondary school level.
- Need to have alternative pathways for learners

ASSESSMENT OF EDUCATION
- Examining bodies include:
A] Kenya National Examination Council [KNEC]

10
- -KNEC conducts summative evaluation for primary and secondary annually [October/November]
and issues KCPE and KCSE certificates respectively.
- -KNEC also conduct Business Examinations and Technical Examinations in July and November for
certificate courses and diploma courses and in November for both Certificate and Diploma in Early
Childhood Development education [ECDE]
 KCPE and KCSE are administered by KNEC and are done by all learners in the whole nation at the
end of the year [November].
 -summative evaluation at end of primary cycle is for placement in various secondary schools
[national, extra-county, county or sub-county school], while at end of secondary cycle is placement
at various degree courses in the public and private University
 At KCSE student do the following subjects:
English, mathematics & Kiswahili which are compulsory, plus any two sciences [biology,
chemistry, physics], plus one technical subject [agriculture, home science, business studies,
computer studies] plus one humanity subject [history, CRE, IRE, geography]
 Students who score C+ mean grade and above at KCSE qualify for admission to the various public
universities and government pays their fees.
B] Kenya Accountant and Secretary National Examinations Board [KASNEB]
-KASNEB conducts examinations for Certified Public Accountant [CPA] and for Certified Public
Secretary [CPS] in July and November every year for various CPA and CPS stages.
C] School: mainly involved in formative evaluation of learners. Examinations are done at mid-term and
at end of term in majority schools.
D] National Industrial Training Authority [NITA]
NITA assesses artisans and issues them with government trade test [I, II & III] certificates. It
assesses industrial training, testing occupational skills and awards certificates. It harmonizes
curricula and certificates of competence.

CHALLENGES FACING ASSESSMENT SYSTEM

 Mass failure in KCPE & KCSE after government put strict rules to manage examination malpractices
in 2016.
 Public outcry on mode of examination marking [period of marking shortened to strictly two weeks
and results announced immediately].
 Prolonged working hours for examiners in an attempt to complete marking within two weeks.
 Transport problem due to floods during examination month in parts of the country.
 Concentration of examination marking centers in Nairobi, unlike before where they were spread to
various parts of the country.

FINANCING OF EDUCATION
 Financing education has been a major challenge to the government and the society.
 Government spends a large percentage of its national budget [33%] on education.
 However, a large portion of the money goes towards the payment of teachers’ salaries.
1] In 2003, government introduced Free Primary Education [FPE] which resulted in increased
enrolment. This policy required government to provide necessary teaching and learning resources:
adequate teachers, classrooms, teaching and learning materials
 World Bank and European Community pledged to support the FPE policy.

11
  Government allocated ksh 1,020 per child per year. Every primary school had to open two bank
accounts to receive the funds from Ministry of Education.
 FPE funds were to be used for purchase of teaching and learning materials, operations and
maintenance at school.
2] In 2008 government pledged to offer Free Secondary Education [FSE]. However due to financial
constraints, government only subsidized secondary education by allocating ksh 10,625 per student
per year. Every secondary school had to open two bank accounts to receive the funds.
 The funds are used to buy teaching and learning material [exercise books, text books, lab
chemicals & apparatus, chalk, dusters, photo copy paper], operational and maintenance purpose
Higher education is also highly subsidized by government.
3] Higher Education Loans Board [HELB] offers loans to students who cannot afford fees for university
education.
 The university loan is processed through commercial bank hence student has to open a bank
account with commercial bank to receive the loan. Students from Arid and Semi-Arid Land [ASAL]
receive higher amount due to poverty levels.
 University loan is paid back to HELB after graduation with some interest.
4] Constituency Development Fund [CDF] found at every constituency throughout the country,
provides bursaries to needy students from their localities in secondary and tertiary levels
 It is overseen by the area member of parliament [MP], but managed by a committee.
5] Church sponsors and other faith based organizations: Compassion Aid, Bedford Fund, etc. who
sponsor needy learners from primary through secondary to college/university.
6] Non-Governmental Organizations [NGO] like world vision, World Neighbors, GTZ, CCF, USAID,
Action Aid, etc. sponsor individual learners or offer to carry out projects at school level to promote
learning.
7] Parents and guardians also meet certain education costs such as transport to and from school,
uniform fees, boarding fees or lunch money in case of day school. They have to provide personal
effects to learner like toiletry.
8] Community and well-wishers also finance education through the harambee spirit, where fund
raising may be organized to raise money for a school project or fees for individual learner at secondary
or tertiary institution.
9] County Education Fund. Some County Governments have set aside part of their money allocation
from Central Government to develop education facilities [technical institutions] and by allocating
bursary to needy learners in secondary and college/university from their county.

EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION
 Kenya schools are divided into two categories private and public schools.
 Private schools are administered privately by individuals or corporates. They must be registered by
the Ministry of Education [MOE]
 MOE keeps a close watch over the type and quality of education offered in such educational
institutions.
 Public schools are government owned and managed. They are administered by Ministry of
Education [MOE] which is headed by the Cabinet Secretary. The Principal Secretary is the
accounting officer.
 Below the Principal Secretary we have the Directors of various sectors of education.
 At County level we have the County Director of Education who is in-charge of education matters at
county level.

12
 At Sub-County level there is the Sub-County Education Officer, in-charge of education issues at
Sub-County level.
 There is Area Education officer at the Division level to manage education matters of the Division.
 For day-to-day running of each school, the ministry appoints a Board of Management BOM [in the
case of secondary school and tertiary institutions] or a School Management Committee SMC [in
case of primary school]
 The BOM & SMC have wide representation of various stake holders in the society.
 Principal is the secretary to the BOM and has responsibility of implementing the policies made by
Board or Ministry.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
a. The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development [KICD] develops curriculum for Early Childhood
Development Education [ECDE], for Primary Education, Secondary Education, Teacher Training
College both certificate and diploma levels.
b. Technical and Vocational Education Training Authority [TVETA] develop curriculum for technical
course at certificate and diploma level.
c. Universities develop curriculum for various degree courses they offer as well as post-graduate
diploma courses.
d. National Industrial Training Authority [NITA] which develops Industrial training Curricula for
artisan and technician.
e. Kenya Technical Trainer College [KTTC] develop curriculum for diploma in technical teacher
education.

CURRICULUM CONTENT
 Primary school learners study the following subjects: English, Kiswahili, Mathematics, Religious
Education, science & Social Studies.
 Some Private primary schools offer additional subjects like: computer studies, foreign languages &
music.
 Secondary school learners in form 1 & 2 study the following subjects: English, Mathematics,
Kiswahili, Biology, Chemistry, physics, agriculture, Home Science, Business Studies, Computer
Studies, music, Foreign Languages
 Secondary school learners in form 3 & 4 do the following subjects:
A] Compulsory subjects: mathematics, English & Literature, Kiswahili & Fasihi,
B] Two science subjects selected from: Biology, Chemistry & Physics.
C] One Technical Subject selected from: Agriculture, Home Science, Business studies, Computer
Studies, Wood work, Electricity, Power and Mechanics, Fine Art & Music
 D] One Humanity subject selected from: History, Religious Education & Geography.
NB learner may select two technical subjects or two humanity subjects or do a foreign language to
get total of 8 subjects at form Four
However KNEC takes average of the 7 subjects to determine candidate mean grade and for
certification.

TEACHER EDUCATION

13
 Pre-Service teacher training is done were learners are admitted to training immediately after
completing school.
 To teach at Pre-Primary, one requires minimum mean grade C- at KCSE to train on certificate
course in ECDE or mean grade C plain at KCSE to train on Diploma course in ECDE.
 To teach in Primary, one requires minimum mean grade C plain and above at KCSE to train
certificate course in Teacher education as P1 teacher.
 To teach in secondary school one requires minimum mean grade C+ at KCSE to do Diploma in
Teacher Education or mean grade B plain at KCSE to do Bachelors' degree in Education. In
addition one must have scored C+ and above at KCSE in their two teaching subjects.
 To teach in the Tertiary colleges, one requires minimum of a higher diploma in Education or
Bachelor’s degree in their area of specialization and Minimum C+ at KCSE in their teaching
subjects.
 To teach at the university one requires minimum Master’s Degree to function as Tutorial Fellow
and to have registered for PHD degree Programme. However, due to competition now the
minimum is PHD degree in the area of specialization.
 To be Instructor at Vocational Training Centre one requires minimum D+ at KCSE plus Instructor
Training Course.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

A. AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
 It refers to complete knowledge system with its own concept of epistemology, philosophy and
scientific and local validity and can only be fully learned or understood by means of pedagogical
traditionally employed by indigenous people themselves.
Principles underlying African Indigenous system of Education
a. Communism - this philosophy emphasized group cohesion. Each child was brought up to fit within
the community; children were socialized to subordinate their own interest to the interest of the
community and not the individual.
b. Preparationism - Children were brought up to become useful members of the society. The children
were brought up to take up future role, boys were brought up in close association with their fathers
while girls were brought up in close association with their mothers
c. Functionalism - Education was strictly utilitarian and was generally for induction into the society
and preparation for adulthood. Education was geared towards integrating the children in engaging
in productive work.
d. Perennilism - Traditional education mainly focused on the transmission or heritage from one
generation to another. It aimed at continuity.
e. Hollisticism - this involved multiple learning. This involves multiple learning. There were hardly any
room for specialization in learning. Its aims, content and method were interwoven.
Objectives African Indigenous Education
 Character building through acquiring moral qualifications.
 Preservation of culture through heritage.
 Adapting the younger generation to their physical environment and teaching them how to use it.
 Instilling feeling of group cohesion and stability not individualism.
 Preparation of the individual for adult roles.
 Learning practical skills and knowledge useful in making individual self-reliant and independent.
The content of African Indigenous Education System
 The education content was relevant to the changing needs of people. The content in African
Indigenous Education included;

14
 i. Generalized content - this content was open to all members of age or gender regardless of age or
gender e.g. knowledge about political aspects, leadership, social, environment, religion, cultural and
physical aspects of life.
ii. Specialized content - this is where specialized members of the society conducted, this training and
knowledge included divine healing, medicine men.
In essence, the content of the curriculum comprised of the following;
i. Physical environment - the child was taught about the weather, the landscape and animal life.
ii. Family and social life - Children acquired knowledge about kinship relationship and other rites like
moral behavior.
iii. Cultural and religious life - Indigenous education inculcated a religious attitude of life. Religion was
concerned with good behavior and morality.
iv. Economic life - Children were taught on economic activities as per their gender and taking
responsibility.
Contributions of African Indigenous Education System
 It deals with the reality of life.
 It was guided by the principle of learning of learning by doing.
 Traditional education tends to reflect on the value and expectations of the society as a whole which
should not be abandoned.
 It plays an important role in instilling the African identity of the child through cultural, moral, political
and economic needs of the society.
Criticisms of African Indigenous Education
 Irrelevance in the modern world. It proposes can no longer enable children to dynamics of life.
 Its interests were focused on the needs of the group, giving very little attention to the individual.
 Strong adherence to tradition is a hindrance to development to development.
 No figures or letters were learnt. This makes it difficult to keep records for use by future generation.
Details easily got forgotten or distorted.
 The methods of instruction are also criticized because it was devoid of any initiative or a spirit of
enterprise.
Methods that were used to give instruction in African Indigenous system of Education
i. Plays - boys imitated activities such as making wooden toys and spears while girls molded pots
ii. Oral literature - This included teaching through myths, legends, proverbs and folksongs
iii. Apprenticeship - this was learning through observing and then copying the same.
iv. Involvement in productive work - Through working hard in hand with adults
v. Initiation and Circumstances - Education took the form of succeeding stages of initiation from one
status to another.

B. ISLAMIC EDUCATION
 It is a formal system of education that has got its basis in Quran and the Hadith.
 Its main aim, is to mold learners into a socially, politically, religious, economically beings in their
near future.
 Islamic schools are mostly found near the Mosques.
 Children start school at age of 6years at chuo which resembles kindergarten
 The Koranic school system comprises of ;
a) Maktab - which focus on literacy skills and reading the Koran
b) Ilm - it comprises of Tafsir, Study of hadith, Arabic and literature
c) Jamii - focus on specialization where they train as teachers, artists
METHODS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
Majority of teachers in Islamic education used the following methods of instruction;
 Reciting verses from the Quran

15
 Demonstrations
 Motivation
 Student-Teacher discussions
 Imitation
 Memorization either individually or as a group.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
 Preparing individuals for adult roles and active participation in social life
 Learning practical skills and knowledge useful in making one an independent member
 Character building through acquisition of moral qualities
 The basic aim of Islamic education is to enable a Muslim to have basic information that is, how to
pray, fast, e.t.c. and the basic information in order to live an honorable life.
 Islam wants a person should be mentally, physically, and socially sound one in order to live a
healthy life. Islam wants spiritually a balanced Muslim who can maintain balance between
religious and social activities.
 One of the aims of Islamic education is to develop in a person the spirit of Muslim brotherhood
and tolerance so that he/she could live harmonious life in society.
 Islam wants to bring simple life style in a person and society in order to avoid living a bad life
 Bring up a fully informed person on social, economic and political affairs of the current world in
order to play their role in collective affairs
FEATURES OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
 Islamic education is almost free a small amount of money was collected for education and so
attending school was not on basis of being able to raise school fees.
 Education was heavily weighted on principle of morality - there was strict moral discipline among
students. The Quran dictated that the students to be disciplined.
 Teachers occupied high position in the society - The social status for the teaching class was highly
respected for integrity of character and profession
 Commercial education was also taught with the aim of Providing training in trade, industry and
knowledge of business and accounts
 Vocational training - it was of great importance where students could specialize in fine arts like
painting and music.
 Education was free for the poor but on merit - they received stipends and scholarship. They
received education free of charge
 Professional teachers and trainers were employed on salary basis in schools and vocational
trainings. Large estates were set apart for maintenance of maktabs and madrasas.
 Education for women was not prioritized as that of men - the girls mostly received their moral,
intellectual and practical trainings at their houses.
 The curriculum of madrasas was dominated by theology - it had the primary teachings of the
Quran.
 Schools start on Saturdays and end on Wednesdays
 Education is not structured according to age
 The basis for Islamic education is the Quran and the hadith

CONTRIBUTION OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

 Developed a high degree of perfection in arts of textile, ceramics and metallurgy

16
 In mathematics and design - Islamic buildings walls had ornate geometric star and polygon
patterns which were with a swirling network of lines.
 Furthered Scientific breeding of horses and cattle
 Came up with new ways of grafting to produce new types of flowers and fruits
 Introduced the new concepts of irrigation, fertilization and soil cultivation
 Chemistry - led to discovery of substances such as potash, alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid,
sulfuric acid and mercury chloride
 In astronomy - Calculated the angle of eclipse, measured size of earth, calculated the precession
of the equinox
 In physics - explained the refraction of light, gravity, capillary attraction and twilight.
 Developed observatories for the Empirical study of heavenly bodies
 Made advances in use of drugs, herbs and food for medicine, established hospitals for interns and
externs
 Discovered causes of certain diseases and developed correct diagnosis for them
 Made use of anesthetics in surgery with newly innovated surgical tools
 Introduced the science of dissection in anatomy.
CRITICISMS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
 The teachers and professionals were too harsh to students, such relationship is not conducive for
learning.
 The Islamic education models do not have effect of changing the intellectual knowledge at any
level of education
 It does not prioritize or lay emphasizes on education of women.
REFERENCES
1. Cobb,S.(1965). Islamic Contribution to Civilization. Washington, DC: Avalon.
2. Sorty,Y.I.(1985).Ibn Khaldun`s views of man, society and education. Unpublished doctoral
Dissertation. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.

C. MISSIONARY EDUCATION
 Foreigners came from both the east and the west of Africa.
 The Arabs came long before the Europeans and settled along the northern and eastern part of the
African continent
 The coming of Europeans to Africa brought a new system of education – western education
 Missionaries introduced western education in Kenya.
 The partition of Africa in 1884 established British rule in Kenya and led to an increase of Christian
missionaries.
 As the missionaries established themselves on the mainland, they started schools as a means of
converting Africans to Christians
Europeans came with several aims mainly:
i. Power – fame and celebrity
ii. Increase Scientific & geographical knowledge for e.g.
 The sources of rivers - the Niger and the Nile - the Scots explorer Mungo Park died in 1805
trying to establish the source of river Niger
 The Nile source - Egypt and Sudan
 The Royal Geographical Society and the Foreign Office Commissioned the Richard Burton and
John Hanning Speke to find the origins of the Nile.
 Englishman Denham and Scotsman Clapperton set off in 1822 in search of Central Africa

17
  German, Heinrich Barth, explored the major trade routes of Sahara and Sahel.
 To explore the wealth and resources of the undeveloped continent
 To establish posts for international trade
 To spread Christianity
 To civilize and introduce western culture
 To stop slave trade and introduce legitimate trade
The Earliest Missionaries to Kenya before 1910
 Roman catholic missionaries from Portugal
 Church missionary society led by J Krapf and J Rebman
Early Missionary Churches
 African Inland Mission
 Evangelical Lutheran Mission
 Friends of African Mission Party
 The Church of Scotland Mission
 The Seventh Day Adventist
 The Methodist Church
 Salvation Army

 A common feature of missionary settlement was building of a church, a school and a hospital
(Dispensary).
 The schools were used as a centre of getting African converts through evangelizing and
converting them into Christianity.

AFRICAN RESPONSE TO MISSIONARY EDUCATION

First Response - Rejection
 African first response to missionary education was negative.
 Majority felt that education was interfering with their social and economic way of life,
especially because children who would be doing ‘useful’ jobs were kept in school the whole
day.
 The few who accepted western Education included orphans, social outcasts, victims of natural
disasters and some parents would send their lazy children to school.
Missionary Response
 They encouraged children to come to school by giving them and their parents things like
blankets, sugar and so on.
 They also encouraged the sons of chiefs to go to school with a promise of continued support in
leadership
Second Response
 By 1918-1920, the African negative attitude to missionaries changed to one of craving for
missionary education.
 This was as a result of seeing what those who had gone to school had achieved for themselves
because of their education.
 The availability of jobs for those who could read and write from the European settlers, the
missionaries and the colonial government as office messengers, clerks, cooks and so on gave an
easier alternative to traditional ways of life.
 The money economy introduced by Europeans offered a different means of success to the
previous terms of counting wealth.

18
  The Africans were also encouraged by veterans of First World War (1914- 1918) to accept
western education who due to their experiences at war knew that white superiority over
Africans was due to their education and not due to the colour of his skin.
IMPACT OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION
Positive impact
 Built schools in the mission centres
 Opened health facilities
 Trained Africans and these successful graduates became role models to the rest of the
community
 Trained Africans and these successful graduates became role models to the rest of the
community
 Trained the first batch of African teachers who were used to move into the interior and start
schools. These included catechists who also evangelized in the interior
 Through their education they provided literate Africans who could be employed by the settlers
and the colonial government
Negative impact
 Each missionary group (denomination) taught its members to mistrust the other group.
 This brought a new type of hostilities because it divided homes, clans, communities etc into
religious division with each group feeling superior to the other
 It also led to starting denominational schools (bush schools) whereby only members of sect
were admitted
 It also led to starting of an elite African educated group
 The schools started in the interior were haphazardly built and they had no facilities because the
missionaries lacked the resources
 The teachers in these schools were not fully trained which affected the quality of the
curriculum to be offered
 Missionaries in their mission to civilize Africans demanded that Africans should abandon their
cultural practices, beliefs and customs which had a far reaching reactions amongst Africans
 The missionaries also started boarding schools to keep the Africans from their corrupting native
environment

Summary
 Early missionaries influenced development of Education in Kenya through the introduction of
western education.
 The influence had both positive and negative impacts

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN THE COLONIAL PERIOD

A. FRASER EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1908
By 1908 the government had no policy or education plan or an organizational plan to guide in its
participation in education. It was therefore necessary to carry out a survey on education in
Kenya. As a result, in 1908, Nelson Fraser was commissioned to evaluate education and make
recommendations on the structure of education in East Africa Protectorate .i.e.
On how education was to be organized
Type of education to be offered to different races

19
Fraser noted a problem in African education where African traditional education was being eroded
by Western influence. The commission discussed the need for government-missionary cooperation
in education. Fraser noted that educational facilities for Africans needed to be provided by
missionary societies on the ground. He also noted that education of any kind; industrial or technical
needed morality and should be accomplished by Christian instructions.
Recommendations of the Fraser Education Commission of 1908
1. A department of education to be set up and a director of education to be appointed.
2. Different education for the three races; Europeans, Asians and Africans, that is, a racially
segregated education.
3. Academic education to be given to the European children.
4. African education to lay emphasis on industrial / technical and agricultural education.
5. The government to give grants-in-aid to missionaries to assist in their education work.
Following these recommendations, a board of education was set up made up of both the
missionary and government representatives. The board reviewed and approved the Fraser's
proposal. The government also set up a department in 1911, which was guided by the board.
This department started giving grants to missionary schools.
Schools were started on racial lines, Asian and European schools offering academic education and
well equipped with facilities while Africans received industrial and agricultural education.

B. PHELPS STOKES EDUCATION COMMISSION REPORT 1924

Phelps Stokes Commission Recommendations
1. Africans to be given education to equip them for rural life.
2. Emphasis on teaching practical prevocational subjects to Africans
3. Education to be racially segregated
4. Government & missionaries to cooperate in financing education for Africans

5. A uniform way of receiving grants-in-aid for all mission and government schools be established.
6. An advisory committee on native education with government, missionary and settlers
representatives be set up.
7. Education be related to the needs of people and character building be given priority.
8. Expansion of agricultural and industrial education, and adaptation of education to local needs.
9. There should be expansion of girls’ schools.

Government response to Phelps Stokes Report 1924

1. Missionary schools received grants in aid
2. Supervision and training of village school teachers.
3. A model school ‘’Jeans School’’ opened at Kabete
4. Cooperation between government and missionary schools established

C. AFRICAN INDEPENDENT SCHOOL MOVEMENT

Before the First World War, the government prioritized European and Asian education, and low
priority African education was left to the missionaries. After the First World War, Africans became
increasingly aware of the importance of education, were demanding it and school enrolment
increased. The government became involved in the control of mission schools and determined that
Africans would get technical education while Europeans and Asians would get academic education.
Africans resented technical education which they deemed inferior and suitable only for menial jobs.

20
The African was not interested in an education “that would make him remain a peasant in a modern
economy and dominated by alien immigrants to Kenya.
Mission schools made provision of education to Africans contingent on their renouncing their tribal
customs and converting to Christianity
 However, the majority of Africans were increasingly being drawn to these mission schools because of
a desire for academic education (Mwakikagile, 2000). At a conference of government educational
officers in 1929, it was stated: ‘At the same time the members….are not fully satisfied that the
missionary bodies realize how deep is the desire of many Africans for education as distinguished from
evangelization’
In 1928 in Kikuyu District, only 13,000 of half a million children were enrolled in elementary school and
the Kikuyu were anxious to preserve many of their traditions in the face of colonialism. Education
became another anti-colonial platform used by the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA), a political group
contesting oppressive policies such as colonial government seizing African lands and imposing an
internal pass system on Africans (Natsoulas, 1998). They began to grow impatient with the slow
response to their educational and political demands. The Independent Schools movement would
develop as a self-help attempt by Africans to create schools for Africans that would meet their
education needs in the colony of Kenya.

