International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 Online ISSN 2198-0810

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40684-020-00302-7 Print ISSN 2288-6206

INVITED REVIEW PAPER

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Process: State of the Art

Dong‑Gyu Ahn1

Received: 14 October 2020 / Revised: 2 December 2020 / Accepted: 9 December 2020 / Published online: 15 February 2021
© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
Metal additive manufacturing technologies, such as powder bed fusion process, directed energy deposition (DED) process,
sheet lamination process, etc., are one of promising flexible manufacturing technologies due to direct fabrication character-
istics of a metallic freeform with a three-dimensional shape from computer aided design data. DED processes can create an
arbitrary shape on even and uneven substrates through line-by-line deposition of a metallic material. Theses DED processes
can easily fabricate a heterogeneous material with desired properties and characteristics via successive and simultaneous
depositions of different materials. In addition, a hybrid process combining DED with different manufacturing processes can
be conveniently developed. Hence, researches on the DED processes have been steadily increased in recent years. This paper
reviewed recent research trends of DED processes and their applications. Principles, key technologies and the state-of-the
art related to the development of process and system, the optimization of deposition conditions and the application of DED
process were discussed. Finally, future research issues and opportunities of the DED process were identified.

Keywords  Additive manufacturing process · Directed energy deposition · State-of-the art · Research issues

List of Symbols the previous layer [1–5]. The AM is defined to be “a process

P Power of laser of joining materials to make parts from 3D model data, usu-
v Travel speed ally layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufactur-
mp Feed rate of powders ing and formative manufacturing methodologies” by ASTM
α Dilution ratio and ISO standards [1, 6, 7]. The AM is also referred to as
δ Depth of the molten pool rapid prototyping (RP), 3D printing, freeform fabrication
β Height of the deposited bead (FF), layer manufacturing, etc. [1–3, 8]. The AM technolo-
ω Global energy density gies have important features, including complexity-for-free,
dl Beam diameter of laser tool-less and less-resource intensive, from the viewpoint of
Ω Transverse traverse index sustainability effects [9–12]. The complexity-for-free fea-
ξ Distance between two subsequent tracks ture of the AM technologies has created a new research
ϖ Track width field called design for additive manufacturing (DFAM) [2,
Ra Arithmetical mean surface roughness 5, 13, 14]. Research issues related to DFAM include free-
form shapes, lattice structures and porous objects, topology
optimization, part consolidation, non-assembly mechanism,
1 Introduction internal channels, segmentation, embedded components,
thin and small features, surface features, material choices,
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies produce three- multiple materials, infill modifications, process depend-
dimensional (3D) physical objects from digital information ent design parameters, etc. [2, 5, 13–22]. As compared to
through layer-by-layer, line-by-line, piece-by-piece, or sur- conventional manufacturing (CM) processes, the AM tech-
face-by-surface depositions of materials on the substrate and nologies have several promising benefits: (a) decreased the
production time and the amount of human intervention due
to the reduction of the time-consuming multiple re-fixturing
* Dong‑Gyu Ahn
and calibration procedure through the completely automated
[email protected]
AM process from design to fabrication of the product in a
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chosun University, computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD and CAM)
309, Pilmun‑daero, Dong‑gu, Gwangju 61452, South Korea

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704 International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742

environment, (b) reduction of cost to fabricate products laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM)
using expensive materials, such as titanium and nickel based processes, and DED processes have been widely applied to
super-alloys, through the improved buy-to-fly (BTF) ratio academic researches, commercialized systems and industrial
and the reduced waste, and (c) Improvement of cost-com- applications [1–4, 6, 24, 28, 32–34, 39–46]. The deposition
petitiveness and structural integrity through the manufacture rate and the volume density of the DED processes are greater
of unified structures with arbitrary shapes [2–4, 6, 8, 10, than those of the PBF process, while the layer thickness,
13, 23–27]. Due to these important features and promising the surface roughness and the minimum feature size of the
advantages, the AM technologies have attracted attention fabricated part by the PBF processes are relatively smaller
as emerging technologies from academies and industries in than those by the DED process [4, 24, 40, 42, 44–48]. The
recent years [6, 28, 29]. DED processes can create an arbitrary shape on even and
The usage of AM technologies has significantly changed uneven substrates through line-by-line deposition of a metal-
in the last 30 years [6, 8, 24]. Recently, AM technologies lic material, unlike the PBF processes [32, 49, 50]. Because
were applied to the direct production of end-use parts and several developed DED systems include multiple powder
whole products (termed rapid manufacturing (RM)) [2, 6, hoppers and wire feeders to selectively supply powders and
8, 28–31]. The AM technologies employ plastics, metals, wires for different materials, the DED systems can easily
ceramics, composites, and biological materials as deposited fabricate a heterogeneous material with desired properties
materials [1, 4, 8, 24–28, 30–33]. In order to create metal- via successive and simultaneous deposition of different
lic parts using a plastic product fabricated by the plastic materials [4, 32, 51–54]. Due to the simplified system of
based AM processes, secondary processes are additionally the DED apparatus as compared to the PBF apparatus, it
needed [30, 31]. Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) is convenient to develop a hybrid process combining DED
technologies can directly fabricate a metallic part with a with different manufacturing processes [24, 36, 38, 55–57].
complex shape without an additional manufacturing pro- Hence, research and application of the DED processes has
cess [4, 6, 24, 30–33]. The MAM technologies can reduce steadily increased in recent years.
the lead-time and the cost to create a metallic product from This paper reviews recent research trends of DED pro-
CAD data through the elimination of the secondary process cesses and their applications. Principles, key technologies
[30–32]. The MAM technologies are promising flexible and the state-of-the art related to the development of process
manufacturing technologies to manufacture a metallic part and system, optimization of the deposition conditions and
with complex geometries, controlled properties and desired application of the DED process are discussed. In addition,
functionalities [28, 32–35]. In addition, it is very convenient future research issues and opportunities of the DED process
to create a hybrid manufacturing process combining MAM are investigated.
processes with subtractive and forming processes [37–39].
Hence, research into novel processes and applications of the
MAM significantly increased in the last decade. 2 Principle and Classification of DED
Since Carl Deakard and Professor Joseph Beaman at Processes
University of Texas patented a selective laser sintering
(SLS) process in 1986, various metal additive manufactur- The DED process is defined as “additive manufacturing pro-
ing (MAM) processes, such as a powder bed fusion (PBF) cess in which focused thermal energy is used to fuse materi-
process, a directed energy deposition (DED) process, a als by melting as they are being deposited” by ISO/ASTM
sheet lamination (SL) process, etc., were developed [1–8, 52900 standard [7]. The principle of the DED process is
24, 28–33, 39–42]. PBF, including selective laser sinter- illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 [24, 57]. The DED process uti-
ing (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective lizes the concept of cladding and welding processes [1–4,

