Fundamentals of Database System 2014

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Introduction Database System

Database systems are designed to manage large data set in an organization. The data management
involves both definition and the manipulation of the data which ranges from simple representation
of the data to considerations of structures for the storage of information. The data management
also consider the provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information.

Today, Databases are essential to every business. They are used to maintain internal records, to
present data to customers and clients on the World-Wide-Web, and to support many other
commercial processes. Databases are likewise found at the core of many modern organizations.

The power of databases comes from a body of knowledge and technology that has developed over
several decades and is embodied in specialized software called a database management system, or
DBMS. A DBMS is a powerful tool for creating and managing large amounts of data efficiently and
allowing it to persist over long periods of time, safely. These systems are among the most complex
types of software available.

Thus, for our question: What is a database? In essence a database is nothing more than a collection
of shared information that exists over a long period of time, often many years. In common dialect,
the term database refers to a collection of data that is managed by a DBMS.

Thus the Database course is about:

 How to organize data

 Supporting multiple users
 Efficient and effective data retrieval
 Secured and reliable storage of data
 Maintaining consistent data
 Making information useful for decision making

1.2 Manual ,File based and Database approach

Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the development
in technology and services. These levels could best be described by categorizing the levels into
three levels of development. Even though there is an advantage and a problem overcome at each
new level, all methods of data handling are in use to some extent. The major three levels are;

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1. 2.1 Manual Approach

In the manual approach, data storage and retrieval follows the primitive and traditional way of
information handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose. The data storage and
retrieval will be performed using human labour.

 Files for as many event and objects as the organization has are used to store information.
 Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labelled and stored in one ore
more cabinets.
 The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on the sensitivity of the
information contained in it.
 Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right cabinet then for the right the
file then the information.
 One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data

Limitations of the Manual approach

 Problems of speed, accuracy, consistency and reliability, poor response time, work-load
handling capability and cost
 Problems due to human frailties: (misplaced) loyalty, inconsistency, irregularity, difficulties in
handling big tasks etc.
 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieve and integrate

An alternative approach of data handling is a computerized way of dealing with the information.
The computerized approach could also be either decentralized or centralized base on where the
data resides in the system.

1.2.2 File Based Approach

After the introduction of Computer for data processing to the business community, the need to use
the device for data storage and processing increase. There were, and still are, several computer
applications with file based processing used for the purpose of data handling. Even though the
approach evolved over time, the basic structure is still similar if not identical.

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 File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
 This approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.
 A collection of application programs perform services for the end-users. In such systems,
every application program that provides service to end users define and manage its own
data
 Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in the
organization.
 Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to serious
data duplication problem.
 File, in traditional file based approach, is a collection of records which contains logically
related data.

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 Fundamentals of Database System 2014
Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach

As business application become more complex demanding more flexible and reliable data
handling methods, the shortcomings of the file based system became evident. These shortcomings
include, but not limited to:

 Separation or Isolation of Data: Available information in one application may not be known.
Data Synchronisation is done manually.
 Limited data sharing- every application maintains its own data.
 Lengthy development and maintenance time
 Duplication or redundancy of data (money and time cost and loss of data integrity)
 Data dependency on the application- data structure is embedded in the application; hence, a
change in the data structure needs to change the application as well.
 Incompatible file formats or data structures (e.g. “C” and COBOL) between different
applications and programs creating inconsistency and difficulty to process jointly.
 Fixed query processing which is defined during application development
 The limitations for the traditional file based data handling approach arise from two basic
reasons.
1. Definition of the data is embedded in the application program which makes it difficult
to modify the database definition easily.
2. No control over the access and manipulation of the data beyond that imposed by the
application programs.
 The most significant problem experienced by the traditional file based approach of data
handling is the “update anomalies” or Data Inconsistency.

1.2.3 Database Approach

Unlike the file system, with its many separate and unrelated files, the database system consists of
logically related data stored in a single logical data repository. (The “logical” label reflects the fact
that, although the data repository appears to be a single unit to the end user, its contents may
actually be physically distributed among multiple data storage facilities and/or locations.) Because
the database’s data repository is a single logical unit, the database represents a major change in the
way end-user data are stored, accessed, and managed The database approach emphasizes the
integration and sharing of data throughout the organization.

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 Fundamentals of Database System 2014
Thus in Database Approach:
 Database is just a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
 Database is a repository for collection of computerized data files.
 Database is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. Since it is a shared corporate resource, the database is integrated
with minimum amount of or no duplication.
 Database is a collection of logically related data where these logically related data comprises
entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an organization's information.
 In addition to containing data required by an organization, database also contains a
description of the data which called as “Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems
Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
 Since a database contains information about the data (metadata), it is called a self descriptive
collection on integrated records.
 The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and update
that information on demand.
 Database is designed once and used simultaneously by many users.
 Unlike the traditional file based approach in database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the data definition from the application. Thus the
application is not affected by changes made in the data structure and file organization.
 Each database application will perform the combination of: Creating database, Reading,
Updating and Deleting data.