In 1929, a conflict erupted between the church and the Kikuyu ethnic group over female circumcision
and approximately 90 percent of Kikuyu parents boycotted mission schools. (Natsoulas, 1988).
Following the boycott of the mission schools in 1929, the Kikuyu parents petitioned the director of
Education to provide non-mission schools (Wallbank, 1938: Natsoulas, 1988). The Church of Scotland
Mission (CSM), other missions and the government were opposed to this. As the government
hesitated, the Independent African School Association opened independent schools and “A Negro
Bishop from South Africa was brought to organize a native church in conjunction with these
independent African schools” (Wallbank, 1938, p. 530). Two educational organizations were formed –
the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the more militant Kikuyu Karinga Educational
Association (KKEA). KISA and KKEA would later collaborate to open an independent teachers training
college – the Kenyan African Teachers College. In 1945, after World War II, higher education was rare
in Kenya and Africans were demanding more higher education. There were 395 secondary school
students. Only two were girls. (Burton & Charton-Bigot, 2010). Two schools in the colony provided
African secondary education. Alliance High School, established by the Protestant Mission in 1926, was
the only place where Africans could take the highest diploma – the Cambridge School Certificate in
1945. Only fifteen students passed this examination that year (Burton & Charton-Bigot, 2010). Carey
Francis was its School Principal and he is credited with contributing to the very high standard of
education at Alliance. Paradoxically, Carey Francis was also integral in developing political
consciousness in his students at Alliance by his failure to recognize their social, political and economic
aspirations. (Burton & Charton-Bigot, 2010).
In terms of development, the following took place;
1)      Elementary schools had expanded to 2000 with a population of 200,000 pupils. There was
overcrowding and very little effective learning. Half of this population dropped out of school after
substandard A, meaning they only had one year of school leaving them illiterate. This meant there was
a lot of wastage at this level.
2)      Primary school was still limited. In 1945, only 1,107 sat for Primary School Examination (PSE).
Those who passed would go to secondary school. However, even by 1945, only Alliance and Mangu
offered Cambridge School Certificate Examination.

21
3)      There was a lot of emphasis placed on agriculture in school. Primary schools had mixed farms
which they looked after.
4)      Parents started appreciating girls' education and therefore started demanding for more.
However, the girl education was still limited e.g. in1945, out of the 1,107 candidates who sat the
primary examination, only 65 were girls. 55 of these girls passed the examination but only 7 of them
could go to the secondary school because of limited space. The first girls, school to offer Cambridge
School Certificate was the African Girls Secondary School-Kikuyu, later named Alliance Girls in 1950. It
was later followed by Loreto Convent Limuru in 1952.There was growth in demand for Local Native
Council Schools rather than mission schools. Africans felt they had more control over such schools as
they helped finance them.
5)      For higher education, African students went to Makerere e.g. in 1945, Kenya sent 14 students,
making the total number of Kenyans there 42. These students acquired diplomas as Makerere was not
awarding degrees yet. In contrast, the government organized for Europeans and Asians to get
scholarships to enable them acquire degrees in universities abroad. This opportunity was not offered
to Africans and both the Kenya African Union (KAU) and the LNCs wanted the same for African
students. When they realized that this was not happening, they started advocating for Makerere to be
elevated to university status.

Apart from pressing for higher education for Africans, the LNCs wanted compulsory education for
children between 5 and 16 years.

The following are the most important policy documents that shaped education in Kenya during this
period;

 THE TEN YEAR PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN EDUCATION – 1948

In line with the Colonial Development and Welfare Act, the colonial government developed the Ten
Year Development Plan in 1948.
It aimed at the following;
a)      Providing 50% of the school age children with 6 years of primary education at the end of 10
years.
b)      To expand secondary schools in a limited manner-raise the number from 2 to 16 in 10 years.
c)      Limit wastage in primary schools by giving grants in aid in proportion of qualified teachers not to
the number of schools in the district or province. This was an attempt at improving quality of
education which had been greatly compromised by rapid unplanned expansion and lack of supervision.
d)      The plan also pledged an adequate supply of teachers-they hoped to establish 24 elementary
Teacher Training Centers.

The Africans received this document negatively because it neither made provision for compulsory
education nor plan for adequate higher education for Africans.

NB:
 The government progressively increased African bursaries for Makerere but could not
contemplate offering compulsory education for lack of funds.
 This plan was not implemented because of lack of funds-the local authorities were not able to
meet the cost of primary education. The Plan was superseded by the Beecher Report of 1949.

22
 
D. THE BEECHER EDUCATION COMMITTEE REPORT-1949
MEMBERS:
1. L.J. Beecher – Chairman
2. Col. F.E. Firminger
3. Rev. W.Scott Dickson
4. Mr. N.B. Labby
5. Hon. E.W.Mathu
6. Mr. D.O. Haggan
7. Mr. W. Padley
8. Rev. Father Rowlands
9. Hon. Lady Shaw

One major problem experienced in the school system at this time and which was a major point of
concern was the rapid expansion of schools and decline in quality because of lack of proper control
and supervision. To address this problem, a committee under Archdeacon L.J Beecher was
appointed in March 1949. The committees specific Terms of Reference was to "inquire into scope,
content and method of African education, financing and African teachers' salaries."

The findings of the committee included;

a)      The education system was much uncoordinated.
b)      The system lacked proper supervision, inspection and control
c)      There was uncontrolled primary school expansion compromising quality. This expansion also
made secondary school provision inadequate leading to a lot of wastage.
d)      The number of trained teachers was inadequate e.g. in 1948, there were 2,748 trained
teachers against 2,852 untrained teachers.
Beecher Commission was to do an inquiry into African Education on:
1. Scope
2. Content
3. Method of African Education
4. Administration and Finance
Background of Beecher Commission
The following circumstances were prevailing in the country during this education commission:
 Exposure of African war veteran to other parts of the world.
 World War II created economic boom to local manufacturer.
 Psychological effects of World War II on soldiers.
 Drive for change among Africans.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF BEECHER COMMISSION
The Beecher Report came up with 148 recommendations which included the following:
 Change education structure from 2-3-3-4 to 4-4-4.
 A more positive approach to be given to industrial and agricultural orientation of African
Curriculum.
 Africans to be prepared for their future leadership roles in Kenya.
 Christian principles to be basis for African Education.
 To ease the financial burden on Local Authorities, the responsibility of Primary and Intermediate
schools was placed under the reconstructed District Education Boards.

23
 Co-operation between government and voluntary agencies as a basis for financing education
 Government to provide African Education through the help of missionary society
 Effective government control on school expansion at Primary level.
 Consider expanding secondary level and teacher education.
 To ease the financial burden on local authorities, responsibility for primary and intermediate
schools to be placed under District Education Boards.
 They stressed the importance of maintaining cooperation between the Government and
Voluntary Agencies (churches) as a basis for teaching "Christian Principles." They asserted the
necessity of religion based education. Beecher also recommended that independent churches
should be considered as "Voluntary Agencies."
 There was need for strict supervision to control primary school expansion. They recommended
that no more independent schools should be opened.
 Expansion and improvement of teacher training facilities to improve quality of teachers and weed
out untrained teachers.
 Education should meet the needs of a predominantly rural society. This recommendation was
later to become the basis for the Jericho Conference "Education Employment and Rural
Development." (1966)
 Africans to be given practical education. Beecher was aware that the Africans preferred literary to
practical education. So he went to great lengths to justify this recommendation.
 Racial segregation in education to continue.
 Estimated that only 29% of African children were to go beyond standard 4 and less than 5% to
secondary schools with only 16 secondary schools to be established by 1957.
 The system of education to be restructured to the 4:4:4 system i.e. 4 years Primary School, 4 years
Intermediate School and 4 years Secondary School.
 According to Beecher, each of these stages was to be a complete course in itself to ensure that
those leaving school at any one stage were equipped with competent and active roles in society.
So each stage ended with a major examination which created a bottle neck effect on African
education.
Education Structure Recommended by Beecher [1949] ….
 The 4-4-4 structure of education presented each stage of education as a complete course in itself.
 School graduates at any stage were competent and had skills to fit them to play active role in
society.
 From Secondary level those who qualified joint colleges while best students were admitted to
Makerere University in Uganda.
 The Beecher Education System was approved in 1950s and lasted for over ten years.

CRITIQUES OF BEECHER REPORT

 The 4-4-4-4 system which was approved by Beecher report was better off than the former 2-3-3-4.
 The Beecher report also customized the African curriculum as it focused more on industrialization
and agricultural activities.
 The missionaries were given opportunities to develop education and indeed they deed great work
in transformation of the sector in Kenya.
 Many learning institutions have been developed since then due to the Beecher report. Actually
even today we have learning institutions still operated by missions.
 The system of management of schools which Beecher proposed then is still working today. The
Government expanded teacher training institutions and it is better today.

24
The Africans reacted negatively to this Report for the following reasons:
 Africans were still left at the bottom of the hierarchy.
 African children had only 4 years of continuous education before sitting for a major examination
while the others had seven. Africans saw the 4:4:4 system as restricting their educational
progress. They instead wanted a full 8 years of education before a major examination.
 The Report placed a lot of emphasis on quality rather than quantity which meant that enrolment
would grow slowly. They were also opposed to the recommendation of not opening more
independent schools.
 The Report did not recommend facilities for higher education for Africans.
 Africans did not want the continuation of the government-missionary cooperation in African
education. They wanted the government to be in charge of secular education while churches were
only to be in charge of religious education.
NB: In spite of opposition from Africans, the Report was debated by the Kenya Legislative Council
and accepted. It was implemented in 1952. Some people say its imposition on the Africans may
have contributed to the MAU MAU revolt.

E. THE BINNS REPORT 1952

The most important policy document on education during this period was the Binns Report. In 1951,
the British Colonial Office and the Nuffield Foundation sponsored a study of Education Policy and
Practice in British Tropical African Territories. This study was carried out by two groups-one for West
Africa and the other for East Africa. The East Africa group was chaired by A.L Binns.

The following were some of the recommendations;

1.      The report strongly recommended preserving selected tribal vernaculars while advocating the
general elimination of Kiswahili except where it was the local vernacular. They argued that retaining
Kiswahili as a lingua Franca impeded the learning of both the vernacular and English. Binns
recommended four years of teaching in vernacular.
2.      Whereas as Beecher had not advocated for formal teaching of agriculture below the Intermediate
school, Binns advocated using the Primary School as the focus for agricultural training because
agriculture would remain the livelihood of most Africans-there was also the fact that too few students
advanced beyond the Primary level to benefit from more advanced training. His aim was to instill the
right attitude to agriculture in the early years of school.
3.      Binns agreed with Beecher in looking to the teacher training colleges as the main way of
improving the quality of primary and intermediate schools. He went further than Beecher in
advocating Africanization of teacher training institutions-both in hiring more African instructors and
making the curriculum more closely related to the practical realities of the African environment. He
called for a curriculum more suitable to the Africans than the Europeans. The Binns group was also
opposed to the development of many and scattered teacher training colleges. They proposed
amalgamation of these centers so that no college would be allowed to operate if it had less than 120
students. This idea was however not implemented until after independence.

 ELEMENTS OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

1.      The early years of this period marked noticeable improvement in the expansion of African
education e.g.

25
In 1945 there were;
 4 Secondary Schools
 24 Teacher Training Colleges
 2113 Elementary and Primary Schools

 In 1951;
 59 Secondary Schools
 43 Teacher Training Colleges
 28600 Primary Schools

Secondary school education expansion was generally slow. Although Beecher had recommended an
additional 16 senior secondary schools by 1951, this was not attained until 1954. Significant expansion
at this level started as the country moved towards independence e.g. 1958 (22 schools), 1951 (27
schools) and 1960 (32 schools).

2.      In 1952, the structure recommended by Beecher was implemented. This was;
 Std 1-4 Common Entrance Examination
 Std 5-8 Kenya African Preliminary Examination
 Form 1-4 Cambridge School Certificate Examination

            NB: The Intermediate school (5-8) was meant to be in preparation for secondary school as well
as a complete level on its own. It offered English and mathematics which are essential for secondary
school. Students were also offered practical subjects such as agriculture, home craft and handicrafts.
This was meant for further training but also for full participation in society for those who left school at
that level. Teacher training therefore included study of these practical subjects.
3.      Following Beecher's Report, the government realized the importance of supervision and
inspection. The colony was divided into five regions for purposes of educational administration.
Provincial Education Officers, District Education Officers and area Education Officers were appointed
and mobilized. The idea of quality was further strengthened when the Kenya Inspectorate was formed
in 1955.
4.      The medium of instruction was vernacular up to Std 4 and then English took over. However, in
the mid 1950’s poor performance was noted in Asian and African schools in the Primary Examination.
The Ministry of Education created a special center-an off school of the Inspectorate to investigate and
experiment with issues relating to education. The Centre introduced English as a medium from Std 1 in
Asian Schools in 1957. The approach was experimented in African Schools in 1961.
5.      Following both Beecher's and Binns recommendations, the colonial government set out to
establish an Institute of Education to coordinate teacher training programmes. This was done by
establishing two delegacies-delegacies were groups of colleges that came together to coordinate all
aspects of teacher education in the regions within which they were located. These were established at
Kagumo (1957) for the Eastern Delegacy and Siriba (1959) for the Western Delegacy. These two were
merged in 1964 to form the Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E.). Kagumo and Siriba started to train
teachers of high calibre- Kenya Teacher I (KTI).
 6.      Post Intermediate technical education continued to be offered at Kabete and Thika. Later in this
period, other technical schools were built in Sigalagala, Eldoret and Machakos. However, technical
education was hindered by negative attitude by the Africans.

26
7.      Concerning higher education, Makerere continued to offer university education during the post
war period. Following the recommendations of the commission of Higher Education in the colonies,
Makerere became a University College for the region in 1950 and started offering degree programmes
in conjunction with the University of London.
8.      In 1949, a committee chaired by G.P Willoughby recommended to the Kenya government the
establishment of a technical and commercial institute in Nairobi in areas not covered by Makerere.
This led to the establishment of the Kenya Technical College. It was proposed that the college mounts
courses leading to the Higher National Certificate offered by Britain. It was also to offer courses in
engineering and related courses not offered by Makerere. The college was opened in 1956. In 1957, it
was merged with the Gandhi Memorial Academy which had been started by the Asian community in
memory of Mahatma Gandhi and had established departments of Arts, Science, Commerce
Engineering, Domestic Science, Architecture and Survey. These were three year courses that led to
special certificates.

The college changed its name to Royal Technical College, Nairobi in 1961 and began offering some
courses in conjunction with the University of London just like Makerere. This followed
recommendations by two working parties on higher education, Sir Alexander Carr-Saunders in 1955
and John F. Lockwood in 1958 that each East African territory establish a University College. In 1963,
the name changed to University College, Nairobi and together with the University College Dar-es-
Salaam which had started in 1961 and the already existing Makerere University College, the Federal
University of East Africa was created.

THE EARLIEST SCHOOLS IN KENYA

1. School at Rabai near Mombasa – established 1846
2. The Prince of Wales now Nairobi School established 1902.
3. Friends School Kaimosi, now Kaimosi Friends Primary School, established in 1903
4. Kangaru schools, established in 1947
5. Maseno School, established in 1906
6. Government Indian School or The Duke of Gloucester School, now Jamhuri High School, established 1906
7. Tumutumu Mission School, now Tumutumu Girls’ High School established in 1908.
8. European Girls' School, now Kenya High
9. Kabaa Boys High School, Machakos County established 1923
10. Waa High School, Kwale County established 1923
11. Kenton College, established 1924 Kijabi 1935 Kileleshwa
12. Mang'u High School, established 1925.
13. Kapsabet High School, established 1925.
14. Kakamega High School, Established 1925.
15. Alliance School, now Alliance High School (Kenya) established in 1926.
16. Nakuru High School, established in 1927.
17. St. Mary's School Yala, established in 1927.
18. Hill School Eldoret established in 1928
19. Highlands High School, now Moi Girls' High School – Eldoret established in 1928.
20. Kitale Primary, later Kitale Academy, now Kitale School established 1929
21. Kisii School, established in 1932
22. Mugoiri Girls High School in Muranga (formerly Gaiteiguru Intermediary School) established in 1938
23. European Boys' School, Duke of York, now Lenana School, established 1949
24. Kapsisiywa was attained after two years of high school at that time distinct from secondary school with students
sitting for the East African Advanced Certificate of Education (EAACE).

27
 DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN THE POST COLONIAL PERIOD
A. THE OMINDE REPORT – SESSIONAL PAPER NO. 10 OF 1965
Besides the Ominde Report, the Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and Its
Application to Planning in Kenya examined Kenya’s educational needs from an ideological aspect,
which was different from colonial administration approaches.
The paper viewed education as ‘the principal means for relieving the shortage of domestic skilled
manpower and equalizing economic opportunities for all citizens.
The paper emphasized the need for the country to Work towards Universal Primary Education as well
as the expansion of secondary schools to facilitate higher education in order to hasten economic and
national development.

Five years after the Ominde Commission

The Government responded positively to the Ominde Commission Report by effecting a raft of
reforms. Immediately after the report was published, the Government enforced the policy of
establishment of non-racial schools in the country by giving African students bursaries to join high cost
Asian and European schools.
By 1966, the African population in these schools was 30 percent and increased to 65 percent in 1969
and almost 100 percent in 1970.
Another change concerning those schools was that their foreign names were changed to local names.
For instance, Duke of York became Lenana High School, Prince of Wales became Nairobi School, Duke
of Gloucester changed to Jamhuri, Duchess of Gloucester became Pangani Girls Secondary School and
Delamere High School changed to Upper Hill Secondary School.
In 1966, a single common syllabus was also introduced with one common examination. The Kenya
Preliminary Examination (KPE) was replaced by Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) and the East
African Examinations Council was established in 1967 to administer the East Africa Certificate of
Education (EACE) to replace the Cambridge School Certificate (O-Level), and the East Africa Advanced
Certificate of Education (EAACE) to replace the Cambridge Advanced School Certificate (A-Level)
examination.
The change in the syllabus and examination bodies led to the improvement in localizing the content of
education. Demand for secondary education continued and the development of those Harambee
secondary schools increased to 226 in 1966 compared to the 199 government-maintained schools.
The Kenya Junior Secondary Examination (KJSE), which was to be sat at the end of Form Two was
reintroduced in 1966 to help some students in Harambee schools to join government schools or to
terminate their education to join the labour market.
Nonetheless, the Government started taking over some of these schools in 1967 and in 1969, it started
aiding most of them by providing and paying qualified teachers.

Kericho Conference
The influx of primary and secondary school – leavers to towns in search of salaried employment
created avenues for criticizing the education system. Due to intense reaction to the colonial
experience, Ominde Commission had ignored vocational education in favor of elitist academic
education. By 1966, there was an outcry that there existed dichotomy in education as it had no
correlation with the needs of the labor market.
Amid efforts to address the situation, the Government requested Dr. Arthur T. Porter, the Principal of
University College Nairobi, to convene a conference of experts to advise on how to deal with the

28
unemployment crisis of young people leaving school.
The key Recommendations of the conference held at Kericho were:
 Restructure the education system and relate it to rural and urban development;
 Increase primary education to nine years;
 Delay entry to primary education to age eight;
 Establish village polytechnics;
 Create sufficient technical skills at the village level in marketing and production;
 Reform the school curriculum to cater for vocational education.
 The wide extension of youth clubs and in all primary and secondary schools
 Primary school to be made centres of identifying and developing hidden talents scattered
throughout the population.
 Redirect some Harambee schools to provide training for rural development.
The aim of primary education should not simply to prepare the lucky minority for secondary school but
to prepare the remaining majority for successful entry into a satisfactory life of work and to continue
education through less formal means.
Teachers Service Commission Act (1961)
In 1967, the Teachers Service Commission Act was enacted, ostensibly giving all teachers one
employer, the Teachers Service Commission (TSC). The Act clearly spelt out the teachers’ terms of
service making the job acquire a more professional status.
In 1968, Primary Teacher Training Colleges were consolidated from 36 to 24.
Education Act (1968)
In 1968, the Education Act (Cap 211) was published and placed the responsibility of all educational
matters in the hands of the Government. The Act saw the establishment of the Kenya Institute of
Education.
It provided an explicit legal framework of education in Kenya and gave guidelines on the promotion of
education in the country and management of schools.
It also gave direction on the registration of private schools, inspection, and control of schools,
examinations, and financing of education.
Through the Act, the Government assumed full responsibility of all education. It also gave school
committees and Boards of Governors legal framework for their operations.

B. GORDON S. BESSEY REPORT (1972)

Terms of reference
 To evaluate the Kenyan curriculum, except university, and determine whether it was relevant to
the country’s needs.
 To make recommendations on training, supply and retention of teachers so as to meet the needs
of the curriculum.
 To define the roles of Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), University’s Faculty of Education and the
inspectorate arm of the Ministry of Education.
 To advise on the structure of the education system
The report made several recommendations which were never fully adopted by the government.
 Primary school curriculum to be broadened such that school leavers can be absorbed into the
economy and be adaptable and resourceful
 Subjects Like Kiswahili, CRE and music be encouraged in schools
 History and Geography be combined to Social Studies
 Pupils in standard 2 and 3 to remain in school in the afternoons

29
 The school curriculum to be planned’ in 3 distinct phases, Lower, middle and upper.
 Curriculum to be made relevant to the local needs of rural people.
 Kiswahili was to be compulsory from primary level.
 Need to revise and shorten Science syllabus and relate it to Agriculture and Mathematics.
 Facilities to be provided in schools for small livestock enterprises and small scale cash crop
operations.
 A course “Home and community studies” to be designed for both boys and girls.
 More developmental work to be done on Kiswahili, Religious Education, African folklore, Music.
Movement and dance were to be encouraged in lower primary.
Form 1 and 2 students to follow a common curriculum but personal guided choice of subjects to
be introduced in Form 3 and 4.
It is notable that the commission provided the motivation for curriculum reforms in the1970s. As a
result of the commission, many primary school syllabuses were revised, K.I.Eproduced many books
and emphasis was placed on education that tested thinking and reasoning made.
Impacts of the Bessey Report
• The ministry of Education was given the mandate to train ECDE teachers
• Primary school teachers were expected to train for two years so as to improve the quality of
teachers.
• Primary school curriculum was broadened such that school leavers could be absorbed into the
economy and be adaptable and resourceful
• Close external moderation

C. THE GACHATHI REPORT – NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND POLICIES

Ideally, the National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies is referred to as Gachathi
report. It was a report given out by a commission called Gachathi commission which was set up in
1976. The aim of the commission was to evaluate the education system in Kenya, propose plans to
create more employment, suggest how to reduce the education budget from 15 percent to 7 percent
and to define new educational goals of the second decade of independence. The Gachathi committee
insisted on the diversification of the education curriculum to include Pre-vocational subjects that
would relate better to economic and social needs of our country rather than having an examination
related education which only stressed on cognitive abilities of the learner. The Gathathi Committee
members were as follows:
1) Peter I. Gachathi (Chairperson)
2) Prof. Joseph M. Mungai (Vice Chairperson)
3) Ayub H. Muraya (Joint secretary)
4) Ambrose A. Andongo
5) Zachariah K. Gakunju
6) John H. Gitau
7) Juma Boy
8) John G. Gatu
9) Reverend Fr. Joachim Gitonga
10) Elisha D. Godana
11) Dr. Albert J. Maleche
12) John N. Michuki
13) Josphat Mutugi
14) Samuel Kihumba

30
 15) James S. Mburu
16) Dr. Michael Migue
17) Harris Mule
18) Joseph H. Oyugi

The commission also made observation that although the government had introduced agriculture
education as a subject to help students create their own employment after school, many students
were more concerned on how to get better grades rather than motivating them towards agricultural
activities.
The Gachathi commission made some recommendations as follows; they proposed a nine-year basic
education for all Kenyan children, they also recommended the establishment of the Kenya National
Examinations Council, they called the integration of all Harambee secondary schools into public school
system, make Kiswahili a compulsory subject in primary schools, and the commission made a proposal
to establish the Commission for Higher Education and offer external degree programmes at the
University of Nairobi.
The main Recommendations by the Gachathi Report were:
1) A ft e r r e - e x a m i n i n g a n d r e e m p h a s i z i n g t h e N a ti o n a l g o a l s o f E d u c a ti o n i n
relationship to development of values, the committee recommended the teaching of religion
and social ethics in the education system and the promotion of traditional practices
2) With the realization that the majority of Kenyans lived in the rural areas and to stop the
rural/urban migration, the committee called for the educational system to respond to the
expectations of the rural population in terms of basic education.
3) To addr ess the seri ous shortage of em ploym ent oppor tuni ti es, the commi tt ee
recommended practical education and a diversification of the curriculum that would lead to
self-reliance.
4) The Committee argued that by the time the children left primary school after 7 years t h e y
w e r e t o o y o u n g f o r g a i n f u l e m pl o y m e n t a n d t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n de d a n
additional 2 years to this level to make 9years of basic education
5) On higher Education the committee recommended that Kenyatta University College should
be developed into a full university and that a third university should be developed
opened. They also advocated for setting up of a permanent commission on Higher Education
under government’s proposed higher education bill that ministry of education had been
processing
6) Concerning technical and post school vocational training the committee encouraged planned
expansion of village polytechnics and establishment of national policy for guiding future
developments of harambee insti tutes of technology to give them a more national outlook
they had tended to be too localized.
7) The 8.4.4 System of Education the introduction of the 844 system of education in the mid-
1980s marked a radical shift in the conceptualization of education Kenya since independence.
The new system was hoped to address the biting unemployment problem experienced in the
country from the 1970s. This was to be done by refocusing the system to impart some pre-
vocational skills to the learners.
Criticisms of the Gachathi Commission
1) The Gachathi report failed to define between what was seen at the time as Secondary and
Advanced Level stages.