Fig. 1  Powder feeding method-

ologies of LAM-DED processes
(Redrawn and modified figures
of reference 57) [57]: (a) co-
axial feeding and (b) off-axis
feeding

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Fig. 2  Wire feeding meth-

odologies of DED processes
(Redrawn and modified figures
of reference 24) [24]: (a) co-
axial feeding (WAAM) and (b)
off-axis feeding (WLAM and
WEAM)

6, 8, 24, 32, 42–51, 56–60]. Thermal energy, such as a laser, additive manufacturing (WAAM), wire and laser additive
electron beam, welding heat flux, etc., is focused on the pre- manufacturing (WLAM), and wire and electron beam addi-
vious layer, as shown in Table 1 [1–4, 6, 8, 24, 32, 42–51, tive manufacturing (WEAM) processes according to used
56–62]. Simultaneously, the feedstock with types of wires thermal energies [1, 4, 6, 24, 46, 58–67]. The DED process
and powders is fed to the focused region of the thermal with off-axial feeding devices of the feedstock relative to the
energy [40, 42, 58]. The molten pool is formed by melting focused thermal energy is sensitive to feed orientations and
of both the previous layer and the feedstock in and around deposition conditions [59]. The sensitivity greatly increases
the spot of the focused thermal energy [40, 42, 58]. The for the case of a wire laser additive manufacturing (WLAM)
deposition bead is created by cooling of the molten pool. process [24, 59] (Figs. 4, 5, 6).
Through repetition of the above procedure, a 3D metallic Energy densities of the laser, the arc and the electron beam
part is fabricated. A typical cooling rate of the DED process for the DED processes are on the order of 1­ 06, ­104 and ­108 W/
ranges from ­103 to ­105 °C/s [58]. mm2, respectively, as shown in Table 2 [46]. The LAM-DED,
The DED process can be classified into powder and wire WAAM and WLAM processes use a shield gas to prevent oxi-
feeding types according to the feedstock, as shown in Table 1 dation of the molten pool during the deposition [6, 24, 34, 40,
and Fig. 3 [1–4, 6, 8, 24, 42, 46, 56–67]. The developed 42, 44, 56–60, 64–68]. The WEAM processes are operated in
powder feeding type DED processes uses a laser as a thermal a vacuum furnace unlike the LAM-DED, WAAM and WLAM
energy, while the wire feeding type DED processes utilizes processes [4, 46, 62, 63, 69–72]. The investment cost of the
an electric arc, a plasma arc, a laser, and an electron beam WAAM process is relatively cheaper than that of the LAM-
as a thermal energy, as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 3 [1–4, 6, DED, WLAM and WEAM processes [24, 46]. The surface
8, 24, 42, 46, 56–62]. In order to deliver the feedstock into roughness ­(Ra) of the fabricated part by LAM-DED processes
the molten pool, the DED process uses co-axial and lateral is greater than that by WLAM processes by nearly 20–30% in
types of feeding technologies, as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2 a plane deposition [59, 73]. The deposition rate and the layer
[1–4, 6, 8, 24, 42, 46, 57–61]. The DED process consisting thickness of the wire feeding type DED processes are remark-
of a powder feeding device and a laser is known as a laser ably greater than those of the powder feeding type DED pro-
additive manufacturing (LAM)-DED process [60]. The wire cesses, while the dimensional accuracy and the residual stress
feeding type DED processes are classified into wire and arc of the fabricated part by the wire feeding type DED processes