1.3 Characteristics of the Database Approach

 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same data instead of storing data in
redundant manner for each user.
 Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query languages, the users can easily access
data without programming experience.
 Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in database to decrease the redundant
data stored at different applications.
 Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity constraints in the database approach
will maintain the quality leading to better decision making
 Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data redundancy will avoid inconsistency of the data
in the database to some extent.
 Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems are
implanted in a full scale DBMS.
 Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications will be integrated together with
additional constraints to facilitate shared data resource.
 Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be secured by having different levels of
clearance and other data security mechanisms.
 Improved decision support: the database will provide information useful for decision making.

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 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using and dealing with data by different unite
of an organization can be balanced and standardized by using database approach.
 Compactness: since it is an electronic data handling method, the data is stored compactly (no
voluminous papers).
 Speed: data storage and retrieval is fast as it will be using the modern fast computer systems.
 Less labour: unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not demand
much resource.
 Centralized information control: since relevant data in the organization will be stored at one
repository, it can be controlled and managed at the central level.

Limitations and risk of Database Approach

 Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
 Complexity in designing and managing data
 The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
 High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
 Complex backup and recover services from the users perspective
 Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency
 High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central system.

1.4 Database Management System (DBMS)

DBMS is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The DBMS
is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing,
manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications. Defining a database

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involves specifying the data types, structures, and constraints of the data to be stored in the
database.
The database definition or descriptive information is also stored by the DBMS in the form of a
database catalog or dictionary; it is called meta-data. Constructing the database is the process of
storing the data on some storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS. Manipulating a
database includes functions such as querying the database to retrieve specific data, updating the
database to reflect changes in the miniworld, and generating reports from the data. Sharing a
database allows multiple users and programs to access the database simultaneously.

An application program accesses the database by sending queries or requests for data to the
DBMS. A query2 typically causes some data to be retrieved; a transaction may cause some data to
be read and some data to be written into the database.

Having this in mind, a full scale DBMS should at least have the following services to provide
to the user.

1. Data storage, retrieval and update in the database

2. A user accessible catalogue
3. Transaction support service: ALL or NONE transaction, which minimize data
inconsistency.
4. Concurrency Control Services: access and update on the database by different users
simultaneously should be implemented correctly.
5. Recovery Services: a mechanism for recovering the database after a failure must be
available.
6. Authorization Services (Security): must support the implementation of access and
authorization service to database administrator and users.
7. Support for Data Communication: should provide the facility to integrate with data
transfer software or data communication managers.
8. Integrity Services: rules about data and the change that took place on the data,
correctness and consistency of stored data, and quality of data based on business
constraints.
9. Services to promote data independency between the data and the application

DBMS and Components of DBMS Environment

A DBMS is software package used to design, manage, and maintain databases. Each DBMS
should have facilities to define the database, manipulate the content of the database and
control the database. These facilities will help the designer, the user as well as the database
administrator to discharge their responsibility in designing, using and managing the
database. It provides the following facilities:

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 Data Definition Language (DDL):
o Language used to define each data element required by the organization.
o Commands for setting up schema or the intension of database
o These commands are used to setup a database, create, delete and alter table with the
facility of handling constraints

 Data Manipulation Language (DML):

o Is a core command used by end-users and programmers to store, retrieve, and access
the data in the database e.g. SQL
o Since the required data or Query by the user will be extracted using this type of
language, it is also called "Query Language"

 Data Dictionary:
o Due to the fact that a database is a self describing system, this tool, Data Dictionary,
is used to store and organize information about the data stored in the database.

 Data Control Language:

o Database is a shared resource that demands control of data access and usage. The
database administrator should have the facility to control the overall operation of the
system.
o Data Control Languages are commands that will help the Database Administrator to
control access to the database.
o The commands include grant or revoke privileges to access the database or
particular object within the database and to store or remove database transactions

The DBMS is software package that helps to design, manage, and use data using the database
approach. Taking a DBMS as a system, one can describe it with respect to its environment or other
systems interacting with the DBMS. The DBMS environment has five components. To design and
use a database, there should be the interaction or integration of Hardware, Software, Data,
Procedure and People.

1. Hardware: are components that one can touch and feel. These components are
comprised of various types of personal computers, mainframe or any server computers to
be used in multi-user system, network infrastructure, and other peripherals required in the
system.

2. Software: are collection of commands and programs used to manipulate the hardware
to perform a function. These include components like the DBMS software, application

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programs, operating systems, network software, language software and other relevant
software.