31
2) The addition of two classes from secondary to primary was seen to be against the spirit of the
Ominde Commission which sought a crash programme for manpower training in a young nation.
3) Again, it was too expensive to implement given that all primary schools would require new
physical and material facilities for the two classes.
4) While it was definitive about PPE at Standard Seven to go to senior 1, it left grey areas on how
students from senior 2 would be admitted to senior 3.
Some of the areas of the report that was implemented Though nearly all its recommendations were not
implemented, there were some which the Moi government implemented in varying degree over time.
1) The establishment of Commission for Higher Education to regulate universities education was
Gachathi’s as well as upgrading Kenyatta University College to a full university.
2) On technical education, NCEOP recommended the establishment of production lines in all
national and village polytechnics as a means of financing themselves.

D. THE MACKAY REPORT

The Mackay Commission Members
Members of the presidential working party on Establishment of the Second University in Kenya (the
Mackay commission) were:
1. Dr. Colin B. Mackay (Chairman)
2. Prof Douglas Odhiambo (Deputy chairman)
3. Prof J.M. Mungai
4. Prof W.M. Senga
5. Prof P.M. Githinji
6. G. Gatei
7. S. Maneno
8. K. Kandie
9. F.O. Masakhalia
10. Prof P.M. Mbithi
11. Prof G. Saitoti
12. Prof P.L. French
13. E. Wasunna
On January 1981, President Daniel Arap Moi appointed Canadian scholar Dr. Colin Mackay to prepare
detailed plans and recommendations for the establishment of a second university.
Mackay Commission task was not new as in 1976, the Gachathi Report had recommended that
Kenyatta University College, a constituent of Nairobi University, be upgraded into a full university, and
that a third university be started.

The Mackay Report (1982)

 The commission is also referred to as the presidential working party on second university in
Kenya chaired by a Canadian, Prof C.B Mackay.
 One of its terms of reference was to review the existing system of education in relation to
development objectives of the country.
 It drew much from the recommendations of the ILO Mission and Gachathi Report.
Recommendations
 Establishment of a second university in the country

32
  Establishment of various faculties, schools and institutes at the proposed second university,
namely faculties of technology, agriculture, commerce, education, science, veterinary
medicine, information sciences, and forestry resources and wildlife management. Others are
health sciences ,social, cultural and development studies, school of graduate studies, school of
environmental studies and the institute of applied science and technology
 Extending primary education from 7 to 8 years.
 The report also placed a lot of premium on Mathematics, English and vocational subjects.
 Scrapping the A level component of secondary educati on and reducing
secondary education to four years.
 Extending university education from 3-4 years.
 Advocated for a practical curriculum that would offer a wide range of employment
opportunities and equitable distribution of educational resources.
 With regard to language use, the Mackay commission maintained the language policy proposed
in Gachathi Report of 1976. First, the commission proposed making Kiswahili a compulsory and
examinable subject in primary and secondary tiers. Second, the commission recommended
that English remains the language of instruction, while Kiswahili was made a compulsory
subject in both primary and secondary education. This policy led to the production of Kiswahili
books to meet the increased demands of both students and teachers.
 The Mackay Commission further advised that the mother tongue be used in lower grades of
primary schools, in areas where this was possible.
Development
 The working party recommended cost-sharing in university education and setting up second
university without taking over any of the existing institution. This led to the establishment of
Moi University in Eldoret in 1984.
 The general recommendation led to the establishment of the 8-4-4 system of education from
7-4-2-3. The 8-4-4 system was launched in January 1985
 The new curriculum would give greater orientation towards vocational education.
 Efforts to remove undue emphasis on examinations centered education.

E. THE KAMUNGE REPORT 1986

The Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next decade and Beyond
(The Kamunge Commission) started its work in 1986. Chaired by James M. Kamunge, the team
published its final report in 1988. Its members were:
Kamunge Commission Members

1. James M. Kamunge (Chairman)

2. Prof. Bethwel A. Ogot (Vice-chairperson)
3. Dr. Benjamin E. Kipkori
4. Prof Philip M. Mbithi
5. Solomon W. Karanja
6. Dr. Julia A. Ojiambo
7. Jared B. Kangana
8. Samuel S. Maneno
9. Ambrose A. Odongo
10. Rev John G. Gatu
11. Bishop Raphel Ndingi Mwana a’Nzeki

33
 12. Tom D. Owour
13. Ben E. Mwangi
14. Aron K. Kandie
15. John W. Githuku
16. Benjamin K. Kipkulei
17. Elaine N. Mukuru (Secretary)
Kamunge Commission Recommendations

 The team recommended in-service courses for school inspectors, who would also be required to
upgrade their academic and professional qualifications.
 It recommended payment of full boarding and feeding fees for students in public schools, training
institutes and universities.
 The team proposed the scrapping of personal allowances given by the Government to students in
colleges and universities, the establishment of more day secondary schools to expand access and
recruitment of qualified personnel for preschools.
 The team proposed compulsory primary education and called for the abolishing of the
categorization of schools as high and low cost.
 Secondary schools developed and equipped by the Government and with teachers paid from
public funds were to be designated as public schools.
 University education was to be expanded to produce more professionally qualified graduates for
secondary school education.
 Untrained primary teachers were to get in-service training.
 The Kamunge Commission wanted Bachelor of Education programs in universities to take five
years, growth in university standard enrolment be matched with the educational resources and
the development of public universities be coordinated and harmonized.
 It also proposed admission of day university students and the creation of the Kenya Education
Staff Institute
Kamunge Commission Report Implementation
The Kamunge Commission Report was acted on almost to the letter by the Government, altering the
financing of education and relieving the Government part of the burden of financing education.
A major impact of the implementation of the Kamunge Commission report was the rise in the cost of
education for parents and guardians, resulting in high dropout rates and persistent repetition of
classes.
a. Kamunge Commission on Special Needs Education in Kenya
The Kamunge Report of 1988 recommended that government to deploy Special Needs Education
inspectors into districts to oversee quality service delivery in special education
b. Kamunge Commission – Primary education
In this decade, enrolment in primary schools rose from 4.3 million in 1983 to 5.4 million in 1993.
Enrolment, however, dropped by 1.8 percent in 1993 as in the previous year, it had stood at 5.5 million
which was the highest figure in that decade.
By then the gains that were realized, with the introduction of the Second Free Primary Education were
steadily eroded with introduction of the 8-4-4 system of education.
Whereas 890,000 pupils had enrolled in Standard 1 in 1983, only 384,500 sat the KCPE in 1990, a
dropout of about 60 percent of the initial enrolment.
Dropout rates were highest in the lower primary, while repetition rates were recorded in upper
primary classes. The average transition rate from Standard 7 to Standard 8 from 1987-1993 was 70

34
percent. However, the number of primary schools increased from 11,955 in 1983 to 15,804 in 1993,
while the number of primary teachers colleges rose from 17 to 25 during the same period.
c. Kamunge Commission – Secondary Education
The first batch of the 8-4-4 system of education sat KCSE in 1989, the year that the last group sat the
Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education exam. The two groups were considered for university entry in
1990.
Amid plans to restructure the education system, the Kenya Junior Secondary Education (KJSE), an
examination sat mostly by Harambee school students at Form 2 was abolished in 1985. The Kenya
Certificate of Education (KCE) was done for the last time in 1987, paving the way for KCSE in 1989.
Enrolment in secondary schools climbed from 494,000 students in 1983 to 531,342 in 1993. The
number of secondary schools also increased from 2,230 in 1983 to 2,639 in 1993. However, in 1990,
the Government took a bold decision to integrate all Harambee secondary schools into the national
public secondary education system.
By 1989, Harambee schools made up about 30 percent of secondary schools in the country and the
Government was under pressure to fulfill one of its promises of providing equitable distribution of
education resources under the guidelines of the 8-4-4 system.
The Government decreed in 1990 that all unaided Harambee schools were eligible to receive
government assistance. A new classification of secondary schools was initiated and the Harambee
category was dropped altogether.
The national schools’ category was retained while most of the assisted schools were renamed as
provincial schools and the rest, including the unaided Harambee schools, were reclassified as district
schools. But the most important development was the integration of Harambee schools into the public
secondary school education system with government support in the form of teachers and regular
supervision.
d. Kamunge Commission – Technical and Vocational Education
Vocational education was institutionalized in the curriculum with the introduction of the 8-4-4 system
of education.
Whereas several pre-vocational subjects were introduced in primary education, a raft of vocational
and pre-technical subjects were introduced in secondary schools, such as agriculture, business studies,
computer studies, home science and industrial education (building and construction, electricity
metalwork, drawing and design, power mechanics, woodwork and aviation technology).
The objective was to prepare high school graduates for the world of work and provide a foundation for
further training in relevant post-secondary training institutions.
By the early 1990s, demands for the review of the 8-4-4 system of education, and more so its pre-
vocational component in primary schools, increased.
The main complaint was that the need for home science classrooms and workshops increased the cost
of education. Further, few teachers were ready or trained to teach vocational skills.
Subsequently, most schools have dropped the vocational subjects, which are offered as options.
e. Kamunge Commission – Post-Secondary Technical Education
Although there were problems in vocational education offered in primary and secondary schools,
enrolment in post-secondary technical institutions remained stable.
By 1993, the three national polytechnics, Kenya Polytechnic, Eldoret Polytechnic, and Mombasa
Polytechnic, had 9,000 students in various fields.
The 18 technical institutes also had a total of 7,891 students, while the 17 institutes of technology had
a combined enrolment of 5,281 students.
f. Kamunge Commission – Expansion of University Education

35
The third decade of independence is quite significant in the development of university education in
Kenya. In 1981, President Daniel Arap Moi had appointed the Presidential Working Party on the
Second University in Kenya under the chairmanship of Prof Colin B. Mackay to prepared detailed plans
of a new university in the country.

F. THE COMMISSION OF INQUIRY INTO THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN KENYA (1998) –

THE KOECH REPORT

Mandate of the commission.

It was mandated to:

1. Recommend ways and means of enabling the education system to facilitate:

 National unity

 Mutual social responsibility,

 Accelerated industrial and technological development

 Life-long learning and Adaptation in response to changing circumstances.

2. To recommend possible programme of action bearing in mind the financial constraints the
government is faced with in reference to:

 The legal framework.

 The structure of 8-4-4 education system

 The contribution of continuing education

 The role of private sector in providing educational opportunities

 The need for coordination between all forms of education and training

 The management and administration of education

 The appropriate rates and types of expansion in education and training

 The content of education at different levels with special attention to early childhood, special
education and primary education

3. Ways and means of improving accessibility, equity and quality with reference to gender
sensitivity, the disabled and the disadvantaged groups

4. Ways and means of enhancing the operation and management including the cost benefit and
cost effectiveness of formal and non-formal education

36
 5. Ways and means of improving capacity to formulate implement and control educational
programs

6. The appropriate degree of decentralisation in administration and financial control

7. To suggest ways and means of developing comprehensive social education, values and ethics,
AIDS related educational programs at the micro and macro levels

8. To suggest ways and means of promoting liberalization of the educational sector with special
reference to the utilisation of specialised resources of universities and similar institutions as
vehicles of accelerated national development

9. To suggest ways and means of creating and promoting alternative educational programs and
to meet the challenge of university education

 In its performance of its task the commission was to review and make use of the official reports,
sessional papers and studies of commissions, committees, working parties and task forces that had
previously examined Kenya’s educational system. In order to understanding the challenging
assignment the commission adopted a comprehensive multi strategic approach in order to facilitate
the participation of as many Kenyans as possible in the inquiry. In undertaking its assignment the
Commission revealed that:

 The national goals of education as they have evolved over the years are still valid

 There is need to strengthen the moral fabric of the nation through greater emphasis on
Religious Education, and Social Education and Ethics

  technical education has been unable to provide the level and quality of technicians and
artisans needed for the country's industrial take-off.

 The implementation of 8+4+4 system of education was haphazard

 Early childhood education, education of leamers with special needs and ASAL areas have
largely been neglected in public policy.

 The rate of student increase in the various public universities without complementary increases
in facilities and staffing has contributed to the lowering of the quality of education at these
institutions.

 Poor linkages between educational institutions and industry has contributed to the lack of
quality and relevance which in tum led to the slow rate of employment creation.
3.2. The report identified challenges facing education as follows:
 Providing quality education for all eligible learners within the existing and any other available
resources;
 The need to mobilize adequate resources through liberalization of education to mobilize
effective partnerships with the private sector

37
  The devastating threat posed to the nation by the HIV/AIDS epidemic

 The challenge of industrialization that the country wishes to achieve by the year 2020

 The importance of universities as assets for generating high level human resources and
research and its utilization for development.  

 expanding alternative and continuing education programmes and orienting all Kenyans towards
life-long education.

 need for a comprehensive and all-inclusive law on education and effective mechanisms for the
management.

The Commission proposed a new system of education with the conceptual title of "TOTALLY
INTEGRATED QUALITY EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TIQET)" to replace the past numerical titles.
TIQET as a concept embraces the values and the substance that should characterize an education
system.
 It is TOTAL because it is inclusive, accommodative and life-long. It is INTEGRATED in the way it
approaches the learning process as part and parcel of life. It stands for inter-sectoral linkages
and logical progression between one level of education to another.
 It focuses on the QUALITY of delivery and outcome of the education and training processes.

 It has the same sound as in "TICKET" and bears the same symbolic meaning, as it is associated
with a means to an end.

 In this context, education becomes a ticket to a better life, and a better future for the
individual, the community and the nation; a ticket to the achievement of Kenya's social and
economic goals

Recommendation of The Koech Report

Some of the Recommendations include:
i. Pre- Primary Education
1. Pre-primary classes or Early Childhood Care Development and Education (E.C.C.P.E.) to be an
integral part of primary schools that learners be required to go through the curriculum of pre-
primary class as foundation class before continuing with the rest of primary segment
2. The learners from pre-primary classes be admitted automatically to primary segment without
being subjected to examination

ii. Primary Segment

1. The primary school curriculum be revised with a view to removing all unnecessary overlaps
across the subject
2. Primary curriculum be divided between examinable and non-examinable subjects at class eight

3. Primary education be taught in all primary schools and some survival skills be incorporated in
the teaching of primary education in order to make it more meaningful and appealing to pupils

38
 4. A mechanism is worked out for raising funds for curricula activities starting from the schools in
national level. The curricula activities should be an integral part in the entire based education
programmes (12 years) 

iii. Secondary Segment

a. Secondary school curricula be reviewed in view of removing in appropriate content to make all
subject manageable
b. The existing integration with respect to home science, Kiswahili and English be stopped and
instead the following subjects be offered separately from form three:

i. Home science
 Clothing and textile
 Food and nutrition

 Home management

ii. Kiswahili
 Lugha
 kiswahili

 Fasihi

iii. English
 English language
 English literature

iv. The syllabi for mathematics be developed

 Maths for those willing to pursue scientific and technical courses and careers after
secondary level
 Basic mathematics for other students

4.       The curricula for form threes and fours are made more flexible to allow students to start
specialisation through their choice of subjects. He recommended a minimum of seven subjects
selected from four groups with three core subjects and one from each of the groups and any
additional subjects from any of the groups

iv. Technical Education Segment

 He recommended that modality be put in place to ensure that the technical and vocational
education programmes are implemented without delay for technological goals and accelerated
industrial development to be achieved
 The middle level institutions be strengthened to produce required manpower

 Curriculum for middle level institutions be designed and promote entrepreneurship and self-
employment

39
 More collaborate mechanisms between industry and training institutions be put in place to ensure
relevance of technical training

 Collaboration between universities, technical training institutions and Jua kali sector be
encouraged to improve quality of products and encourage innovations

 Other general recommendations include:

1. Establishment of the National Centre for Education.
2. Basic Education shall be compulsory for all Kenyans between ages 5 and 10 years.
3. Establishment of the commission for Basic Education and a code of conduct to give direction on
handling of supervision and expulsion of learners, cases of mass indiscipline, appeals and prohibition of
corporal punishment

Changes after Koech Report

 Examinable subjects in class eight have been reduced from seven to five
 The syllabi of primary schools have been changed and improved
 Intake criteria in primary teachers colleges have been raised from d+ to C (content) to improve the quality
of teaching in primary schools
 There is more flexibility in the university education for example credit accumulation where learners can
study where they have time and money and accumulation of credits over a given period of time
 Emphasis on distance learning to allow so many people to access higher education and possibility to
promote lifelong learning
 There is credit transfer from one college to another or the university

Areas that required further attention.

 Mismatch of what is taught at college institutions and what the industry demands leading to slow rate of
employment creation
 Over enrolment at the public universities and crucial availability of facilities and is lacking leading to low
quality of education
 Early childhood education of learners with special needs have largely been neglected in the
implementation of public policy on education
 The existing education act is out of date as it neglects crucial areas of education e.g early childhood care,
special education for learners with special needs
 There is a need to strengthen the moral fabric of the nation through great emphasis on religious education
and social education and ethics whose teaching should adopt a practical approach
 Poor coordination of services in various ministries due to too much of decentralization of decision making
hampering growth
 The objectives of 8-4-4 system of education was bondable but the implementation process was haphazard
lacking in crucial ways like Lack of consultation with crucial stakeholders
 National goals of education have been hindered by factors like implementation of quota system of
admission
 The anticipated growth of middle level colleges upon abolition of A levels did not happen. Instead technical
education took a downward trend and has been unable to provide the level and quality of technicians
needed for the country’s individual take off
Some members of the public thought that all the problems of 8-4-4 System of education would be solved by
merely going back to the old 7-4-2-3 System of education.

40
Hallmarks of TIQET system
 The expansion of access to basic education from 8 to 12 years without undergoing restrictive or
selective examinations
 A universal and compulsory Basic Education over a planned period of time with special measures
for addressing the needs of previously disadvantaged groups,

 Expansion of opportunities at the post-secondary level so that learners can have flexibility in the
pursuit of further studies.

 Introduction of modular or unit learning approach and credit accumulation in post-secondary

education which allows for credit transfer from one institution or level to another

 Introduction of limitless opportunities for access to education through expanded alterative and
continuing education.

 Introduction of a manageable curriculum content at all levels of education that does not
overburden the learners and educators.

 Draft bills for a new Education Act, new laws and amendments to other laws related to education

CURRENT EDUCATION POLICIES

A. SESSIONAL PAPER No. 1 OF 2005
The National Conference on Education and Training held in November 2003 brought together over 800 key
players in the sector. The conference mandated the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOES&T)
to develop a new policy framework for the education sector. This Sessional Paper constitutes the Government
policy on education and training, based on the recommendations of the conference, and of the various studies
undertaken on the sector.
In addition, it embraces the Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The provision
of education and training to all Kenyans is fundamental to the success of the Government’s overall development
strategy.

Objectives of Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005

1. The long-term objective of the Government is to provide every Kenyan with basic quality education and
training, including 2 years of pre-primary, 8 years of primary and 4 years of secondary/technical
education. Education also aims at enhancing the ability of Kenyans to preserve and utilize the
environment for productive gain and sustainable livelihoods.
2. Development of quality human resource is central to the attainment of national goals for industrial
development.
3. Realization of universal access to basic education and training ensures equitable access to education
and training for all children, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups.
4. Education is necessary for the development and protection of democratic institutions and human rights.
Policy Evolution Since independence, the Government has addressed challenges facing the education
sector through Commissions, Committees and Taskforces.

The first 2 Commissions, after independence, came up with the Report of the Kenya Education Commission (The
Ominde Report, 1964) that sought to reform the education system inherited from the colonial government to

41
make it more responsive to the needs of independent Kenya. The Commission proposed an education system
that would foster national unity and the creation of sufficient human capital for national development.
Sessional Paper No: 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya, formally adopted
the Ominde Report as a basis for post-independence educational development.

The Report of the National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies (The Gachathi Report, 1976),
focused on redefining Kenya’s educational policies and objectives, giving consideration to national unity, and
economic, social and cultural aspirations of the people of Kenya. It resulted in Government support for
‘Harambee’ schools and also led to establishment of the National Centre for Early Childhood Education
(NACECE) at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE).

The Report of the Presidential Working Party on the Second University in Kenya (The Mackay Report, 1981) led
to the removal of the advanced (A) level of secondary education, and the expansion of other post-secondary
training institutions. In addition to the establishment of Moi University, it also recommended the establishment
of the 8:4:4 system of education and the Commission for Higher Education (CHE). The Report of the Presidential
Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond (The Kamunge Report,
1988) focused on improving education financing, quality and relevance. This was at a time when the
Government scheme for the provision of instructional materials through the National Textbook Scheme was
inefficient and therefore adversely affected the quality of teaching and learning.

From the recommendations of the Working Party in 1988, the Government produced Sessional Paper No 6 on
Education and Training for the Next Decade and Beyond. This led to the policy of cost sharing between
government, parents and communities.
The Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya (The Koech Report, 2000) was mandated to
recommend ways and means of enabling the education system to facilitate national unity, mutual social
responsibility, accelerated industrial and technological development, life-long learning, and adaptation in
response to changing circumstances.

The Koech Report recommended Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET). While the
Government did not adopt the Report due to the cost implications some recommendations, such as curriculum
rationalization have been adopted and implemented. Recent policy initiatives have focused on the attainment
of EFA and, in particular, Universal Primary Education (UPE). The key concerns are access, retention, equity,
quality and relevance, and internal and external efficiencies within the education system.
The effectiveness of the current 8-4-4 structure and system of education has also come under increasing
scrutiny in light of the decline in enrolment and retention particularly at the primary and secondary school
levels in the last decade.

The Government is committed to the provision of quality education and training as a human right for all
Kenyans in accordance with the Kenyan law and the international conventions, such as the EFA goal, and is
developing strategies for moving the country towards the attainment of this goal.
The implementation of Free Primary Education (FPE) is critical to the attainment of UPE as a key milestone
towards the realization of the EFA goal.

Rationale for this Sessional Paper

 The overall policy goal for the Government is to achieve EFA in order to give every Kenyan the right to
education and training no matter his/her socio-economic status. This will be achieved through the
provision of all-inclusive quality education that is accessible and relevant to all Kenyans.
 This vision is guided by the understanding that quality education and training contributes significantly to
economic growth and the expansion of employment opportunities.

42
  The vision is in tandem with the Government’s plan as articulated in the Economic Recovery Strategy (ERS)
paper.
 The ERS policy framework therefore provides the rationale for major reforms in the current education
system in order to enable all Kenyans to have access to quality life-long education and training.
 The Government has, over the years, demonstrated its commitment to the development of education and
training through sustained allocation of resources to the sector.
 However, despite the substantial allocation of resources and notable achievements attained, the sector still
faces major challenges.
 Some of these challenges relate to access, equity, quality, relevance, efficiency in the management of
educational resources, cost and financing of education, gender and regional disparities, and teacher quality
and teacher utilization.
 The purpose of this Sessional Paper is to address these challenges and consequently provide a policy
framework for the education and training sector in order to meet the challenges of the 21st Century.
 As a sequel to this Sessional Paper, the MOES&T will develop an ESSP that will provide a comprehensive
framework for programme implementation.
 In addition, the ESSP will provide a framework within which all providers of 15 education and training
services will participate as partners. The ESSP will also be linked to the Medium Term Expenditure
Framework (MTEF).
 In addition to the above, the development of this Sessional Paper is aimed at harmonizing various policies,
Acts, guidelines and legislations as well as addressing emerging priorities and issues since the last Sessional
Paper, in 1988.

B. SESSIONAL PAPER No. 14 OF 2014

It is a policy document that contains the policy framework for reforming and training in Kenya.

In February 2011, the Task Force on the Realignment of the Education Sector to the Constitution of
Kenya 2010 was launched by the Minister for Education. The mandate of the taskforce was to look into
the broad areas of education management, structure, policy framework and curriculum within the
context of the Constitution of Kenya (2010) and propose ways through which the entire education
sector could be realigned to the new constitutional framework. The recommendations of the taskforce
are captured in the Sessional paper No. 14 of 2012 on Reforming Education and Training Sectors in
Kenya.

EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
Education Management is categorized into;
i. Teacher Management

Teacher management is classified into three main categories that is entry, maintenance and exit. The
entry component includes assurance of the right persons entering the teaching service, registration
and recruitment of teachers while maintenance entails deployment, remuneration, promotion,
discipline and maintenance of teaching standards. Teacher exit entails management of teachers who
leave the Commission. The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) was established in 1967 by an Act of
Parliament, Cap. 212 of the Laws of Kenya. The Commission is charged with the responsibility of
managing teachers in public education institutions, excluding universities. The Commission was
established to bring all teachers under one employer with harmonized terms and conditions of service.
Prior to TSC’s establishment, different  bodies  including;;  Religious Organizations, Local Authorities,
District Education Boards (DEBs) and the Central Government, employed teachers.

43
 Article 248 of the constitution, establishes TSC as a constitutional commission to undertake Teacher
Management. TSC’s functions are;

 Registration of Trained Teachers.

 Recruitment and Employment of registered teachers.
 Assigning teachers employed by TSC for service in any public school or institution.
 Review the standards of education and training of persons entering the service.
 Review the supply and demand of teachers.
 Advise the GOK on matters related to the teaching profession.

The task force highlighted challenges facing teacher management which include;

ii. Challenges in Registration.

The registration process entails verification of the qualifications and background of applications.
Subsequently, a Teacher Registration Certificate is issued. There are inefficiencies in the
registration process because of the lack of a proper mechanism to ensure that all persons
qualified in education as a discipline and are involved in teaching are registered. This is leading to
a large number of people who provide services as teachers to remain unregistered.

iii. Challenges in Recruitment.

The mandate of recruitment is the sole responsibility of TSC. It is demand-driven, and whereby
vacancies are advertised in print media, prospective candidates apply to schools/districts of their
choice.

There is a surplus of trained teachers in many disciplines but, financial constraints are leading to
teacher shortages. This hampered provision of quality education. The challenge was exacerbated
by the implementation of FPE - Free Primary Education - program and FDSE - Free Day Secondary
Education - initiatives. FSE and FDSE led to a surge in enrolment with obvious requirement for
additional teachers.

The establishment of School under the Community Develop Fund and Linda Atibu Tuva
Foundation (LATF), added more pressure on teacher recruitment. The challenge was in recruiting
teachers in specific subjects combinations such as Humanities, Kiswahili, Physics and Computer
Studies. This is due to teachers in such specialized subject accepting and moving on higher paying
jobs.

The Taskforce noted that weak linkages and inadequate collaboration with post-secondary
teacher training institutions lead to ineffective strategies in mapping out teachers’ needs in the
country. This has increased constraints in curriculum delivery and lead to poor performance
studying in these subjects.

iv. Deployment of teachers and institutional administrators.

The government aims at ensuring equitable distribution and optimal utilization of teachers; and
providing qualified and competent managers to public education institutions.

However, there were challenges faced with deployment of teachers which include;

44
 1. Stakeholder interference
2. Teacher of optional subjects such HS, French, German and Business Studies are under-utilized due
to the low enrolment in the subjects, Similarly, teachers of Craft and Certificate TVET qualification
holder are underutilized due to the higher qualification required in educational and training
institutions

v. Deployment of Institutional Administrators

By institutional administrator we mean Principals, deputy principals, Heads of Departments, Registrars
and Deans. The Institutional administrators play a central role in leadership in the management and
development of educational institutions.

In an effort to enhance professionalism in the selection and deployment of institutional

administrators, the TSC developed a criteria in which such teachers are identified through an interview
process. The main issues in deployment of the institutional administrators is also stakeholders
interference based on faith, nepotism and vested interests.

The tasks forced found limited competence and capacity in managerial skills for educational
administrators that led to under-performance since most heads are appointed with any post-basic
training in management.

vi. Teacher Promotion

Promotion of teacher is based on three different schemes of service;
 Scheme of Service for Graduates Teachers.
 Scheme of Service for Non-Graduate teachers.
 Scheme of Service for Technical Teachers and Lecturers.

The challenges found in teacher include;

 Limited posts provided for in the budgets and hence only small percentage of those deserving can
be promoted each year;
 Allocations for the Teacher Proficiency Courses (TPCs) for the Non-Graduate Teachers are
confined to 2.5 % per annum. This is not adequate in view of the large non graduate teachers
managed by the Commission;

vii. Teacher Discipline

It was noted that indiscipline among teachers was caused by lack of knowledge of the
employment terms and conditions of service; lack of basic skills in financial management; poor
knowledge of the Code of Regulations for Teachers and Code of Conduct and Ethics. The measures
were put in place to enhance professionalism in the teaching fraternity but the challenges still
persist.

viii. Teacher Quality Assurance

Delivery of quality education aligns with a central theme in the Kenya Vision 2030. The role of at
teacher is crucial in this process and has to be recognized. There was need for quality assurance in
all aspects of teacher management process from training, recruitment and service delivery.

45
 The quality assurance function of teacher management is faced with various challenges that
include; issues of continuous professional development and institutionalization of quality
assurance and standards in education and training institutions.

ix. Employee Separation

At the time of separation, teachers are issued with retirement notices a year before the
retirement date. This is to ensure that required documents for pension claims are submitted to
the Commission on time. Such claims are processed with one month upon receipt of the
documents and subsequently submitted to the Director of Pensions for payment.

The challenge in this area is that when the claims are submitted to the Director of Pensions, the
claims process starts afresh despite the fact that Treasury field officers from Pensions Department
had already verified the procedure. It is a lengthy process that takes up to two to three years. This
leads to teachers visiting TSC to make a follow-up of their retirement payments even when the
documents have been submitted to the Pension department.

x. Financing of Teacher Management

Financing of teacher is through the exchequer which under Article 249 (c) of the constitution of Kenya,
Parliament is expected to allocate a budgetary provision to enable the Commission to perform its
functions.

Due the realization of education and training into driving Kenya into a Middle-Income economy has
been hampered by perennial shortage of teacher caused by Structural Adjustment Programs, FPE
(2002), FDSE (2008 and construction of schools under the CDF and LATF. Recruitment of teachers is
still highly dependent on the available budgetary provision of a given financial year.

The challenges faced in financing teacher management include;

 Inadequate budgetary allocation and lack of a sustainable strategy towards recruitment of
teachers.
 Recruitment of additional teachers has not been matched with improved access education as a
result of FPE and FDSE.
 There has been a significant increase in the number of teachers attaining high qualifications. Upon
graduation, they are expected to be promoted as per the existing schemes of service causing a
spiral increase in the wage bill.
 Inadequate resources for continuous professional development of teachers in service.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
From pre-primary to secondary schools, decentralisation of the education and training sector to the
school level is relatively well established. The role of the provincial, district, division and zonal level
education authorities, including Boards of Governors (BOGs), School Management Committees
(Primary) SMCs, and Parents-Teachers Association (PTA) have been mapped onto county education
service delivery systems. The national Government will be responsible for setting policy, allocating the
national education budget, supervising and regulating the education system and establishing County
Education Boards (CEB).

46
The task found issues related to the management of the sector. The Constitution makes TSC (Teacher
Service Commission) the sole agency in charge of teacher management. It is categorized as a “Semi-
Autonomous Government Agency”, and it’s relationship with MOE and other ministries had to be
established and clarified.

Similarly, there are the other SAGAS with specific mandates, which will have to be reviewed in light of
the Constitution, including the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) - Curriculum Development, the Kenya
Education Management Institute (KEMI) - Sector capacity building and development, the Kenya
National Examination Council (KNEC) - Examinations and Certification, the Jomo Kenyatta Foundation
(JKF), the Kenya Literature Bureau (KLB), the Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) and the Centre
for Mathematics, Science and Technology in Africa (CEMASTEA), School Equipment Production Unit
(SEPU), Board of Adult Education (BAE) among others.

1. Pre-Primary Sector

Issues related to Pre-Primary Sector

 Insufficient number of trained teachers and care givers,
 Inadequate number of pre-primary and day care centres,
 limited availability of teaching and learning and play materials,
 limited community participation,
 Low morale of teaching staff due to poor remuneration,
 Poor enforcement of standards of pre-primary institutions,
 Inadequate nutrition and health support services.

2. Primary Sector

Issues related to Pre-Primary Sector

 High pupil-teacher ratio.
 Overcrowded classrooms,
 Occasional teacher and pupil absenteeism,
 High drop-out rates,
 High repetition rates,
 Increased number of orphans due to diseases such as HIV and AIDS,
 Inadequate infrastructure,
 Weak governance and financial management,
 inequitable deployment and weak management of teachers,
 Gender and regional disparities.

3. Secondary Sector

Issues related to Secondary School Sector

 Provision of education to all in the secondary education due to limited facilities
 Imposition of levies and other fees by schools.
 Perception of the lack of relevance of the curriculum.
 Mismatch between what is taught and the need of the world of work.
 Unfriendly environment in some schools.

47
 Teacher absenteeism and lateness.
 Negative effects of HIV/AIDS pandemic
 Rising repetition rates,
 Inequitable distribution of teachers.
 Slow reforms in the secondary school curriculum especially in the adoption of ICT.

4. Special Needs Sector

Issues related to Pre-Primary Sector

 Access and equity in the provision of education and training to children with special needs.
 Culture prejudice and perception
 Negative attitudes.
 Slow implementation of guidelines on SNE policy.
 Inadequate data on the number of children with special needs.
 Inadequate tools and skills for assessing and identifying learners with special needs.
 Funding
 Poor infrastructure facilities for teachers and trainers.

5. Adult and Continuing Education Sector

Issues related to Pre-Primary Sector

 Inadequate trained literacy and adult education teachers.
 High staff turnover.
 Limited resource allocation
 Inappropriate infrastructure.
 Lack of Capitation grants for instructional materials.
 Gender Imbalance
 Negative Attitudes.
 Perception towards adult learning.

6. TVET SECTOR

Issues related to TVET Sector

The main focus of this policy is to realize a Kenyan workforce trained and certified to international
standards, stimulating employment, creating investments, contributing to the improved productivity,
competitiveness and prosperity of individuals, enterprises and the nation.

The policy further seeks to provide quality and inclusive TVET, especially to disadvantaged groups
including learners with disabilities and marginalized and rural populations, improve gender equality.
The policy also seeks to develop and strengthen TVET teaching standards at all levels to reflect realities
in industry.

Despite the progress made over the last decade in enhancing access, retention, quality, completion
rates and gender parity in education and training, the TVET sector continues to face many challenges.
These include: an insufficient number of trainers with pedagogical competency, inadequate number of

48
TVET centres, limited availability of customized teaching and learning materials, limited industry
participation and inadequate research support services.

Other challenges include poor geographical distribution of TVET institutions, negative perception of
TVET, low enrolment for females in Science Engineering and Technology SET courses and unfriendly
environment for people with special needs. Furthermore, there is uncoordinated admission of
students to TVET institutions. There is also low enrolment in TVET institutions due to the high cost of
technical training and lack of awareness. The result is that most trainees end up in cheap alternative
programmes whose graduates do not acquire the requisite skills necessary for the world of work.

Since 2008, the quality assurance function of Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship
Training (TIVET) institutions in Kenya has been a function of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science
and Technology through the Directorate of Technical Accreditation and Quality Assurance. Owing to
the fragmented nature of TVET in Kenya, the quality of training differs greatly from one institution to
another. There is therefore need to ensure harmonization and coordination of programs, by
standardizing the quality and relevance of training in TVET institutions.

There are also challenges to do with quality assurance, curriculum design and delivery, leading to
instances of training that does not meet the quality and relevance required. In addition, there has
been ineffective coordination and synchronisation of the TVET sector. Further, there is inadequate
planning data due to weak mechanisms for conducting tracer studies and the absence of a labour
market information system to provide data on skill demands.

7. Education for Marginalized, hard to reach and vulnerable groups

Issues related
The MOE together with other stakeholders has implemented various programmes with varying
degrees of success to support the Most Vulnerable Children (MVC), girls, and women in the Arid and
Semi-Arid lands, urban slums.

Despite the gains in access and equity since the launch of FPE and FDSE there are still remain pockets
within Kenyan communities which have remained unreached for a host of reasons; economic, cultural,
social, geographical, environmental, and political. These groups are diversified and have different
educational needs. As a result, different strategies are required to address issues affecting them.

In general, marginalized, hard-to-reach and vulnerable groups are characterized by not having a clear
institutional framework to oversee the development and implementation of policies and strategies
developed by the State, They live in both high and low population concentrations, while in addition
pastoralists, for example, have religious obligations which require children to attend Madrassa/Duksi
schools in addition to whatever formal education arrangements are provided by the state.

The schools complement formal schools especially in terms of social and cultural learning and the
teaching of children to read. High levels of poverty and lack of monetary resources generally exist.

In addition, challenges of learning institutions being far apart or overcrowded, insecurity, inadequate
teaching and learning resources, poor infrastructure persist. In nomadic areas, few teachers have a
nomadic background while stigmatization can occur on grounds of special needs, cultural and other

49
practices such as FGM and early marriages. Boarding schools are perceived to be culturally
unresponsive to nomadic pastoralist children creating the fear of alienation of children from their
communities’ way of life. The informal settlements are not served by formal schools because they are
not planned. Children from the informal settlements are unable to access the formal schools outside
the settlements because of long distances and insecurity.

Therefore, informal schools have been established within the settlements for the school going age
children. The constitution provides for free and compulsory basic education for all children and hence
all children should access high quality education. The challenge is therefore establishment of formal
schools for children from the informal settlements.

EDUCATION STRUCTURE
Issues Relating to School Infrastructure:
 Mainstreaming of early childhood care.
 Pre-primary education.
 Introduction of counties.
 Embracing shared responsibilities for education.
 Introducing credible governance and anticorruption measures.
Growth of the Education and Training Sector
Over time, Kenya's education sector has seen enormous growth in terms of enrolment and number of
institutions.
Ministry's Education Management System (EMIS) Findings from 1963 to 2010:
 The number of public and private primary schools climbed from 6,058 to 27,489 while the number
of secondary schools increased from 151 to 7308.
 Primary school enrolment increased from 892,000 students to roughly 9.4 million students in
while high school enrollment increased from around 30,000 students to 1.7 million students.
The establishment of the Free Primary Education (FPE) and Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE)
programs in 2003 and 2008, respectively, has expedited the increase.
In the case of TVET; The Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) Examination was taken by
357,488 candidates in 2010.
Out of this group:
 97,137 received a C+, which is the minimum criteria for university admission.
 Around 32,000 students were admitted to public universities in that year, whereas about 10,000
students were admitted to private universities.
Enrolment in public Technical Training Institutions under the MoHEST:
 60,000 in 2011, with an annual inflow of around 25,000.
 Another 75,000 students are expected to be admitted to additional middle colleges in the public
TVET and private sectors.
 Thus, just 142,000, or 40%, of the 357,488 KCSE candidates who completed form four in 2010
were able to pursue further or higher education.
 The remaining 215,488 people, or 60%, have had to find space in the current framework to pursue
non-formal training or enter the workforce unskilled. There is no doubt that this is a significant
economic loss for the country.
The Universities also are growing in numbers;

50
  In 2009/2010, the total number of students enrolled in public universities climbed from 3,443 in
1970 to 159,752 in 2009/2010, with 59,665 females and 100,087 males.
 In private universities, total enrolment was 9,541 students in 2003/2004, with 5,128 females and
4,413 males, rising to 37,179 students in 2009/2010, with 14,462 females and 22,717 males.
 The total number of students enrolled in public and private universities increased to 196, 931 in
the 2009/10 academic year.
Despite the growth in enrolment, the rate of transition from secondary to primary school remains low.
Kenya Qualifications Framework
 Governed by the principle of inclusivity, the KQF. Doesn’t discriminate or overlook any
qualifications.
 The KQF ensures that quality education is awarded with right credits. From certificates, Diplomas,
Degrees and other higher award.
The government is working to diversify and formalize education across all learning sectors.
2. POLICY FRAMEWORK
Kenya has made great strides in education and training since 1963. This has been
demonstrated by the growth of; the number of institutions, increased enrolment, increased transition
rates, increased teacher numbers, enhancement of equity, gender parity, improved relevance and
quality across all levels among others. These milestones are largely attributed to the implementation
of recommendations of various Commissions, Committees and Taskforces on education and training.
Despite these successes, the sector faces challenges arising out of demands of the 21st century, Vision
2030 and the Constitution (2010).

The major education reports that have had a significant impact on education and training in Kenya
include the Kenya Education Commission report, 1964, which sought to reform the education system
inherited from the colonial government and to make it more responsive to the needs of independent
Kenya. The Report of the Presidential Working Party on the Second University in Kenya (The Mackay
Report, 1981), led to the expansion of other post-secondary training institutions. In addition to the
establishment of second University, it also
recommended the establishment of the 8:4:4 system which removed the advanced (A) level of
secondary education.

The Report of the Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next
Decade and beyond (The Kamunge Report, 1988) focused on improving education financing, quality
and relevance. The report had a major departure on financing of education and training in Kenya as it
recommended a policy of cost sharing between government, parents and communities.

The Koech Report, (2000) was to identify ways and means of enabling the education system to
facilitate national unity, mutual social responsibility, accelerated industrial and technological
development, life-long learning, and adaptation in response to changing circumstances. Although the
report was not adopted due to cost implications, some recommendations such as curriculum
rationalization have been implemented. The
Transformation of Higher Education and Training in Kenya report (2006) and the National Strategy for
University Education (2007), provided a road map on university education in Kenya.

The Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on education, training and research led to reforms through a Sector
Wide Approach to Planning (SWAP). Though the emphasis was on access, equity, quality, relevance

51
and the strengthening of governance and management, the expected returns of investment in
education in terms of productive and skilled manpower has not been realized to the full. In addition,
the Constitution of Kenya (2010) has placed demands that have implications on education and
training. This has necessitated the development of this policy through an elaborate consultative
stakeholder process.

Notably:
Kenya Qualifications Framework
There are various qualifications in the labor market, by type and level, having been obtained at
different times from different education systems in Kenya. There have been various curriculum and
instruction designs including among others standard curriculum, broad-based curriculum and
competency-based curriculum designs that have been pursued in education and training to yield the
variety of qualifications in the labour market today. Thus, being guided by the principle of inclusivity,
the KQF targets all academic and TVET qualifications obtained through completion of any curriculum
design without discrimination on the basis of the route followed to achieve the awards.

To implement the policy, the Government would employ the following strategies:
i. Re-categorise schools and ensure they meet minimum standards;
ii. Develop effective monitoring and accountability mechanisms to enhance spending
effectiveness;
iii. Ensure establishment of a minimum of 3 streams in each secondary school;
iv. Align the establishment of secondary schools with budgetary allocations for teacher
requirement and infrastructure.
v. Regularly review staffing norms to enhance appropriate teacher development and utilization
of teachers;
vi. Strengthen affirmative action to address the needs of the marginalized, gender, minorities,
special needs and those in difficult circumstances;
vii. Revise the curriculum to make it competency based and integrate ICT in the education
system;
viii. Through County Education Boards, regularly review and rationalize fees and levies in
secondary schools in order to reduce the cost burden on parents and communities;
ix. Establish and expand the provision of targeted low cost boarding schools for persons with
severe disabilities, those living in ASALs, children living under difficult circumstances, and
children at risk;

The Government has endeavored to promote access, equity and transition in education and training
through the introduction of Free Primary Education (2003) and Free Day Secondary in (2008). The MOE
together with other stakeholders has implemented various programmes with varying degrees of
success to support the Most Vulnerable Children (MVC), girls, and women in the Arid and Semi-Arid
lands, urban slums.