3. Data: since the goal of any database system is to have better control of the data and
making data useful, Data is the most important component to the user of the database.
There are two categories of data in any database system: that is Operational and Metadata.
Operational data is the data actually stored in the system to be used by the user. Metadata is
the data that is used to store information about the database itself.
The structure of the data in the database is called the schema, which is composed of the
Entities, Properties of entities, and relationship between entities.

4. Procedure: this is the rules and regulations on how to design and use a database. It
includes procedures like how to log on to the DBMS, how to use facilities, how to start and
stop transaction, how to make backup, how to treat hardware and software failure, how to
change the structure of the database.

5. People: this component is composed of the people in the organization that are
responsible or play a role in designing, implementing, managing, administering and using
the resources in the database. This component includes group of people with high level of
knowledge about the database and the design technology to other with no knowledge of the
system except using the data in the database.

1.5 Database Development Life Cycle

As it is one component in most information system development tasks, there are several steps in
designing a database system. Here more emphasis is given to the design phases of the system
development life cycle. The major steps in database design are;

1. Planning: that is identifying information gap in an organization and propose a database

solution to solve the problem.

2. Analysis: that concentrates more on fact finding about the problem or the opportunity.
Feasibility analysis, requirement determination and structuring, and selection of best design
method are also performed at this phase.

3. Design: in database designing more emphasis is given to this phase. The phase is further
divided into three sub-phases.
a. Conceptual Design: concise description of the data, data type, relationship between
data and constraints on the data.
 There is no implementation or physical detail consideration.
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 Used to elicit and structure all information requirements
b. Logical Design: a higher level conceptual abstraction with selected specific data model
to implement the data structure.
 It is particular DBMS independent and with no other physical
considerations.
c. Physical Design: physical implementation of the upper level design of the database
with respect to internal storage and file structure of the database for the selected
DBMS.
 To develop all technology and organizational specification.

4. Implementation: the deployment and testing of the designed database for use.

5. Operation and Support: administering and maintaining the operation of the database
system and providing support to users.

1.6 Users and actors of Database system

As people are one of the components in DBMS environment, there are group of roles played by
different stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database system.

1. Database Administrator (DBA)

 Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources (the database itself, the
DBMS and other related software)
 Authorizing access to the database
 Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
 Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software resources
 Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of the system
 Involves in all steps of database development
We can have further classifications of this role in big organizations having huge amount of data
and user requirement.
1. Data Administrator (DA): is responsible on management of data resources.
Involved in database planning, development, maintenance of standards, policies and
procedures at the conceptual and logical design phases.

2. Database Administrator (DBA): is a more technical role. Is responsible for the

physical realization of the database. Involves in physical design, implementation,
security and integrity control of the database.

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2. Database Designer (DBD)

 Identifies the data to be stored and choose the appropriate structures to represent and store
the data.
 Should understand the user requirement and should choose how the user views the
database.
 Involve on the design phase before the implementation of the database system.
We have two distinctions of database designers, one involving in the logical and conceptual
design and another involving in physical design.

1. Logical and Conceptual DBD

 Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the organization
 Identifies constraints on each data
 Understand data and business rules in the organization
 Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual level and
consider one specific data model at logical design phase.

2. Physical DBD
 Take logical design specification as input and decide how it should be physically
realized.
 Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS with respect to tables and
integrity constraints. (DBMS dependent designing)
 Select specific storage structure and access path to the database
 Design security measures required on the database

3. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst

 System analyst determines the user requirement and how the user wants to view the
database.
 The application programmer implements these specifications as programs; code, test,
debug, document and maintain the application program.
 Determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert, update and delete data in the
database.
 The application could use any high level programming language according to the
availability, the facility and the required service.

4. End Users
Workers, whose job requires accessing the database frequently for various purposes, there
are different group of users in this category.
1. Naïve Users:
 Sizable proportion of users
 Unaware of the DBMS

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 Only access the database based on their access level and demand
 Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.
2. Sophisticated Users
 Are users familiar with the structure of the Database and facilities of the DBMS.
 Have complex requirements
 Have higher level queries
 Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business analysts, etc
3. Casual Users
 Users who access the database occasionally.
 Need different information from the database each time.
 Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their needs.
 Are most of the time middle to high level managers.

Workers behind the Scene

 DBMS designers and implementers: who design and implement different DBMS software.
 Tool Developers: experts who develop software packages that facilitates database system
designing and use. Prototype, simulation, code generator developers could be an example.
Independent software vendors could also be categorized in this group.
 Operators and Maintenance Personnel: system administrators who are responsible for
actually running and maintaining the hardware and software of the database system and
the information technology facilities.

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