In general, marginalized, hard-to-reach and vulnerable groups are characterized by not

having a clear institutional framework to oversee the development and implementation of policies and
strategies developed by the State, They live in both high and low population concentrations, while in
addition pastoralists, for example, have religious obligations which require children to attend

52
Madrassa/Duksi schools in addition to whatever formal education arrangements are provided by the
state.

In order to address the educational challenges facing such marginalized groups, the government would
adopt the following policy:
Make provision for equitable, quality education to Marginalized, hard-to-reach and vulnerable Groups.
Curriculum
The current primary and secondary school curriculum was reviewed in 2002, followed in
2004 by a review of the primary teacher education curriculum and the diploma teacher
education curriculum in 2007. More recently in 2008, Kenya Vision 2030 established clear
priorities for the curriculum, while the Constitution of Kenya (2010) and on-going changes in
the broader economic environment following the signing of the East African protocol impact
directly on the shape and priorities of the curriculum. Youth polytechnic curriculum was
developed in 2007.
Vision 2030 calls for a curriculum, which accommodates individual and corporate social
responsibility, and moral and ethical values. It also calls for the development of technical and
entrepreneurial skills, competencies, skills and talents. The content of basic education,
therefore, shall need to be designed to equip all learners with relevant knowledge, skills,
competencies and values, enabling learners to develop to their full capacity, enhance the
quality of their lives, able to make informed decisions and predisposed to engage in life-long learning.
Aligning the curriculum to address the aspirations of Vision 2030, the Constitution
and the East African Community protocol is a national priority. The summative evaluation of primary
and secondary school curricula identified gaps in the current curricula. While the content of the
curriculum addresses patriotism and national unity, it is argued that inculcating these values has been
less successful because carrier subjects like history and government and religious studies are optional
subjects at the secondary level.
Further, much of the primary and secondary school curriculum content relegates practical skills
necessary for economic development to non-examinable subjects. The acquisition of requisite
practical, technological and entrepreneurial skills is not addressed and has created a situation where
the study of practical and vocationally orientated subjects is regarded as the least desirable option to
learners.
The current curriculum has been objective but not competence based, does not give weight to values,
attitudes and patriotism. Cognitive domain has been over emphasized at the expense of affective and
psychomotor domains. Some aspects of curriculum are not being implemented especially if not
examined e.g. Physical Education and life skills, Inadequate ICT skills in teaching and learning,
traditional method of teaching-only teachers being source of knowledge instead of involving learners,
inadequate teaching and learning materials, curriculum support materials poorly distributed and not
readily available in school, poor planning of human resource resulting to teacher shortages in some
subjects.
Policy Recommendations
PRE-PRIMARY
i. Provide free and compulsory Pre-Primary Education for all 4 to 5 year olds in Kenya,
ii. Provide health and nutritional support for 0-5 year olds attending day care centres and
schools.
Policy Strategies recommended
To implement the above policies, the Government will employ the following strategies:

53
 i. Review and implement the National ECD policy framework and National Service
standard guidelines, strategic development and implementation plan;
ii. Review quality standards and develop a Pre-Primary performance framework;
iii. Ensure that all primary schools have a functional Pre-Primary unit;
iv. Create funding modalities for Pre-Primary to include start-up grants, capitation grants,
instructional materials, school meals (feeding), maintenance and the development of
infrastructure;
v. Mobilise resources and engage stakeholders;
vi. Develop a mechanism for early detection of children with special needs including the gifted
and talented;
vii. Develop and implement appropriate Pre-Primary programmes for all children with
special needs, including the vulnerable and disadvantaged groups;
viii. Develop modalities to ensure synergies are created between Counties and service
providers under delegated authority for Pre-Primary Education;
ix. Encourage service providers to synergise delivery models and techniques;
x. Establish strategic partnerships with service providers to ensure provision of adequate
health and nutrition support services for children between ages 0-5 years;
xi. Enforce article 53 of the constitution act and ensure free and compulsory basic
education for all children;
xii. Require the efficient utilisation of all learning and teaching resources, especially as regards
teacher deployment, management and development, and the introduction of Continuous
Professional Development (CPD) for teachers.
xiii. Monitor and ensure automatic transition from Pre-Primary to primary education across the
country;
xiv. Establish clear quality criteria for registration of public and private Pre-Primary
Centres and;
xv. Create awareness of the importance of Pre-Primary education in the society.
xvi. Enhance community support grants to support pre-primary teacher’s remuneration in the
transition period.

PRIMARY EDUCATION
i. Provide free and compulsory primary education.
ii. Implement automatic transition and transfer between grades and across levels of
basic education.
Policy Strategies recommended
i. Require all primary schools to be Child-Friendly;
ii. Accelerate the employment of teachers to meet the acceptable teacher-pupil
ratio;
iii. Address the issue of pupil and teacher absenteeism and lateness;
iv. Adopt a holistic approach to ensure the provision of water and sanitation in
schools, immunization and regular de-worming of all school going children
including at school level, feeding and registration of births at school level;
v. Require the efficient utilisation of all learning and teaching resources;
vi. Ensure equitable deployment of teachers and introduce Continuous Professional
Development (CPD);

54
vii. Review and implement Minimum Quality Standards (MQS);
viii. Review and implement the policy of inclusive education for pupils with special
needs;
ix. Develop a framework for opening of new schools and the expansion of the
existing ones to be in tandem with the budgetary provision for teachers and
infrastructure.
x. Review, adopt and implement:
a) The Policy Framework for Nomadic Education in Kenya.
b) The National Adult and Continuing Education Policy of 2010.
c) The National Special Needs Education Policy Framework of 2009.
d) The policy for Alternative Provision of Basic Education and Training APBET of 2009.
e) The School Health and Nutrition Policy of 2011.
f) The Gender Policy in Education of 2007.
g) The Education Sector Policy on HIV and AIDs of 2004.
h) National ICT Strategy for Education and Training 2006
i) Teacher Proficiency Course TPC policy)
xvii. Enforce the Children Act of 2001, Cap 586 and Sexual offences Act of 2006
and sensitise communities on the same;
xviii. Require schools and communities to identify excluded children and to ensure
their enrolment.
xix. Ensure the implementation of an all-inclusive education policy by removing all barriers to
disadvantaged, hard-to- reach and vulnerable groups;
xx. Expand the school meals (feeding) programme, and encourage communities to provide the
midday meal in marginalised, hard-to-reach and vulnerable groups;
xxi. Expand, equip and strengthen mobile schools and low cost boarding primary
schools where day schools are inappropriate, to improve access and retention
in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs), marginalised, hard-to-reach and
vulnerable groups.
xxii. Embrace alternative modes of curriculum delivery where appropriate
xxiii. Integrate the Madrassa/Duksi system into the formal education system in
predominantly Muslim areas to improve access and retention.
xxiv. Sensitize parents on the need to enrol and retain all children in schools and
make school environment gender sensitive.
xxv. Ensure gender parity in education;
xxvi. Conduct a needs assessment to provide data for implementing alternative modes of
delivering education, including home schooling;
xxvii. Establish the National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK);
xxviii. Provide adequate housing for teaching staff in the marginalised and hard to
reach areas;
xxix. Sensitise parents, stakeholders and communities to discourage socio-cultural practices that
prohibit effective participation of girls and boys in primary school education and enforce
legislation against  the  violation  of  the  Children’s  
Rights;
xxx. Develop and implement a strategy for identification and development of the
gifted and talented;

55
 xxxi. Develop the capacity and effectiveness of teachers, education administrators,
education managers and other stakeholders;
xxxii. Institutionalize result based performance management for all teachers including the
introduction of performance contracts;
xxxiii. Revise the curriculum to make it competency based and integrate ICT in the
education system;
xxxiv. Strengthen affirmative action to address the needs of the marginalized,
gender, minorities, special needs and those in difficult circumstances;
xxxv. Mobilise adequate resources for the construction and rehabilitation of schools
and provide equipment to needy areas, especially in ASALs and urban slums to attain
equity;
xxxvi. Develop linkages between basic education and TVET sector through enhancement of
aspects of technical and vocational education and Enforce Article 53 of the constitution to
ensure free and compulsory basic
education for all children

SECONDARY
i. Provide Free and Compulsory Secondary Education to all children
Policy Strategies recommended
i. Re-categorise schools and ensure they meet minimum standards;
ii. Develop effective monitoring and accountability mechanisms to enhance spending
effectiveness;
iii. Ensure establishment of a minimum of 3 streams in each secondary school;
iv. Align the establishment of secondary schools with budgetary allocations for teacher
requirement and infrastructure.
v. Regularly review staffing norms to enhance appropriate teacher development and utilization of
teachers;
vi. Strengthen affirmative action to address the needs of the marginalized, gender, minorities,
special needs and those in difficult circumstances;
vii. Revise the curriculum to make it competency based and integrate ICT in the education system;
viii. Through County Education Boards, regularly review and rationalise fees and levies in secondary
schools in order to reduce the cost burden on parents and communities;
ix. Establish and expand the provision of targeted low cost boarding schools for persons with
severe disabilities, those living under difficult circumstances, and children at risk.
x. Mobilise adequate resources for the construction and rehabilitation of schools and provide
equipment to deserving areas, especially ASALs and urban slums;
xi. Develop mechanisms to ensure the re-entry of girls who drop out of school due to pregnancy
and early or forced marriage;
xii. Sensitise parents, stakeholders and communities to discard socio-cultural practices that
prohibit effective participation of girls and boys in secondary school education, and enforce
legislation against the violation of the Children’s Rights;
xiii. Develop and implement a strategy for the identification, development and appropriate
placement of gifted, talented and vocationally orientated pupils;
xiv. Develop professional assessment programmes to identify children with special talents and
abilities and support by offering them specialised teaching and training;
xv. Employ alternative modes of curriculum delivery where appropriate;

56
xvi. Require efficient teacher deployment management and development;
xvii. Require the efficient utilisation of all learning and teaching resources, especially as regards
teacher deployment, management and development, and the introduction of Continuous
Professional Development (CPD) for teachers;
xviii. Fully integrate secondary education as part of basic education;
xix. Introduce automatic progression between grades and automatic transfer between levels of
Basic Education;
xx. Ensure inclusive education for learners with special needs and disabilities;
xxi. Adopt and implement the national gender policy;
xxii. Introduce the school meals programme and encourage communities to provide the midday
meal in marginalised, hard-to-reach and vulnerable groups;
xxiii. Develop linkages between basic education and TVET sector including establishment of
specialised institutions; and
xxiv. Enforce article 53 of the constitution to ensure free and compulsory basic education for all
children.
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
(i) Provide quality education to all learners with special learning needs.
(ii) Review and revitalize programs to promote inclusive education in all institutions
Policy Strategies recommended
i. Implement affirmative action to enable gifted and talented learners, learners with special
needs and disabilities in basic education.
ii. Restructure Kenya Institute of Special Education KISE and enhance its capacity to enable it to
play a more effective role in the training of teachers and other personnel working for and with
learners with special needs and disabilities.
iii. Review the SNE curriculum at KISE to also offer degree courses for teachers and introduce
tailored courses for Head teachers and educational managers to support inclusive education.
iv. Mobilise funding for Special Needs Education and other support for research in the field of
special needs education;
v. Develop and standardize diagnostic assessment tools to facilitate the early identification,
assessment and placement of learners with special needs;
vi. Implement inclusive education programmes in pre-service and in-service teacher training.
vii. Strengthen and enhance funding for Education Assessment Resource Centres at County level.
viii. Mobilise funds to ensure that all schools adapt ICT facilities to support the learning of learners
with special needs and disabilities.
ix. Adopt a multi-sectoral approach to support health services.
x. Enhance capacity building for EARCs staff.
xi. Strengthen the multi-disciplinary approach in assessment of leaners with special needs and
disabilities.
xii. Enforce Article 53 of the constitution to ensure free and compulsory basic education for all
children.
xiii. Establish pilot special needs schools, integrated programmes and inclusive schools as centres
of excellence at county level.
xiv. Establish a national centre to coordinate acquisition and production and repair of specialized
and assistive devices.

57
 xv. Integrate special needs education programmes in all learning and training institutions and
ensure that the institutions are responsive to the education of learners with special needs and
disability
xvi. Revise the curriculum to make it competency based and integrate ICT in the education
system;
xvii. Enhance development of specialised curriculum for learners with special needs

TVET INSTITUTIONS
i. Pursue TVET expansion programmes at national, county and constituency level to
accelerate attaining and sustaining a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 20% in TVET by 2023.
ii. Provide adequate training opportunities for accessible competency based training
Policy Strategies recommended
i. Conduct a baseline survey on the status of TVET in the country.
ii. Establish a central admission service for TVET government sponsored students;
iii. Expand TVET facilities targeting national priority sectors;
iv. Provide TVET training with respect to persons with special needs.
v. Provide TVET training while ensuring affirmative action with respect to vulnerable groups,
gender, hard to reach minority and marginalized groups;
vi. Establish at least one Vocational Training Centre(VTC) at constituency level and at least one
Technical College (TC) at county level to increase equity;
vii. Increase the number of Technical Teacher Training Colleges (TTTC) from one to five, National
Polytechnics (NPs) from five to eight and Technical Universities (TUs) to five at the national
level;
viii. Make training delivery flexible through modular delivery process and, incorporate electronic
technologies in TVET provision;
ix. Enhance participation of women in TVET and gender mainstreaming through affirmative action;
x. Provide career guidance and placement services to support students in career planning and
guidance;
xi. Integrate aspects of Vocational Education and Training at all levels and;
xii. Streamline the management of industrial attachment.

C. EDUCATION ACTS
a. THE CHILDRENS ACT
This is an Act of Parliament to make provision for parental responsibility, fostering, adoption, custody,
maintenance, guardianship, care and protection of children; to make provision for the administration
of children’s institutions; to give effect to the principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and for connected purposes.
It was assented to on 31/12/2001 with its commencement date being 1/03/2002.
It finds its backing in chapter 4: Bill of Rights, of the Kenya Constitution.
This act is the first statute which substantially attempts to implement Kenya’s obligations under any
human rights treaty (specifically, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the African Charter
on the Rights and Welfare of the Child).

58
Godfrey Odongo* Programme Officer, Wellspring Advisors, New York, United States of America writes
in AFRICAN HUMAN RIGHTS LAW JOURNAL: A significant development is the passage of a new
Constitution, 2010. However, realizing this potential under the new dispensation will require decisive
political commitment to ensure the allocation of resources and the institution of practical measures
for the implementation of child rights-related laws. The Free Primary Education program still stands
out as an example of a positive measure geared towards addressing the situation of some of Kenya’s
poor children. The challenge remains of replicating its example to key areas, including health and child
support to poor families. The need for further legal provisions, for example in the area of juvenile
justice, the required repeal of laws such as in relation to corporal punishment and the gaps in
enforcing existing laws mean that the process of harmonizing Kenyan law with CRC and the African
Children’s Charter is far from complete.
The act has 14 parts but we shall dwell on part 2 of the act: – SAFEGUARDS FOR THE RIGHTS AND
WELFARE OF THE CHILD.
This section is by far the most significant part of the Act. This part of the Act makes provision for the
four rights which have been identified by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC
Committee) as reflecting the ‘soul’ of CRC.6 These core principles include, firstly, the best interests
principle provided for in section 4(2) of the Act.7 Secondly, the Act guarantees the child’s right to life,
survival and development (section 4(1)). Thirdly, the Act provides for children’s right to non-
discrimination (section 5). Lastly, the Act provides for the rights of the child to participation and to be
accorded the opportunity.
Number 1 and 2 cover introduction and definition of terms so we start with number 3:
3. Realization of the rights of the child:
 The Government shall take steps to the maximum of its available resources with a view to
achieving progressively the full realization of the rights of the child set out in this Part.
4. Survival and best interests of the child:
a) Every child shall have an inherent right to life and it shall be the responsibility of the
Government and the family to ensure the survival and development of the child.
b) In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare
institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of
the child shall be a primary consideration.
c) All judicial and administrative institutions, and all persons acting in the name of these
institutions, where they are exercising any powers conferred by this Act shall treat the interests
of the child as the first and paramount consideration to the extent that this is consistent with
adopting a course of action calculated to—
a. safeguard and promote the rights and welfare of the child;
b. conserve and promote the welfare of the child;
c. secure for the child such guidance and correction as is necessary for the welfare of the
child and in the public interest.
d. In any matters of procedure affecting a child, the child shall be accorded an opportunity
to express his opinion, and that opinion shall be taken into account as may be
appropriate taking into account the child’s age and the degree of maturity.
3. Non-discrimination
No child shall be subjected to discrimination on the ground of origin, sex, religion, creed, custom,
language, opinion, conscience, color, birth, social, political, economic or other status, race,
disability, tribe, residence or local connection.
6. Right to parental care

59
 1) A child shall have a right to live with and to be cared for by his parents.
2) Subject to subsection (1), where the court or the Director determines in accordance with the
law that it is in the best interests of the child to separate him from his parent, the best
alternative care available shall be provided for the child.
3) Where a child is separated from his family without the leave of the court, the Government shall
provide assistance for reunification of the child with his family.
7. Right to education
1) Every child shall be entitled to education the provision of which shall be the responsibility of
the Government and the parents.
2) Every child shall be entitled to free basic education which shall be compulsory in accordance
with Article 28 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
8. Right to religious education
1) Every child shall have a right to religious education subject to appropriate parental guidance.
2) The Minister shall make regulations giving effect to the rights of children from minority
communities to give fulfillment to their culture and to practice their own language or religion.
9. Right to health care
Every child shall have a right to health and medical care the provision of which shall be the
responsibility of the parents and the Government.
10. Protection from child labor and armed conflict
1) Every child shall be protected from economic exploitation and any work that is likely to be
hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful to the child’s health or
physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.
2) No child shall take part in hostilities or be recruited in armed conflicts, and where armed
conflict occurs, respect for and protection and care of children shall be maintained in
accordance with the law.
3) It shall be the responsibility of the Government to provide protection, rehabilitation care,
recovery and re-integration into normal social life for any child who may become a victim of
armed conflict or natural disaster.
4) The Minister shall make regulations in respect of periods of work and legitimate establishments
for such work by children above the age of sixteen years.
5) In this Act child labor refers to any situation where a child provides labor in exchange for
payment and includes:
i. Any situation where a child provides labor as an assistant to another person and his labor is
deemed to be the labor of that other person for the purposes of payment;
ii. Any situation where a child’s labor is used for gain by any individual or institution whether or
not the child benefits directly or indirectly; and
iii. Any situation where there is in existence a contract for services where the party providing
the services is a child whether the person using the services does so directly or by agent.
11. Name and nationality
Every child shall have a right to a name and nationality and where a child is deprived of his identity the
Government shall provide appropriate assistance and protection, with a view to establishing his
identity.
12. Disabled child
A disabled child shall have the right to be treated with dignity, and to be accorded appropriate medical
treatment, special care, education and training free of charge or at a reduced cost whenever possible.
13. Protection from abuse, etc.

60
 1) A child shall be entitled to protection from physical and psychological abuse, neglect and any
other form of exploitation including sale, trafficking or abduction by any person.
2) Any child who becomes the victim of abuse, in the terms of subsection (1), shall be accorded
appropriate treatment and rehabilitation in accordance with such regulations as the Minister
may make.
14. Protection from harmful cultural rites, etc.
No person shall subject a child to female circumcision, early marriage or other cultural rites, customs
or traditional practices that are likely to negatively affect the child’s life, health, social welfare, dignity
or physical or psychological development.
15. Protection from sexual exploitation
A child shall be protected from sexual exploitation and use in prostitution, inducement or coercion to
engage in any sexual activity, and exposure to obscene materials.
16. Protection from drugs
Every child shall be entitled to protection from the use of hallucinogens, narcotics, alcohol, tobacco
products or psychotropic drugs and any other drugs that may be declared harmful by the Minister
responsible for health and from being involved in their production, trafficking or distribution.
17. Leisure and recreation
A child shall be entitled to leisure, play and participation in cultural and artistic activities.
18. Torture and deprivation of liberty
1) No child shall be subjected to torture, cruel treatment or punishment, unlawful arrest or
deprivation of liberty.
2) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, no child shall be subjected to capital
punishment or to life imprisonment.
3) A child offender shall be separated from adults in custody.
4) A child who is arrested and detained shall be accorded legal and other assistance by the
Government as well as contact with his family.
19. Right to privacy
Every child shall have the right to privacy subject to parental guidance.
20. Penalties
Notwithstanding penalties contained in any other law, where any person willfully or as a consequence
of culpable negligence infringes any of the rights of a child as specified in sections 5 to 19 such person
shall be liable upon summary conviction to a term of imprisonment not exceeding twelve months, or
to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand shillings or to both such imprisonment and fine.

21. Duties and responsibilities of a child

In the application of the provisions of this Act, and in any matter before a court of law concerning any
child, due regard shall be had to the duties and responsibilities of a child to—
1) work for the cohesion of the family;
2) respect his parents, superiors and elders at all times and assist them in case of need;
3) serve his national community by placing his physical and intellectual abilities at its service;
4) preserve and strengthen social and national solidarity; and
5) preserve and strengthen the positive cultural values of his community in his relations with
other members of that community:
Provided that in reckoning the requisite duty and responsibility of any individual child, due regard shall
also be had to the age and ability of such child and to such limitations as are contained in this Act.
22. Enforcement of rights

61
 1) Subject to subsection (2), if any person alleges that any of the provisions of sections 4 to19
(inclusive) has been, is being or is likely to be contravened in relation to a child, then without
prejudice to any other action with respect to the same matter which is lawfully available, that
person may apply to the High Court for redress on behalf of the child.
2) The High Court shall hear and determine an application made by a person in pursuance of
subsection (1) and may make such orders, issue such writs and give such directions as it may
consider appropriate for the purpose of enforcing or securing the enforcement of any of the
provisions of sections 4 to19 (inclusive).
3) The Chief Justice may make rules with respect to the practice and procedure of the High Court
in relation to the jurisdiction and powers conferred on it or under this section including rules
with respect to the time within which applications may be brought and references shall be
made to the High Court.
Constraints to the realization of children’s rights to health.
According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), as of June 2011 up to 86 out of 1 000 new-
born children in Kenya are likely to die before reaching the age of five.88 The factors affecting
households’ health status in Kenya include low income per capita, low literacy levels, poor government
spending in the health sector resulting in restricted immunization coverage and inadequate household
access to doctors by households and the high HIV/AIDS prevalence rates. These and other poor
indicators, in effect, infer that the right to ‘the highest attainable standard of health which includes the
right to health care services’ under section 43 of the new Constitution and the right to health under
section 9 of the Children’s Act remain a pipe dream for many Kenyans and Kenyan children.
Government spending and complementary private sector support to the heath sector are crucial for
improved access to health care services by majority poor households. This would entail improved
official budgetary allocation to public health. The government also needs to expand the
household/child support program discussed in the next section of the article in addition to examining
how the user fees in the public health sector inhibit access to health care, especially by the majority
poor family households.

b. THE TVET ACT 2013

TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training
TVET (technical and vocational education and training) is education and training which provides
knowledge and skills for employment. TVET uses formal, non-formal and informal learning. TVET is
recognized to be a crucial vehicle for social equity, inclusion and sustainable development.
Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is steadily gaining popularity at the global
debates and government priorities for education and national development agendas. (Marope et al.,
2015). TVET is also considered highly in strategic and operational priorities of the G20, the
Organizations for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and of multilateral organizations
such as the International Labor Organization (ILO), UNESCO, ASEAN, and SEAMEO. To realize its
potential to impact development, however, TVET systems need sustained transformation and
revitalization. This was reflected in Shanghai Consensus (UNESCO, 2012).
Development of the term TVET
The term 'Technical and Vocational Education and Training or TVET was officiated at the World
Congress on TVET in 1999 in Seoul, Republic of Korea. The congress recognized the term TVET to be
broad enough to incorporate other terms that had been used to describe similar educational and
training activities including Workforce Education (WE), and Technical-Vocational Education (TVE). The

62
term TVET parallels other types of education and training e.g. Vocational Education but is also used as
an umbrella term to encompass education and training activities.
The decision in 1999 to officiate the term TVET led to the development of the UNESCO-UNEVOC
International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Bonn, Germany.
Purpose for the TVET
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) serves multiple purposes.
 A key purpose is preparation of youth for work. This takes the form of learning and developing
work related skills and mastery of underlying knowledge and scientific principles.
 To support self-employment, TVET curricula often include entrepreneurship training. Related to
this is the social reproduction and transformation of occupational and vocational practices.
 Continuing professional development. The rapid technological changes demand that workers
continuously update their knowledge and skills. Unlike the past where a job could be held for life,
it is common place to change vocations several times. TVET enables that flexibility in two ways;
 One is providing broad based technical knowledge and transversal skills on which different
occupations can be based on.
 The second is providing continuing vocational training to workers. In contrast with the
industrial paradigm of the old economy, today's global economy lays the onus on the worker
to continually reinvent himself or herself. In the past, workers were assured of a job for life,
with full-time employment, clear occupational roles and well-established career paths. This
is no longer the case.
The knowledge dependent global economy is characterized by rapid changes in technology and related
modes of work. Often, workers find themselves declared redundant and out of work. TVET today has
the responsibility of re-skilling such workers to enable them find and get back to work Apart from
providing work related education, TVET is also a site for personal development and emancipation.
These concerns the development of those personal capacities that relate to realizing one's full
potential with regard to paid or self-employment, occupational interests, and life goals outside of
work. At the same time TVET seeks to enable individual overcome disadvantages due to circumstances
of birth or prior educational experiences.
 From a development point of view, TVET facilitates provide economic growth by increasing the
productivity of workers. The returns from increased output far exceed the costs of training, direct
and indirect, leading to economic growth.
 TVET like any other form of education also facilitates socio-economic development by enhancing
the capacity of individuals to adopt practices that are socially worthwhile. As a form of education
similar to all others, TVET aims to developing the broad range of personal capabilities that
characterize an educated person. Thus, the provision of broad based knowledge seeks to ensure
critic-creative thinking.
 TVET also aims at developing capacities for effective communication and effective interpersonal
relations.

Hybridization
Due to TVET's isolation with other education streams it was not widely adopted. Steps were taken to
reduce segmentation of education and training and to address institutional barriers that restricted
TVET learners′ options including choices to move vertically to higher levels of learning, or horizontally
to other streams.

63
Policy-makers have introduced forms of hybridization with other education systems, additionally some
of the distinctions between TVET and ′academic′ education streams have been blurred. This
hybridisation has been termed the ′vocationalization of secondary education′, a similar process has
happened to a lesser extent in tertiary education.

France and the Netherlands

The baccalauréat professionnel in France, and the middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (MBO) count work
experience in the area they are specializing in.

Germany and Austria

Apprenticeships enhanced content within occupational training courses and considerable emphasis
has been placed on personal skills.

India
Work education has been included in the primary standards (grades 1–8) to make the students aware
of work. At the lower secondary level (grades 9–10) pre-vocational education has been included with
the aim to increase students’ familiarity with the world of work.

Republic of Korea
Around 40% of secondary students are currently enrolled in TVET education, in some schools,
academic and vocational students share almost 75% of the curriculum.

Russian Federation
A new approach to vocationalization of secondary schooling has been introduced within the
framework of general educational reform. This has been guided by the Ministry of Education's strategy
of modernization. Vocationalization in the Russian Federation refers to the introduction of profile
education at the upper-secondary level (the last two years of schooling, grades 10 and 11) and the
process of preparation for profile selection. Profile education provided students with the opportunity
to study a chosen area in depth, usually one that would be related to their further study (TVET or
academic). Schools could design their own profiles. In preparation for the upper-secondary
specialization, a ′pre-profiling′ programme in grade 9 has been introduced to help students make their
choices in grade 10.

United States of America USA

Tech-prep programmes in the United States of America are examples of how the ′blending′ approach
was used to help students make the connections between school and work. In year nine, programmes
in broad occupational fields such as the health professions, automotive technology, computer systems
networking are offered within general technology studies. The programmes continue for at least two
years after the end of secondary school, through a tertiary education or an apprenticeship
programme, with students achieving an associate degree or certificate by the end of the programme.

Iraq
It is a new experiment in Iraq about TVET, there are three ministries related to TVET in Iraq, Ministry of
higher Education and scientific research which represented by the technical universities, Ministry of

64
Education which represented by the vocational education foundation, and Ministry of Labor and Social
Guaranty which represented by vocational training centers. Theses associations are trained by
UNESCO for the last three years on the main topics and fields of TVET, so they now waiting the Iraqi
Perelman to put the suitable law for the TVET Council in Iraq to start it system and control these
associations with the required outputs of TVET.
Private sector
Private TVET providers include for-profit and non-profit institutions. Several factors triggered actions
to support the expansion of private TVET including the limited capacities of public TVET providers and
their low responsiveness to enterprises and trainees. Private TVET providers were expected to be
more responsive because they were subject to fewer bureaucratic restrictions than public institutions
(particularly in centralized systems). Their presence was expected to help raise quality system-wide, in
many developing countries, government budgets constituted a vulnerable and unreliable source of
financing for TVET, an important objective was to finance TVET systems by increasing the contribution
of beneficiaries, including employers and trainees.

Private TVET provision since 2005 has become a significant and growing part of TVET in sub-Saharan
Africa, the Middle East and North Africa. In some countries, e.g. Lebanon, enrolments in private TVET
institutions have exceeded enrolments in public institutions. In Jordan, private provision at the
community college level has been promoted by the government. However, not all experiences has
been positive with private proprietary institutions or NGOs, their courses have often been
concentrated in professional areas that typically do not require large capital investment, permitting
easy entry and exit by private providers from the sector. Quality issues have also emerged, where
market information about quality has been unavailable.

Technological advancement and its impact

TVET has an important role to play in technology diffusion through transfer of knowledge and skills.
Rapid technological progress has had and continues to have significant implications for TVET.
Understanding and anticipating changes has become crucial for designing responsive TVET systems
and, more broadly, effective skills policies. The flexibility to adapt the supply of skills to the rapidly, and
in some cases radically, changing needs in sectors such as information technology and the green
economy has become a central feature of TVET systems. Globally, the skills requirements and
qualifications demanded for job entry are rising. This reflects a need for not just a more
knowledgeable and skilled workforce, but one that can adapt quickly to new emerging technologies in
a cycle of continuous learning.

TVET courses have been created to respond to the diverse ICT needs of learners, whether these are
related to work, education or citizenship. New courses have been introduced to address occupational
changes in the ICT job market, while many TVET providers have shifted provision towards a blended
approach, with significantly more self-directed and/or distance learning. In developed countries, new
ICT approaches have been introduced to modernize TVET organizations and to manage administration
and finance, including learner records.

Education for All

Main article: Education For All
The Education for All (EFA) movement has had its own implications for TVET at both international and
national levels. The third EFA goal lacked precision and measurable targets for TVET, however it called

65
 for ensuring ′that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access
to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes′. This goal had a symbolic value, helping to raise the
visibility of TVET and skills development and create a more prominent place for them on the global
education policy agenda. The current bulge of young people requiring TVET learning opportunities is
partly fuelled by the success of the EFA movement in opening access to basic education, particularly at
the primary level. In 2009, 702 million children were enrolled worldwide in primary education,
compared with 646 million in 1999.

Continuing TVET
Continuing TVET involves ongoing training to upgrade existing skills and to develop new ones and has a
much higher profile in ageing societies and knowledge-based economies. Increased recognition of the
importance of human capital for economic growth and social development made it necessary to
increase learning opportunities for adults in workplaces within the wider context of policies and
strategies for lifelong learning.
In many countries policy-makers have considered ways to expand workplace learning opportunities for
workers and to assess and give credit for knowledge and skills acquired in workplaces. Efforts were
geared towards training for workers in companies, encouraged by legislation, financial incentives and
contractual agreements.

Challenges faced by TVET

1. Labor market demands and trends
Following the global financial crisis in 2008, labour markets across the world experienced structural
changes that influenced the demand for skills and TVET. Unemployment worsened and the quality of
jobs decreased, especially for youth. Gender differentials in labour force participation placed men
ahead of women, and skill mismatches deepened. The crisis impacted labour markets adversely and
led to deepening uncertainty, vulnerability of employment, and inequality. Furthermore, measures to
improve efficiency and profitability in the economic recovery have often led to jobless growth, as
happened in Algeria, India and post-apartheid South Africa.

In seeking to address the level of vulnerable employment, TVET systems have focused on increasing
the employability of graduates and enhancing their capacity to function effectively within existing
vulnerable labour markets and to adjust to other labour market constraints. `
2. Migration flows
Increasing migration are significant challenges to the national character of TVET systems and
qualifications. TVET qualifications are progressively expected not only to serve as proxies for an
individual's competencies but to also act as a form of a currency that signals national and international
value. TVET systems have been developing mechanisms to enable credible and fair cross-border
recognition of skills. In 2007, the ILO identified three types of recognition that TVET system may use:
unilateral (independent assessment by the receiving country), mutual (agreements between sending
and receiving countries), and multilateral (mostly between a regional grouping of countries). The most
prevalent of these is unilateral recognition, which is mostly under the control of national credential
evaluation agencies.
Providing broader competencies alongside specialist skills
Skills for economic development include a mix of technical and soft skills. Empirical evidence and TVET
policy reviews conducted by UNESCO suggest that TVET systems may not as yet sufficiently support

66
 the development of the so-called soft competencies. Many countries have, however, adopted
competency-based approaches as measures for reforming TVET curricula.

The HEART Trust National Training Agency of Jamaica adopted this approach, with a particular
emphasis on competency standards and balanced job-specific and generic skills. Competency
standards aimed to ensure that the training was linked to industry and was up to date, and that
competences were integrated into training programmes, along with the needed knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
3. Globalization
Globalization of the economy and the consequent reorganization of the workplace require a more
adaptable labour force, requiring countries to rethink the nature and role of TVET. Globalization
intensifies pressure on the TVET sector to supply the necessary skills to workers involved in globalized
activity and to adapt existing skills to rapidly changing needs. As a consequence, there is an increasing
requirement for more demand-driven TVET systems with a greater focus on modular and competency-
based programmes, as well as on cognitive and transferable skills, which are expected to help people
adapt to unpredictable conditions.
4. Promoting social equity and inclusive workplaces
Preparing marginalized groups of youths and adults in with the right skills and helping them make the
transition from school to work is part of the problem faced by TVET in promoting social equity.
Ensuring that the workplace is inclusive poses numerous policy challenges, depending on the
contextual dynamics of inclusion and exclusion, and the capabilities of individuals.

A review of employer surveys in Australia, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States
of America, reported that employers valued people with disabilities for their high levels of motivation
and their diverse perspectives, and found their attendance records to be the same or better than those
of other employees. Many employers mentioned that being seen as pro-inclusion was positive for the
company or organization's image, an advantage that goes well beyond providing employment
opportunities to disadvantaged groups. In many cases, however, social and cultural perceptions are an
obstacle to making workplaces more inclusive, and this will require sensitive and concerted attention.
Some low- and middle-income countries have sought to address this through legislation. In Tanzania
the Disabled Persons (Employment) Act of 1982 established a quota system that stipulates that 2 per
cent of the workforce in companies with over fifty employees must be persons with disabilities.

The 2012 Education for All Global Monitoring Report concluded that 'all countries, regardless of
income level, need to pay greater attention to the needs of young people who face disadvantage in
education and skills development by virtue of their poverty, gender or other characteristics'. The
report found that several barriers and constraints reduced the success of TVET in meeting social equity
demands. First, national TVET policies in most cases failed to address the skills needs of young people
living in urban poverty and in deprived rural areas. Second, additional funds were needed to support
TVET learning opportunities on a much larger scale. Third, the training needs of disadvantaged young
women were particularly neglected. The 2012 EFA Global Monitoring Report also noted that skills
training alone was not sufficient for the most disadvantaged of the rural and urban poor. Coherent
policies that link social protection, micro-finance and TVET are considered critical for ensuring better
outcomes for marginalized groups.

5. Gender disparities

67
Recent years have seen rising numbers of young women enrolling in TVET programmes, especially in
service sector subjects. At times the challenge is to bring more males into female-dominated streams.
However, beyond number games, the real gender parity test that TVET systems are yet to pass is
balancing the gender participation in programmes that lead to employability, as well as to decent and
high-paying jobs. Gender disparities in learning opportunities, and earnings, are a cause for concern.
The persistent gender-typing of TVET requires concerted attention if TVET is to really serve a key
facilitative role in shared growth, social equity and inclusive development.
Gender equality has received significant international attention in recent years, and this has been
reflected in a reduction in gender participation gaps in both primary and secondary schooling. Efforts
to analyze and address gender equality in TVET are relevant to other aspects of equity and dimensions
of inclusion/exclusion. In almost all parts of the world, the proportion of girls to total enrolment in
secondary education defined as TVET is less than for 'general' secondary education.

Bangladesh
Integrating women or men into areas of specialization in which they were previously under-
represented is important to diversifying opportunities for TVET. The National Strategy for Promotion of
Gender Equality in TVET in Bangladesh set clear priorities and targets for breaking gender stereotypes.
The Strategy developed by a Gender Working Group comprising fifteen representatives from
government ministries and departments, employers, workers and civil society organizations. It
provided an overview of the current status and nature of gender inequalities in TVET, highlighted the
priority areas for action, explored a number of steps to promote equal participation of women in TVET,
and outlined the way forward.

Cambodia
In Cambodia, TVET programmes set out to empower young women in traditional trades by upgrading
their skills and technology in silk weaving. This led to the revitalization and reappraisal of a traditional
craft by learners and society.

The Shanghai Consensus of the Third International Congress on TVET

The Shanghai Consensus of the Third International Congress on TVET made the following
recommendations on expanding access and improving quality and equity, including to:

"Improve gender equality by promoting equal access of females and males to TVET programmes,
particularly in fields where there is strong labour market demand, and by ensuring that TVET curricula
and materials avoid stereotyping by gender."

Conclusion
Reflecting from the global events and local, it is clear that TVET has gained momentum at the global
regional and national level. This therefore needs proper Reflecting from what has been happening
globally and locally, it is clear that TVET has gained momentum at the global, regional, and national
level. This therefore needs proper response from all stakeholders in order to reap the potentials of
TVET for contributing to socio, economic, and environmentally sustainable development.
In this 21st century, technology is changing very fast that affects the way society works and lives. TVET
must be able to anticipate and response accordingly by offering relevant programs, suitable
curriculum, and new ways of teaching-learning and assessing the students.

68
 Working and living in global community, TVET should not only prepare the graduates for the local and
national job market but also regional and global. This will also affect the way TVET is planned and run.
We cannot ignore the fact that humans have made significant progress in developments but at the
same time is also creating negative effect on its sustainability, especially in regards to environmental
sustainability. TVET as the major producer of skilled workforce must play significant roles in addressing
sustainable development. TVET players must play at different levels such as creating awareness, be the
agent that promotes SD, creating workforce that support green technology, and in developing and
implementing regulatory or monitoring tools to assess the sustainable practices.
Achieving sustainable development requires collective and serious efforts and strong commitments.
Human tend to be reactive and proactive. As members of TVET family, we believe that our role in ESD
is pivotal one. The shifting of TVET in the main stream means that there will be more students and
trainees in the systems who are coming from different levels of socio and economic backgrounds.
Realizing that skills workers are needed and are taking a big portion of whole workforce in a nation, it
is necessary for a country to think seriously about TVET and how this type of education can play major
roles in ESD.
Realizing the important roles of TVET in preparing for the future labor forces and in tackling various
economic, socio, and environmental issues, TVET has to play important role in SD. Otherwise it will be
too late to response to the adversities as the consequence of our irresponsible practices.

c. THE BASIC EDUCATION ACT

It is an act of parliament that seeks to;

 Promote and regulate free and compulsory basic education.

 Provide for accreditation, registration, governance and management of basic education institutions.
 Provide for the establishment of the National Education Board, Quality Assurance Commission and
County Education Board.

Basic Educati on Guiding Principles

The provision of basic education is guided by the following values and principles;
 The right of every child to free and compulsory basic education.
 Equitable access for the youth to basic education and equal access to education or institutions.
 Promotion of quality and relevance.
 Accountability and democratic decision making within the institutions of basic education.
 Protection of every child against discrimination within or by an education department or
education or institution on any ground whatsoever.
 Protection of the right of every child in a public school to equal standards of education including
the medium of instructions used in schools for all children of the same educational level.
 Advancement and protection of every child in pre-primary and lower primary level of education to
be instructed in the language of his or her choice where this is reasonably practicable.
 Encouraging independent and critical thinking and cultivating skills, disciplines and capacities for
reconstruction and development.
 Promotion of peace, integration, cohesion, tolerance, and inclusion as an objective in the
provision of basic education.
 Elimination of hate speech and tribalism through instructions that promote the proper
appreciation of ethnic diversity and culture in society.

69
  Imparting relevant knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to learners to foster the spirit and sense
of patriotism, nationhood, unity of purpose, togetherness, and respect.
 Promotion of good governance, participation and inclusiveness of parents, communities, private
sector and other stakeholders in the development and management of basic education.
 Transparency and cost effective use of educational resources and sustainable implementation of
educational services.
 Ensuring human dignity and integrity of persons engaged in the management of basic education.
 Promoting the respect for the right of the child’s opinion in matters that affect the child.
Elimination of gender discrimination, corporal punishment or any form of cruel and inhuman
treatment or torture.
 Promoting the protection of the right of the child to protection, participation, development and
survival.
 Promotion of innovativeness, inventiveness, creativity, technology transfer and an entrepreneurial
culture.
 Non-discrimination, encouragement and protection of the marginalized, persons with disabilities
and those with special needs.
 Enhancement of co-operation, consultation and collaboration among the Cabinet Secretary,
Teachers Service Commission, the National Education Board, the County Education Boards, the
education and training institutions and other related stakeholders on matters related to
education.
 Provision of appropriate human resource, funds, equipment, infrastructure and related resources
that meet the needs of every child in basic education.

Functi ons of the Nati onal Educati onal Board

Below are the functions of the National Educational board as outlined in the Act;

To advise the Cabinet Secretary and department of education on policy matters in respect to;

 Collaborating with quality assurance standards to promote standards in basic education and
training.
 Working with the relevant authorities to ensure barriers to the right quality education are removed
and that the government facilitates the realization of the right to education by all Kenyans.
 The initiation of guidelines of establishing basic education institutions subject to approval by the
cabinet secretary.
 Ensuring all children attend and remain in school till they complete basic education by putting
measures in place that will achieve this.
 Put measures in place that ensures that children transition to the next level of education more so
for the vulnerable and marginalized children.

Functi ons of the County Educati onal Board

Below are the functions of the county educational board as outlined in the act;

 Oversee the operation and management of youth polytechnics and pre-primary education including
early childhood care and programs in the county.
 Co-ordinate and monitor education and training in the county on behalf of the National Education
Board.

70
 Initiate proposals for policy reforms.
 Plan, promote, develop and co-ordinate education training and research in the county in
accordance with the basic education act.
 Collaborate with the school board, principal or the head teacher and other stakeholders in
management of basic education schools.
 Register and maintain a databank of education and training institutions in the county.
 Monitor the conduct of examinations and assessment at the basic education and training levels in
the county.
 Collaborate with TSC on teacher management within the county.
 Prepare and submit a comprehensive school termly annual report of its mandate not limited to
curriculum policy implementation and school based audit report within the county.
 Ensure all barriers to the right to quality education are removed within the county by co-
coordinating with the relevant agencies.
 Ensure all children and youth of school going age within the county attend and stay in school to
complete education.

Free and compulsory educati on

The basic education act tasks the Cabinet Secretary to implement the right of every child to free and
compulsory basic education.
He shall do this by;

 Providing for the establishments of education institutions within a reasonably accessible distance
within a county.
 Establish appropriate boarding schools in arid and semi –arid areas and where it is hard to reach
and vulnerable groups.
 Establish relevant education institutions to cater for gifted and talented learners.
 Establish special and integrated schools for learners with disability.

Free tuiti on
No public school shall charge or cause any parent or guardian to pay tuition fee on behalf of a pupil

Compulsory primary and secondary educati on

 Every parent whose child is a Kenyan or resides in Kenya shall ensure their child attends an
education institution regularly for purposes of physical, mental, intellectual and social development
of the child.
 Any person who contravenes the above section is committing an offense and can be prosecuted.

Duty of parents and guardian

 It shall be the responsibility of every parent or guardian to take his or her child to a basic education
institution failure to which he shall be deemed to have committed an offence.
 A parent or guardian shall have the right to participate in the character development of his or her
child.

No payment of fee for admission

No admission fee shall be collected by any public school.

71
Proof of age for admission

 The age of a child shall be determined on the basis of the birth certificate presented upon
admission or at the attainment of school going age of four years given by the proof of another
document.
 No child shall be denied admission for lack of proof of age.

No denial of admission

 No child shall be denied admission on grounds of ethnicity, sex, religion, race, color, disability, age,
language or culture.
 No public school shall administer a test related to admission of a child to a public school unless it is
for placing the child at an appropriate level of education.
 No child shall be denied admission to a public school.

Incenti ves and prohibiti on of holding back expulsion

 Pupils shall be given appropriate incentives to learn and complete basic education.
 No pupil shall be expelled from a school or held back in a class.
 In regards to expulsion, only the CS may make regulations to prescribe expulsions or the discipline
of a delinquent pupil for whom all other corrective measures have been exhausted and only after
such child parent or guardian has been afforded an opportunity to be heard.
 Prohibition against physical punishment and mental harassment to the child
 No pupil shall be subjected to the cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment in any
manner whether physical or psychological. A personal who contravenes this provision is committing
an offence.

Holiday tuiti on

 No pupil shall be subjected to holiday tuition.

 A person who contravenes this section commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a fine not
exceeding one hundred thousand shillings or to imprisonment for not exceeding one year or both.

Prohibiti on against employment of a child of compulsory school age

No person shall employ a child of compulsory school age in any labor or occupation that prevents such
child from attending school.

Responsibility of the government

 Provide free and compulsory basic education to every child.

 Ensure compulsory admission and attendance of children of compulsory school age at an institution
offering basic education.
 Ensure that children belonging to marginalized vulnerable or disadvantage groups are not
discriminated against and prevented from pursuing and completing basic education.
 Provide human resources including adequate teaching and non-teaching staff according to the
prescribed staffing norms.

72
 Provide infrastructure including schools, learning and teaching equipment and appropriate financial
resources.
 Ensure quality basic education conforming to the set standards and norm.
 Provide special education and training facilities for talented and gifted pupils and those living with
disabilities.
 Ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of basic education by every pupil.
 Monitor functioning of schools.
 Advise the national government on financing of infrastructure development for basic education.

Duty of a principal or head teacher

When a pupil fails to attend school the head teacher shall investigate the circumstances of the child
absence from school.

Structure of educati on

 The system shall be so structured as to enable learner’s access education and training at any level
in a sequence and at a pace that may be commensurate with the individual learner’s physical,
mental and intellectual abilities and the resources available.
 The CS in consultation with the National Educational Board and other relevant stakeholders shall
make regulations prescribing an appropriate structure for education and training.
 The CS shall advise the government on the financing of technical, vocational and talent education.
 The Cabinet Secretary shall advice the government on the promotion of environmental protection
education for sustainable development.

Special Educati on
The Cabinet Secretary shall establish and maintain public special schools.
He shall provide special needs education in special schools to pupils requiring special education. This
includes;

 Intellectually, mentally, physically, visually and emotionally challenged or hearing impaired

learners.
 Pupils with multiple disabilities.
 Specially gifted and talented learners.
He shall ensure that every special school or education institutions with learners with special needs is
provided with appropriate trained teachers, non-teaching staff, learning materials and equitable
suitable for such learners.

EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

A. EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA – USA
Goals and objectives
In 1989, an education summit was held and President George H. Bush and every state governor agreed
upon 6 national education goals for the United States to achieve by the year 2000.
In 1994, two more goals were added and congress passed legislation known as the national education
goals.
The goals created a framework for improving student achievement and refocusing the objectives of
education. The goals describe a general set of standards toward which all Americans should strive.

73
The National educational goals are as follows
1. All children in the USA will start school ready to learn.
2. The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%.
3. US students to leave grades 4,8 and 12having demonstrated competency in challenging subject
matters, including English, Mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government,
economics, arts, history and geography; every school to ensure that all students learn to use their
minds well, so they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning and productive
employment in the Nations modern economy.
4. The Nations teaching force will have access to programs for the continued improvement of their
professional skills and the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to instruct and
prepare all students for the next century.
5. US students to be first in the world in mathematics and science achievement.
6. Every adult American to be literate and to possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete
in a global economy and to exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
7. Every school in the USA to be free of alcohol and other drugs, violence and the unauthorized
presence of firearms and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.
8. Every school to promote partnership that will increase parental involvement and participation in
promoting the social, emotional and academic growth of children.
STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION
In the US, preschool education takes a year or two. The structure includes 12 years of regular
schooling followed by a 4 stage higher education degree 7system that is associate, bachelors, masters
and doctorate, plus various non-degree certificates and diplomas.
There are in addition, special education services, adult, basic and continuing education, leisure
learning programs and continuing professional education and training programs.
Completion of each level or stage is a prerequisite for access to the next, and a variety of assessment
and evaluation tools are used to determine learning needs, academic achievement standards and
eligibility to proceed to higher levels of education.
PROGRESSING THROUGH THE SYSTEM
Pre-school preparation
Pre-school program occurs a year or two. This is usually at around ages 3-5.
The first of the two is usually called pre-kindergarten or nursery school, the second year is called
kindergarten or preschool.
School entry
Children enter formal schooling at around age 6 (some enter at 5 and others at 7).
Duration of school
Formal school lasts 12 years, until around age 18, depending on the entry age.
Each of the school years is called a grade, so that 12th grade corresponds to the 12th year.
Stages or levels of school
Infant development, preschool, and frequently the first and second year of formal schooling are
collectively termed early childhood education and this age range is considered a professional and
research specialization for educators.
Formal primary education is called elementary education and ranges from the 1 st grade through grade
4, 5, or 6 depending on state and district regulations.
The upper level of primary education is often organized separately into a unit called middle school,
which begins at grade 4, 5 or 6 and ends at grade 6, 7 or 8.

74
Lower level of secondary education (year 7, 8 or 9) depending on state and district regulations) are
sometimes organized separately into junior high school.
Regular (including upper) secondary education is called high school beginning in grade 8, 9 or 10 and
ending at grade 12 depending on state and district regulations.
Compulsory schooling
It ends by law at the age 16 in 30 states at age 17 in 9 states and at age 18 in 11 states including the
district of Colombia.
Post-secondary enrolment
Graduating secondary students enroll in post-secondary education. Some enroll on a part time basis
and others in associate degree and short programs.
The educational structure
The United States public schools are divided into elementary and secondary education, with a number
of variations in how this division is configured. Below are the patterns that prevail in most
communities.
 Elementary school (K-5), middle school (6-8), high school (9-12);
 Elementary school (K-6) , junior high school (7-9), high school (9-12);
 Elementary school (K-8), high school (9-12),

There is considerable variability in the exact arrangement of grades, as the following table indicates.
Student age range
General level (or category) Level
(at the beginning of academic year)
Preschool Pre-kindergarten 3–5
Compulsory education
Kindergarten 5–6
1st grade 6–7
Elementary
2nd grade 7–8
school
3rd grade 8–9
4th grade 9–10
5th grade 10–11
6th grade 11–12
Middle
Junior high 7th grade 12–13
school
school 8th grade 13–14
Freshman/9th grade 14–15
High Sophomore/10th grade 15–16
Senior high
school Junior/11th grade 16–17
school
Senior/12th grade 17–18
Higher education
First year: "freshman year" 18–19
College Undergraduate Second year: "sophomore year" 19–20
(University) school Third year: "junior year" 20–21
Fourth year: "senior year" 21–22
Graduate school
Ages vary
(with various degrees and curricular partitions thereof)
Continuing education
75
 Vocational school
Ages vary
Adult education

Financing
Public schools in the United States of America provide basic education from kindergarten until the 12 th
grade. This is provided free of charge for the students, and it is mandated by the state.
Local property taxes provide most of the funding for public school and this varies in accordance to the
relative affluence of each neighborhood.
State and local role in education funding
According to the US department of Education, the federal government contributes about 8% to
funding US public schools.
To fund the remaining balance per student in the public education system, state and local
governments are mandated to allocate money towards education.
Funding of higher education in the USA
The federal government mainly provides financial assistance to individual students and specific
research projects, while state funds primarily pay for the general operations of public institutions.

ADMINISTRATION
Governance
The state and national government share power over public education, with the states exercising most
of the control. Except for Hawaii, states delegate power to county, city or township level school boards
that exercise control over a school district. Some school districts may further delegate significant
authority to principals, such as those who have adopted the portfolio strategy.
The U.S. federal government exercise its control through the US department of Education. Education is
not mentioned in the constitution of the United States, but the federal government uses the threat of
decreased funding to enforce laws pertaining to education. Under recent administrations initiatives
such as the ‘No child left behind act’ and ‘race to the top’ have attempted to assert more central
control in heavily decentralized system.
Nonprofit private schools are widespread, are largely independent of the government and include
secular as well as parochial schools. Educational accreditation decisions for private schools are made
by voluntary regional associations.

B. EDUCATION SYSTEM IN CANADA

Education in Canada is a very high priority of the government. The country boasts a state-run system
of public education, one that is provided, funded and administered by federal, provincial and local
governments. Jurisdiction of the public education system, as well its curriculum, is overseen by each
province. As a result, one can expect to see slight variations in the educational systems of each
province (the type of programs offered, minimum and maximum age requirements, etc.), but the
similarities in those systems far outweigh the differences.
Education across Canada is generally divided into four stages: pre-school or early childhood education;
primary or elementary education; secondary education and post-secondary or tertiary education,
which includes college and university programs and vocational/technical schooling.
Education is compulsory up to the age of 16 in every province in Canada, except for Ontario and New
Brunswick, where the compulsory age is 18. Canada generally has 190 total school days in the
academic year, typically starting in September (after Labor Day) and concluding near the end of June—

76
usually the last Friday of the month, except in some cases in the Province of Quebec, when the last day
of school occurs just before June 24, a holiday in the province.
In terms of educational attainment, about 90 percent of all Canadians possess at least a high school
diploma, and one in seven individuals hold a university degree of some type. The ratio of high school
graduates versus non-diploma holders is changing rapidly in the country, partly due to changes in the
labor market that require people to have a high school diploma and, in many cases, a university
degree.
Most Canadian education systems continue up to grade 12 (age seventeen to eighteen). In Quebec,
the typical high school term ends after Secondary V/Grade 11 (age sixteen to seventeen); following
this, students who wish to pursue university education must attend college.
For each type of publicly-funded school, the province is divided into school districts or divisions. For
each district or division, board members, known as “trustees,” are elected by voters within that
specific district only. Normally, all publicly-funded schools are under the authority of their local school
district board. In turn, the school boards typically follow a curriculum set up by the province in which
the school district is located. Only Alberta allows public charter schools—schools which are
independent of any district school board. Instead, these schools have their own board of trustees,
which reports directly to the province.
Structure of Education in Canada
As mentioned above, Canada’s system of education has four general levels:
 pre-elementary,
 elementary, secondary and
 Post-secondary education.
Pre-Elementary Education in Canada
Pre-elementary programs in Canada—educational programs offered to young children (4-5 years) prior
to that student beginning elementary school at age six—are offered by public, private, and federal
schools within the country, as well as schools for the visually and hearing impaired.
Most jurisdictions offer one year of public pre-elementary education (usually called kindergarten), with
Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta offering additional years of free preschool.
Parents living in jurisdictions that have offer but one free year of pre-primary education have the
option of enrolling their children in a private program until those children reach the eligible age.
In most jurisdictions, kindergarten (the pre-elementary program in the year before Grade One) is
offered to children who turn 5 years of age by a certain date in the school year, as specified by
jurisdictional or provincial legislation. Attendance in these programs is optional in most jurisdictions,
although it is mandatory in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The intensity of these programs varies;
some jurisdictions offer full-day programs, some have half-day programs, and some offer both.
In the province of Quebec, one additional year of publicly-funded pre-elementary schooling is available
to some 4-year old children who have disabilities or who are from low-income families. In Ontario, the
provision of an additional year of pre-elementary for 4-year-olds is dependent on the choice of the
local school board, and funding is provided by the Ministry of Education. In Ontario, all school boards
offer this program for their students. In Manitoba, one additional year of pre-elementary
programming is offered at the discretion of each school division, and two school divisions currently
provide this program, which is not funded by the Department of Education. In Saskatchewan, two
additional years of pre-elementary programming are funded in schools in communities where a
significant portion of pre-school children are not ready to participate fully in the learning opportunities
offered to kindergarten and Grade 1 students. These programs are not mandatory and are not

77
universal. Alberta also offers two additional fully funded years of pre-elementary programming,
targeted to students with disabilities or to those who are considered talented or gifted.
The curriculum offered in kindergarten and other pre-elementary programs is far from rigid. Students
are introduced to the alphabet, pre-reading and mathematics skills, music, art, and play. All
kindergarten and early child hood education programs in the country are designed to prepare students
for success at the next level of education (primary school) by teaching them how to participate and act
appropriately within the group setting and cooperate with both the instructor and the other children
in the class.
Primary (Elementary) Education in Canada
Primary education in Canada is compulsory for all children, usually beginning at age 6 or 7 with Grade
One. Students receive six years of primary education—Grade 1 through Grade 6—typically broken
down in the following manner:
Grade 1 (ages 6–7)
Grade 2 (ages 7–8)
Grade 3 (ages 8–9)
Grade 4 (ages 9–10)
Grade 5 (ages 10–11)
Grade 6 (ages 11–12)
Students in the primary grades of education typically study under only one instructor for the entire
school year and receive that instruction in a single classroom. Special education programs may also
have one to four instructional aides present, depending on the type and severity of the students’
disabilities, to assist the teacher throughout the day.
The curriculum at the primary stage of education encompasses a number of subject areas, including
mathematics, reading, language arts (usually English language, but French in Quebec), social studies,
history, geography, science, music, art and physical education. Naturally, the difficulty of said
curriculum increases somewhat with every passing grade, as students learn to master new skills.
Secondary Education in Canada
Oldest know school on Prince Edward Island, Source Secondary education in Canada consists of two
distinct levels: intermediate or junior high school; and high school.
Intermediate education
Once students have successfully completed the final year of elementary or primary education, or
Grade 6, they are promoted to intermediate or junior high school. Intermediate school is a two-year
educational stage, broken down into the following two grades:
Grade 7 (ages 12–13)
Grade 8 (ages 13–14)
In Grade 7, at the age of 12 or 13, students are introduced to the process of attending different
classrooms throughout the day and having different teachers for every class. These teachers are
considered experts in the subject they teach and must obtain a single-subject teaching certificate
indicating that expertise.
The basic goal of intermediate education is to prepare students to enter the next phase of secondary
education, or high school. They are taught many of the same subjects in which they received
instruction in primary school, although the difficulty increases substantially. Other subjects are also
added to the curriculum in intermediate school, most notably foreign language instruction—French,
Spanish, English (for Quebec students), etc.

High School Education

78
Once students successfully complete the 8 Grade, they are promoted once again, this time to high
school—a four year program that breaks down in the following way:
Grade 9 (ages 14–15)
Grade 10 (ages 15–16)
Grade 11 (ages 16–17)
Grade 12 (ages 17–18)
In the Province of Ontario only, students can take advantage of a fifth year of high school, usually
referred to as Grade 12+. By law, students must remain in high school until at least the age of 16,
regardless of their grade. This rule applies to every province except for Ontario and New Brunswick, in
which students must remain in school until age 18 or until they successfully complete high school and
are awarded a diploma. Approximately 90 percent of students in Canada successfully complete high
school and are awarded a diploma for their efforts.
Secondary education in Quebec continues to Grade 11 (Secondary V), and is typically followed by
college, a two year pre-university (university for Quebecers is three years, except Engineering), or
three year vocational program taken after high school.
The curriculum in all of Canada’s high schools is designed to prepare students for a college or
university education and/or provide them with the skills to succeed vocationally once they graduate.
Depending on the jurisdiction, a variety of programs —vocational (job-training) as well as academic—is
offered at the high school level. Some jurisdictions even offer dual credit courses that simultaneously
give students both high school and postsecondary credits.
Post-Secondary Education in Canada
College and University
Once students successfully graduate from high school (Secondary V in Quebec) they are free to apply
to the college or university of their choice. In Canada, the term college usually refers to a community
college or a technical, applied arts, or applied science school. These schools are post-secondary
institutions that grant vocational certificates, diplomas, and associate degrees. Many students use
college as a way to prepare further for a university education, gaining transferrable credits that can be
applied once they transfer. Other students use college to prepare for a trade or vocation, earning a
diploma or certificate that would allow them to immediately pursue employment opportunities
following the completion of the program.

A university in Canada is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic
degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is a corporation that provides both undergraduate
education and postgraduate education. The degree structure at Canadian universities is very similar to
that of the United States:

Bachelor’s Degree. A Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate degree that typically
takes three, four or five years to complete (depending on the province and class availability) for full-
time students.
Master’s Degree. A Master of Arts or Master of Science is known as a graduate degree, one that
typically takes two years to complete.
PhD. The Doctorate or PhD degree is a specialized post-graduate degree that can take anywhere from
3-6 years to complete.
 University students can also pursue any number of advanced specialized degrees in fields such as
Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine, and the Law.

79
  All college and university education in Canada is the responsibility of the individual provinces and
territories. Provincial governments provide the majority of funding to their public post-secondary
institutions, with the remainder of funding coming from tuition fees, the federal government, and
research grants. Nearly all post-secondary institutions in Canada have the authority to grant
academic credentials (i.e., diplomas or degrees).
 Generally speaking, universities grant degrees (e.g., bachelor's, master's or doctorate degrees)
while colleges, which typically offer vocationally-oriented programs, grant diplomas and
certificates. However, some colleges offer applied arts degrees that lead to or are equivalent to
degrees from a university.
 Although the college and university system of Canada is very similar to that of the United States,
unlike the U.S., Canada has no accreditation body that oversees its universities. Institutions of
higher learning in Canada have degree-granting authority via an Act of Ministerial Consent from
the Ministry of Education of the individual province.
 In Quebec, post-secondary education begins with college, right after graduation from Grade 11 (or
Secondary V). Students complete a two or three-year general program leading to university
admission, or admittance into a vocational professional program that leads directly into the labor
force. In the majority of cases, bachelor's degree programs in Quebec span three years instead of
the usual four; however, in many cases, students attending a university in Quebec that did not
graduate from college must complete an additional year of coursework.
 Only one federally-funded university in Canada possesses degree-granting power: The Royal
Military College of Canada (RMC). The RMC is the military academy of the Canadian Armed
Forces.
Vocational Schools and Apprenticeships
In addition to community colleges, which offer some vocational training, students can also learn a
vocation or trade at one of the many private vocational and technical schools scattered throughout the
country, or via an apprenticeship program.

C. AUSTRALIA
The education system in Australia is three-tiered with primary, secondary and tertiary levels of
education. The highest level of education in Australia is the university level.
Education in Australia encompasses the sectors of early childhood education and primary education
followed by secondary education then tertiary education.
Structure of the education system in Australia
The education system in Australia is broadly structured as follows.
1. Primary school; Seven or eight years, starting at foundation (also called kindergarten
/preparatory /pre-school to year 6 or 7
2. Secondary school; four years from years 7 or 8 to 10
3. Senior secondary school; two years from 11 to 12
4. Tertiary education; includes higher education and vocational education and training (VET)
The biggest structural problem in Australian education is that a broken school choice model is driving
an ever-growing segregation of students between schools.

D. PHILIPPINES EDUCATION SYSTEM

 The education system of the Philippines has been highly influenced by the country’s colonial
history. The United States left a lasting impression on the Philippine school system.

80
 Several colleges and universities were founded with the goal of educating the nation’s teachers. In
1908, the University of the Philippines was chartered, representing the first comprehensive public
university in the nation’s history.
 Like the United States, the Philippine nation has an extensive and highly inclusive system of
education, including higher education. In the present day, the United States continues to influence
the Philippines education system, as many of the country’s teachers and professors have earned
advanced degrees from United States universities.
 The education system of the Philippines includes a description of both the primary and secondary
education levels in the country, as well as the systems currently in place for vocational and
university education.
 Structure Education in the Philippines is offered through formal and non-formal systems.
 Formal education typically spans 14 years and is structured in a 6+4+4 system: 6 years of primary
school education, 4 years of secondary school education, and 4 years of higher education, leading
to a bachelor’s degree.
 This is one of the shortest terms of formal education in the world.
 In the Philippines, the academic school year begins in June and concludes in March, a period that
covers a total of 40 weeks.
 All higher education institutions C1 - Public operate on a semester system.
 Schooling is compulsory for 6 years, beginning at age 7 and its peak at age 12
 Although English was the sole language of instruction in the Philippines from 1935 to 1987, the
new constitution prescribed that both Pilipino (Tagalog) and English are the official language of
instruction and communication.
 After primary school, however, the language of instruction is almost always English, especially in
the country’s urban areas and at most of the nation’s universities.
 The education system is administered and overseen by the Department of Education, a federal
department with offices in each of the country’s 13 regions.
Primary school education
 This spans 6 years in duration and is compulsory for all students. This level of education is divided
into a four-year primary cycle and a two-year intermediate cycle.
 In the country’s public schools, Filipino children generally begin school at age 6 or 7; however,
private schools typically start a year earlier and operate a seven-year curriculum rather than a six
year curriculum.
 At the conclusion of each school year, students are promoted from one grade level to the next,
assuming they meet the achievement standards set for that grade. Students are rated in every
subject four times during the school year.
 A cumulative points system is typically used as the basis for promotion. To pass a grade, students
must earn at least 75 points out of 100, or seventy-five percent.
 During grades one and two in the Philippines, the language of instruction is generally the local
dialect, of which there are over 170 nationally, of the region in which the children reside. English
and Pilipino are taught as second languages.
 From third grade through sixth grade or the remainder of primary C1 - Public education, subjects
such as mathematics and science are taught in English, with the social sciences and humanities
courses taught in Pilipino.
 Once a student successfully completes each of the six grades of primary school, he or she is
awarded a certificate of graduation from the school they attended.

81
 There is no leaving examination or entrance examination required for admission into the nation’s
public secondary schools.
 There are a number of core subjects that are taught, with varying degrees of difficulty, in all six
grades of primary school. These are: • Language Arts (Pilipino, English and Local Dialect) •
Mathematics • Health • Science. In addition to the core subjects above, students in Grades 1-3
also study civics and culture.
 In grades 4-6 students study music and art; physical education; home economics and livelihood;
and social studies. Values education and “good manners and right conduct” are integrated in all
learning areas.
 All students in primary school are also introduced to Makabayan. According to the Department of
Education, Makabayan is a learning area that serves as a practice environment for holistic
learning; an area in which students develop a healthy personal and national self-identity.
Education in the Philippines:
Secondary Education
 Although secondary education is not compulsory in the Philippines, it is widely attended,
particularly in the more urban areas of the country. At this level, C1 - Public private schools enroll
a much higher percentage of students than at the elementary level
 At the secondary school level there are two main types of schools: the general secondary schools,
which enroll approximately 90 percent of all high school students, and the vocational secondary
school.
 Additionally, there are also several schools that are deemed “Science Secondary Schools”—which
enroll students who have demonstrated a particular gift in math, science, or technology at the
primary school level.
 Vocational high schools in the Philippines differ from their General Secondary School counterparts
in that they place more focus on vocationally oriented training, the trades and practical arts.
 Just as they are in primary school, secondary school students are rated four times throughout the
year. Students who fail to earn a rating of 75 percent in any given subject must repeat that
subject, although in most cases they are permitted to enter the next grade.
 Once a student has completed all four years of his/her secondary education, earning a 75 percent
or better in all subjects, they are presented a secondary school graduation certificate.
 Admission to public schools is typically automatic for those students who have successfully
completed six years of primary education. However, many of the private secondary schools in the
country have competitive entrance requirements, usually based on an entrance examination
score. Entrance to the Science High Schools is also the result of competitive examinations.
Schooling at the secondary level spans four years in duration, grades 7-10, beginning at age 12 or
13 and ending at age 16 or 17.
 The curriculum that students are exposed to depends on the type of school they attend. C1 –
Public Education in the Philippines: Higher Education
 The public institutions of higher learning include some 112 charted state universities and colleges,
with a total of 271 satellite campuses.
 There are also 50 local universities, as well as a handful of government schools whose focus is on
technical, vocational and teacher training.
 Five special institutions also provide training and education in the areas of military science and
national defense. Before 1994, the overseer of all higher education institutions was the Bureau of
Higher Education, a division of the former Department of Education, Culture and Sports.

82
 Today, however, with the passage of the Higher Education Act of 1994, an independent
government agency known as the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) now provides the
general supervision and control over all colleges and universities in the country, both public and
private.
 Higher education institutions can apply for volunteer accreditation through CHED—a system
modeled after the regional accreditation system used in the United States. There are four levels of
accreditation: • Level I. Gives applicant status to schools that have undergone a preliminary survey
and can acquire accredited status within two years. • Level II. Gives full administrative
deregulation and partial curricular autonomy, including priority in funding assistance and subsidies
for faculty development. • Level III. Schools are granted full curricular deregulation, including the
privilege to offer distance education programs. • Level IV. Universities are eligible for grants and
subsidies from the Higher Education Development Fund and are granted full autonomy from
government supervision and control.
C1 - Public University Education
 The credit and degree structure of university education in the Philippines bears a striking
resemblance to that of the United States.
 Entrance into Philippine universities and other institutions of higher education is dependent on
the possession of a high school Certificate of Graduation and in some cases on the results of the
National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT), or in many colleges and universities the results of
their own entrance examinations.
 There are essentially three-degree stages of higher education in the Philippines: Bachelor
(Batsilyer), Master (Masterado) and PhD ((Doktor sa Pilospiya).
 Bachelor’s degrees Bachelor’s degree programs in the Philippines span a minimum of four years in
duration.
 The first two years are typically dedicated to the study of general education courses (63 credits),
with all classes counting towards the major the student will undertake in the final two years.
Certain bachelor’s degree programs take five years rather than four years to complete, including
programs in agriculture, pharmacy and engineering.
 Master’s degrees Master’s degrees in the Philippines typically span two years for full-time
students, culminating with a minor thesis or comprehensive examination.
 To qualify for a master’s degree, students must possess a bachelor’s degree in a related field, with
an average grade equal to or better than 2.00, 85 percent or B average.
 Certain professional degrees, such as law and medicine are begun following a first bachelor’s
degree. These programs, however, span far beyond the normal two years of study.
 C1 - Public PhD Degrees PhD degrees in the Philippines, also known as a Doctor of Philosophy,
involve a great deal of coursework, as well as a dissertation that may comprise from one-fifth to
one-third of the final grade.
 Admission into one of the country’s PhD programs is very selective, requiring, at minimum, a
master’s degree with a B average or better.
 Most PhD programs span two to four years beyond the master’s degree, not counting the time it
takes to complete the dissertation. Topics for dissertations must be approved by the faculty at the
university at which the student is studying.
 Non-University Higher Education (Vocational and Technical) Technical and vocational schools and
institutes offer programs in a wide range of disciplines, including agriculture, fisheries, technical
trades, technical education, hotel and restaurant management, crafts, business studies, secretarial
studies, and interior and fashion design. Interested candidates who wish to pursue their education

83
 at one of the country’s post-secondary vocational schools must have at least a high school
diploma and a Certificate of Graduation to qualify.
 Vocational and technical programs lead to either a certificate (often entitled a Certificate of
Proficiency) or a diploma. Positive side of education in Philippines
 The education system in the Philippines is still seen as one of the most developed in Asia: rates of
basic education completion, higher education participation and adult literacy are comparable to
far more developed economies in Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea.
C1 - Public Deficits of Philippines education system.
 The Philippines education system is not so unified. It fully complies with the rules of an extremely
classified society. Where there is an organized system, education is not at all resources poor.
 The education system focuses on locking minds passing the “obey to the authority mentality” than
to create free minds. The closest approach is that their education is rather training than
education. If you read schoolbooks, you will easily notice the surface level of knowledge they
offer.
 They spend much time at school, but this time is not productive. 4. In the most remote areas
where education remains as a value, you will see children who face exceptional difficulties, more
cultivated than in large cities.
Conclusion
 The education system in the Philippines is different as it adopted a combination of influences from
its colonial history.
 Philippine’s education system has been greatly influenced by the colonization of Malaysia, China,
Spain, and America.
 Its education was one of the shortest in the world back then, formal education was only required
for 10 years (6 years of primary school and 4 years of high school) and they later changed it. In
2012, the government introduced new legislation requiring students to attend school from
kindergarten (around age 5) to grade 12 (around age 18).
 This meant that the new legislation added 2 years to the curriculum before students could finish
high school.
 Since then, the education system in the Philippines became more like American K-12 schooling.
 Much of the country’s current schooling system follows American educational practices.

E. EDUCATION SYSTEM IN JAPAN

AIMS OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN
Major aims of education in japan were;
 Enhance student individual activities.
 Develop a basis for social independence and basic abilities as citizens of the nation.
 Impact knowledge to students.
 Foster creativity and social expression.
 Emphasize reasoning and independent thinking rather than memorization.
Structure of the Education System
First we have three years of optional kindergarten
Japans education system is 6:3:3:4
Meaning;
 6 – six years of primary education
 3 – three years of junior secondary
 3 – three years of upper secondary.

84
 4 – four years in university.
 Since Japan is a technological country, the teaching methodology is a techno – nihilist form of
education.
 The curriculum is made in such a way that children develop motor skills earlier on.
 School is mandatory until the child reaches secondary level.
 There are multiple systems with local variations that promote higher education.
 Vocational education is systematically planned to keep the students at par with the global
standards.
The structure includes;
 Pre – school
 Primary
 Lower secondary
 Higher secondary
 College/university.
 Admission to any level requires passing of entrance exams and this is done in both public and
private institutions.
 Tests are done in the main fields i.e. - Japanese, English, Mathematics, Science and social studies.
 Pre-primary education is provided by either Kindergarten/playschool or daycare Centre where the
child develops cognitive skills from age 1 to 5. This is where the child is prepared for 6 years
compulsory Elementary education that caters for students of age 6 to 12 in grade 1 to 6.
 Lower secondary covers grade7, 8 and 9 and it is compulsory.
 Upper secondary is not compulsory but almost 96% attend upper/senior high
 More than 50% of schools providing senior/high level of education are privately funded.
 In later years of high school education vocational and technical education like fish farming,
information processing, accounting and computers are popular.
 University/higher level of education is provided by over 700 universities all over Japan and
students graduate within 3 – 4 years while others take 5 – 6 years.
CURRICULUM OF JAPAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
 School year begin in April 1 and end on March 31st of the following year.
 School is attended 5 full weekdays and half day Saturdays.
 The nationally designed curricular exposes students to balanced basic education and
compulsory schooling provides equal education treatment to all students in distributing
resources.
The curriculum is divided into three main categories;
 Compulsory subjects: - Japanese language, Japanese literature, Arithmetic, Social Studies, Science,
Music, Arts and Crafts, Programming and P.E.
 Moral Education. E.g. living together, empathy, feeling, judgment, relationships
 Special Activities. E.g. clubs and extracurricular activities.
 All textbooks have to be evaluated and approved by the ministry of education, culture, sports,
science and technology for the purpose of standardization.
 Since 2011 English language has been compulsory in primary schools with emphasis in speaking.
EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION IN JAPAN

85
 Education in Japan is administered by the Central government/national government through the
ministry of education and it is headed by the Education minister who is appointed by the prime
minister and municipal by the municipal board.

Functions of the ministry of education of japan

 Plans and coordinates educational projects at all levels.
 Provides advice upon request.
 Gives financial assistance to enhance education.
 Operates educational institutions.
 Gives financial approvals.
 Promotes lifelong learning.
 Oversees the curricula.
 Establishes standards.
FINANCING EDUCATION IN JAPAN
Financial responsibility is shared by three main entities;
 National government.
 Prefectural ( administrative district)
 Municipal governments.
Students’ aid programs are also available through many private and public organizations e.g. Japan
scholarship foundation.
PROBLEMS FACING EDUCATION IN JAPAN

 Lack of competition among educational suppliers.

 Japanese education rejects individual differences.
 The risk of nationally unified education.
 Contradiction that any educational efforts not approved by the ministry of education are
essentially useless.
 Free time lost by examination wars.
 The system doesn’t encourage creativity among students because of regulation of entrance
examination criteria where students are not promoted to another level through performance but
through results of entrance exams.
 Students don’t have much freedom because of the large class sizes, no weekend offs and most
holidays are spent doing holiday assignments.
 Incidents of bullying in tertiary and high schools.
 Strong academic pressure for students from parents, teachers, peers and society leading to school
violence, cheating and suicide.
 Failure to foster independent thinkers with cultural and artistic sensibility.
 Lack of international viewpoint makes it difficult for Japanese students to adopt and compete
overseas.
WHAT KENYA CAN BORROW FROM JAPANESE EDUCATION SYSTEM

86
 Good road network and availing schools close to residential homes through the Government
urban planning.
 No boarding schools at any stage of schooling.
 Making high school and university exams be entry examinations only.
 Uniforms are not necessary in elementary but start from junior high and they are all the same
throughout the country.
 No cleaners thus responsibility is taught from early stages of life in school.

F. NIGERIA EDUCATION SYSTEM

• Nigeria is called the Federal Republic of Nigeria
• It is composed of 36 states, Abuja is the capital city located within the Federal Capital Territory
(FCT).
• It is the most populous (200.96M) country in Africa and it was for a long time i.e. 1966-1999 ruled
by military dictators but regained democracy in1999 when President Olesegun Obasanjo was
elected as a civilian president.
• Currently Muhammadu Buhari is the president.
• It gained independence from Britain in October, 1960.
• Just like Kenya, Nigeria was colonised by Britain and both countries are believed to be struggling
out of similar educational problems.
• Their post-colonial education period was almost the same with many education commissions
being set up to try and harmonize their education system.
GOALS OF EDUCATION
• A free and democratic society
i.e. Where there are no restraints and undue interference; where there is liberty to achieve what
you want.
• A just and egalitarian society
i.e. All are of equal importance; there should be justice, fairness and equity: need to recognize
individual differences and need and be fair.
• A great and dynamic economy.
i.e. Enhance equity income distribution by raising literacy levels, eliminating poverty and
equipping people with skills for economic growth.
• A united, strong and self-reliant nation.
i.e. ability to contribute to development, be your brothers’ keeper and be ready to defend the
territory.
• A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens.
• i.e. Equal access to resources, education e.t.c......
Based on these goals, the following values have to be inculcated through Education, these are
called the
NATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION
• Respect for the worth and dignity of the individuals.
• Faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions.
• Moral and spiritual values in inter-personal and human relations.
• Shared responsibility for the dignity of labour and promotion of emotional, physical and
psychological health of all children.
STRUCTURE, CURRICULUM AND EVALUATION

87
• The structure inherited from Britain was 6-5-2-3 which they changed to 6-3-3-4. Why?
• To achieve increased diversification of the curriculum to allow for Technical and vocational
content to assist in self-reliance./stop white collar-job mentality of 8-4-4 mobility between levels
and institutions i.e. One can transfer to an institution for advanced skills e.g. certificate to
diploma.
• Make education terminal i.e. Provide practical skills for those students who have judged to lack
the ability to continue with academic career in higher education institution.
PRE-PRIMARY (age 3-5 years)
• Mainly provided by privately owned institutions.
• Day care centres also exist for children below the age of two.
• Pre-primary schools are mainly concentrated in urban and semi-urban areas. Cf Kenya-they are
largely outside the established educational system.
PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY (takes 6 years) (ages 6-12) (Grades 1-6)
• Run by National Primary Education Commission
• Starts at the age of 6 years
• Early stages-mother-tongue is used as the medium of instruction.
• Universal Basic Education was made vocational as well as free and compulsory in 1999.
Problems
• Over-enrolment.
• Over-stretching facilities.
• Shortage of teachers.
• Decline in teachers’ morale due to increased loads and crowded classrooms.
• Decline in quality.
Curriculum
• Integrated science,
• Maths,
• English,
• Islamic or Bible knowledge, Science
• One main Nigerian language (Hausa,Yoruba,Ibo)
• History
• Nature study
• Hygiene, health
• Drawing
• Needle work
• Hand crafter
• Handwriting
• Agriculture
• Home Economics
• New course; Environmental and population studies
Private schools usually add;
• Computer
• French and
• Art
• They take a Common Entrance Examination to qualify for admission into Federal and State
government schools.
SECONDARY SCHOOL (takes 6 years)

88
 The broad aim of secondary education is to:-
• Prepare students for useful living within the society i.e. Prepare them to exit school with the
necessary skills to find employment.
• Prepare students for higher education and academic careers.
Specifically, it aims at developing the following abilities in the Nigerian youth:-
• Think effectively.
• Communicate clearly.
• Make relevant judgement.
• Understand basic facts about health and sanitation.
• Understand and appreciate his role as a citizen of a sovereign country.
• Develop economic efficiency both as a consumer and as a producer.
• Recognise the dignity of labour.
• Acquire some vocational skills.
• Appreciate value of leisure time.
• Develop scientific attitude.
• Live and act as an integrated individual.
Secondary school is divided into two stages:-
i. JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL (JSS) takes 3 years. (ages 12-15), (Grades 7-9) (administered by
West African Examination Council).
• Not free, to provide and exit point.
• One then sits for Junior Secondary School Examination to qualify for Senior Secondary.
• On passing the exam, one can continue in the same institution or transfer to another school.
• Other can join specialized secondary schools that offer technical and vocational training, or
• Become apprentices.
• They can join technical or vocational college and colleges of education (i.e. T.T.C)
Curriculum
• 9-12 subjects are offered
Core subjects:
• Maths
• English
• One Nigerian language
• Social studies
• Creative arts
• Integrated Science
• Practical Agriculture
• Religious Studies(Islam or Bible)
• Physical Education
Electives; depending on the school,
Students may select electives from courses such as;
• Introduction to Technology,
• Home Economics,
• Business Studies,
• Local Crafts,
• Foreign Languages(often Arabic or French),
• New course: Environmental and population studies,
Evaluation is based on both CATS and final exams.

89
ii. SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL (SSS) (takes 3 years) (Ages15-18) Grades(10-12).
• After the JSSE, students are streamed through testing and counselling into one of the three areas
of concentration namely:-
• Academic (Science or humanities)
• Technical and Commercial.
• Teacher Education/Colleges of education.
Curriculum
• Many of the subjects taken at junior secondary level are offered at this level only in more details.
• Minimum 7 max, 9 subjects, 6 cores and 2 electives.
Core subjects:-
• Maths,
• English,
• A Nigerian Language,
• Science(Physics, Chemistry, Biology),
• Humanities(Literature, History, Geography),
• Either Agriculture or A vocational subject
Electives:-
• Must take 3 electives, one of which may be dropped in the 3rd year.
• Can select three or more subjects from a wide range of electives depending on each school’s
resources. These are:-
• Christian or Islamic studies
• Business subjects (Economics, Commerce, Accounting)
• Foreign languages
• Computer Science
• Fine Arts
• Physical Education
• Auto-Mechanics
• Woodwork
• Food and Nutrition
• Home Management
• Clothing and Textile
• Applied Electricity
• Technical Drawing
• Metal Work
Evaluation
• They register for a minimum of 7 subjects and a maximum of 9 at the end of the 3 years and sit for
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. (SSCE). English and Maths are mandatory.
• Most commonly 6 core and 2 electives.
• The examining bodies are the West African Examination Council (W.A.E.C) and the National
Examination Council of Nigeria (N.E.C.O)
• To receive the Secondary School Certificate or West African Senior Secondary School Certificate,
students are graded by a formula that combines C.A.Ts (30%) and Exams(70%).
• Advantages/Disadvantages.
• Those who want to apply for higher education but who do not score high enough on S.S.S.C may
take the General Certificate Examination (G.CE.) the following year to attempt to qualify for
openings.

90
 • S.S.C.E. is done in May/June.
• G.C.E is done in November/December to give students a second chance.
Grading:-
• Distinctions, Credits, Pass, Fail.
• Credit grades and above are considered academically adequate for entry into the university.
• However, some study programmes may require higher grades.
TYPES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS
i. Federal Government Secondary Schools
• These are supposed to be model schools.
• Admission is based on merit determined by the National Common Entrance Exam taken by all final
year primary school pupils.
• Tuition and fees are very low c.a.$100 because the funding comes from the Federal government.
• B.Ed holders teach in these schools.
• There are two in every state, are called unity schools.
ii. Unity Secondary Schools
• In an effort to promote Nigerian patriotism and discourage ethnic rivalry, the Federal government
established 63 unity secondary schools around the country.
• They use a quota;
• Guided by academic merit.
• Residential zones and,
• Discretion systems to admit students from all the states in the nation c.f. National Schools
in Kenya.
iii. State owned Secondary Schools
• Are funded by each state government and are not comparable with the federal ones.
• Although education is supposed to be free in majority of these state owned institutions, students
are required to buy books and uniforms.
• Teachers can have National Certificate of Education or B.A. These schools face the following
problems:-
• Understaffed due to low state budgets,
• Lack of incentives and irregularities in payment of staff salaries.
• Indiscipline.
iv. Private Secondary Schools
• These are quite expensive ($1000-2000).
• They have smaller classes, modern equipment and better learning environment.
• The teachers have at least a Bachelors degree in a specific area and are sent for refresher courses
regularly.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION
• Although technical and vocational education is offered at several kinds of institutions, including
some academic secondary schools., most technical and vocational students attend specialized
secondary schools or colleges.
• Some technical schools offer the entire 6 years secondary education and prepare students to take
Senior Secondary School Examination.
• However, majority take national exams in their specialties e.g.
• Federal Craft Certificate Exam (FCCE)

91
• National Business and Technical Board Exam (NABTEB)
• Old Technical Secondary Schools in Kenya like Kabete, Thika.
• Another group who finish primary school go to Teacher Training Colleges that cover the entire six
years of secondary school.
• Successful ones receive NIGERIAN CERTIFICATE IN EDUCATION (NCE) qualifying them to teach
grades 1-9 and in technical colleges.
HIGHER EDUCATION
• Provided by Polytechnics, institutes of technology, colleges of education and universities.
• Includes;
• 13 Federal and 14 State owned polytechnic colleges to train technical level manpower.
• Some are beginning to award degrees.
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
There are;
• 25 Federal Universities
• 15 State Universities
• 8 Private Universities
• 5 University centres i.e. Degree awarding centres.
• Students could also gain direct entry to a degree programme with a minimum merit pass in
National Certificate of Education, National Diploma, ‘O’+’A’ levels.
• The entry requirements are;
• Minimum SSSE or GCE at maximum of two sittings.
• Gain at least a pass in English and four other courses relevant to the department to which you are
seeking admission.
• Minimum cut-off marks in Joint Admission Matriculation Board Entrance (JAMB) which conducts
University Matriculation Exam (UME) of 200 and above out of a maximum of 400 marks required.
• For UME you register English and any 3 subjects based on your desired major.
• 50% is considered a pass through different universities hence differing minimums.
• Candidates with minimum of merit pass in National Certificate of Education, National Diploma and
other Advanced level certificates with a minimum of 5 ’O’ level credits or ‘A’ levels are given direct
entry admission into appropriate undergraduate degree programmes.
TEACHER EDUCATION
• Primary teachers are trained in Primary Teaching Colleges to follow a 4 year course leading to
grade 2 teachers certificate.
• Secondary School Teachers are trained either at an advanced Teachers’ College or University.
• Study for 3 years after attaining Nigerian Certificate of Education
• House with Nigerian Certificate Education teach in Junior Secondary Schools and Technical.
• To teach in Senior Secondary, one needs B.Ed or a Bachelors degree with P.G.D.E.
• Needs Nigerian certificate of education to teach in primary.
ADMINISTRATION AND ORGANISATION
• The administrative system is divided into the Federal capital territory Abuja+36 states.
• The educational management is based on this Federal system so that while basic educational
policy regarding structure, curriculum and school year is centrally determined.
• Education is administered by 3 branches of government:-
• Primary education............Local government
• Secondary education........State government
• Higher education..............Federal

92
 • Federal ministry of education owns and runs:
• 25 Universities.
• 13 Polytechnics.
• 15 Technical Colleges.
• 20 Colleges of Education.
• 66 Secondary Schools.
ADMINISTRATIVE BODIES AND AGENCIES
• The Federal Ministry of Education:-it co-ordinates educational policy and procedures throughout
the federation through the National Council of Education.
• The Joint Consultative Committee:- an independent body of professionals acting in an advisory
capacity to both the federal and state ministries of education, universities, institutes of education
and other educational agencies.
• The National Universities Commission:-operates under the Federal Ministry of Education and is
mandated to approve programmes, monitor universities and accredit programmes.
• It also provides a full listing of approved universities.
Examination Bodies:
• National Examination Council.
• West African Examination Council
• National Business and Technical Examinations Board: conducts National Technical Certificate,
National Business Certificate and other exams in trades, engineering, etc.
• National Board of Technical Education:-establishes minimum standards in polytechnics, technical
colleges and other technical institutions, gives curricula guide, supervises and regulates
programmes offered by technical institutions and secondary and post secondary levels, involved in
funding polytechnics owned by the government of the Federation of Nigeria, provides full listing
of polytechnics and technical colleges.
• The National Commission for Colleges and Education:- co-ordinates all aspects of non-degree
teacher education.
• The National Education Research and Development Council:- encourages, promotes and co-
ordinates educational research programmes and provides data on educational problems.
FINANCING
i. Primary school is universal and free.
• Local and State Government fund it.
• Local governments get funds from allocations from the Federal Government, centrally collected
V.A.T and internally generated revenues.
ii. Secondary Education
• The Federal government funds and manages 2 federal government secondary schools in every
state.
• Each state owns and operates secondary schools.
• While the government pays most of the fees (tuition), the students must pay incidental costs and
sometimes part of their board and other expenses that can amount to $200 annually.
iii. Higher Education
• Federal universities charge no tuition fees. They are expected to generate 10% of their total yearly
funds
cf. Parallel programmes.
• State universities pay tuition, room and board.
Other sources

93
• Support from federal and state governments.
• Private contributions by commercial organizations in form of occasional grants for specific
purposes.
• Interest earnings on short term bank deposits and rents of university properties.
• Endowments, fees, gifts and international aid.
• Students loans.
PROBLEMS FACING EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
• Inadequate schools and infrastructure due to high population and high demand.
• Inadequate finances, low funding which affects the quality of education especially distance
learning.
• Low quality education.
• Lack of equity in accessing education based on e.g. Gender (poor girl enrolment), better facilities
in urban areas, marginalized areas, special needs.
• Problems of implementing universal free primary school education.
• Examination malpractices due to early channelling of students into specific areas of study based
on examination scores.
• A curriculum that is biased towards white-collar jobs which needs to be made relevant both to
Nigeria and the global economy.
• Overcrowding in the campuses leading to crime like extortion, rape inter-cult rivalry.
• Indiscipline and secret cults.
MAJOR FEATURES IN NIGERIAN EDUCATION
• Free and universal primary education
• Vocational subjects taught through the formal route (Junior secondary)
• Dividing secondary into two levels (Junior and Senior)
• Emphasis on combining C.A.Ts and Exam in Secondary evaluation.
• Sitting university entrance exams.
• Specializations in either Arts or sciences.
• Two examination bodies for secondary level.
• Recognition of (General Certificate Examination) G.C.E alongside other certificates in university
entry
ADVANTAGES OF EXAM AND CATs PROGRAMME
• Students are kept on their toes because everything in class counts.
• Gives a better overview of the student’s capability under different circumstances.
• Allows teachers to follow trend of students’ learning.
• Gives the student a chance in case he’s incapacitated during the final exam e.g. Sick, death in
family etc.
• CATS provoke less fear and tension among students.
• Learners get feedback.
Disadvantages
• Can be subjective if affected by one’s relationship with the teacher.
• Aren’t standardized because of differences in quality, scoring and grading can thus disadvantage
some students.
• CAT not very workable with large populated classes because the teacher isn’t able to know
learners individually and their characteristics.
• Require keeping of very good records.
TEACHER EDUCATION

94
• Done by the National Commission for colleges of education.
• T.T.C-gave Teacher Certificate, Grade 2 for teaching in primary are being phased out of Natural
Certificate. It’s the minimum requirement for teaching in the country.
• Colleges of Education-offer most Secondary National Certificate in education training
programmes.
Requirements:
• 3 Credits.
• 2 Passes.
• N.C.E. Is required for one to teach in Junior Secondary School and Technical Colleges.
• They also train teachers for Primary School and Pre-Primary.
• Universities-offer B.Ed to undergraduates and Secondary School Teachers who already have N.C.E
qualifications.
Requirements:
• 5 Credits
• Which include the chosen teaching subjects.
• Prospective colleges of education students are required to sit and pass the Polytechnic/College of
Education Matriculation Exam.
• While Prospective University students are required to pass JAMB (JOINT ADMISSION
MATRICULATION BOARD) exam.
Colleges of Education - Require a Master’s degree.
Universities - Doctoral degree.
• There are also in-service teacher programmes.

G. EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

95