Table 1  Feedstock, feeding type, thermal energy, classification, and deposition mechanism of DED processes
Feedstock Feeding type Thermal energy Classification Deposition mechanism References

Powders Co-axial and off-axis (lat- Laser ­(CO2, Nd:YAG, LAM-DED Cladding [1, 4, 6, 32, 42, 44, 57–60]
eral) feeding Fiber, etc.)
Wire Co-axial and off-axis (lat- Electric arc WAAM Welding (GMAW, GTAW, [1, 4, 6, 24, 40, 56, 58, 59,
eral) feeding etc.) 65]
Co-axial and off-axis (lat- Plasma arc Welding (PAW and PTAW) [24, 40, 42, 57, 64, 65]
eral) feeding
Co-axial and off-axis (lat- Laser WLAM Cladding and Welding [1, 4, 24, 57, 66, 67]
eral) feeding
Co-axial and off-axis (lat- Electron beam (Thermionic WEAM Welding [1, 4, 40, 46, 57, 59, 61, 62]
eral) feeding and Plasma)

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Fig. 3  Classification of DED
processes [1–4, 6, 8, 24, 42, 46,
56–67]

Fig. 4  Typical crossing regions

of fed powders for conventional
LAM-DED and HELA technol-
ogy (redrawn and modified
figures of reference 90) [90]: (a)
conventional LAM-DED pro-
cess and (b) HELA technology

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Fig. 5  Deposition parameters of LAM-DED processes [42, 57–60, 94–97]

are inferior to those by of the powder feeding type DED pro- cameras, into the DMD system to maintain the deposited
cesses, as shown in Table 2 [4, 42, 46, 56–60]. thickness through monitoring of the deposited region [58,
77–79]. The DMD process was commercialized by POM
Group (DM3D Inc.) [4, 58, 77–79]. The DMT process
3 Powder Feeding Type DED (LAM‑DED) with a similar process concept to the DMD process was
Processes: State‑of‑the Art commercialized by InssTek Inc. in Korea [4, 32, 80, 84].
The LMD process was commercialized by several
3.1 Characteristics and Principle of LAM‑DED companies, such as Trumpf Inc., EFESTO Inc., and RPM
Processes Inc., [4, 81, 82, 85–89]. The LMD process of Trumpf Inc.
optionally provided an extreme high speed-laser material
Powder feeding type DED (LAM-DED) processes use the deposition (EHLA) technology to improve the surface
concept of the laser cladding process, as shown in Fig. 1 creation rate and the quality of the deposited bead [81,
and Table 1 [1, 4, 6, 32, 40, 42, 47, 48, 58–60, 73, 74]. 90]. Typical DED processes formed a crossing region of
Sandia National Laboratories in United States developed the fed powders from the feeding nozzle into the molten
the first LAM-DED process. In addition, the process was pool, while the EHLA technology created a focal region of
patented as the laser engineered net shaping (LENS) pro- the fed powders above the molten pool to melt fed powders
cess [4, 40, 59, 60, 75]. The LENS process was commer- before hitting the powders to the molten pool [81, 90].
cialized by Optomec Inc. [4, 76]. Since the LENS process With EHLA technology, the powder particles no longer
was introduced, various LAM-DED processes, such as need to be melted in the molten pool due to melting of
direct metal deposition (DMD) process, direct metal tool- the fed powders above the molten pool, unlike typical
ing process, laser metal deposition (LMD) process, laser DED processes [81, 90]. The typical layer thickness, the
consolidation (LC) process, direct light fabrication (DLF) minimum feature size and the maximum deposition rate of
process, laser casting process, etc., were developed [4, 58, the LAM-DED are 250–500 μm, 380–1000 μm and 8.3 g/
77–83]. Mazumder et al. developed the DMD process [4, min, respectively, as shown in Table 2 [4, 40, 44, 48, 58,
32, 58, 77]. The DMD process integrated the closed-loop 76]. The maximum layer thickness of the LENS process
control unit, including CCD (Charge coupled device) is nearly 1000 μm [58, 76].

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Fig. 6  Deposited region and optimal processing map for LAM-DED process: (a) typical formation of the deposited region and (b) optimal pro-
cessing maps for different materials [adapted from reference 42 (Open Access)] [42]

Table 2  Characteristics of representative DED processes

Process [References] Typical layer Minimum feature Density of heat Energy Working environments Deposition Capture
thickness (μm) (width) size (μm) flux (W/mm2) efficiency rate (g/min) efficiency of
(%) feedstock (%)

LAM-DED [4, 42, 44, 200–500 380–1000 ≈ ­106 < 40 Shielding gas < 8.3 < 90
46–48, 57–59, 73,
74, 76]
WAAM [4, 24, 44, 46, 1000–2000 1000–2000 ≈ ­104 < 90 16.7–66.7 ≈ 100
57, 58, 65, 154]
WLAM [24, 46, > 1000 5–15 times of ≈ ­106 2–5 1.5–48.0
57–59, 67, 186, 201] wire diameter
WEAM [4, 24, 40, 44, < 3000 <1,600 ≈ ­108 15–20 Vacuum furnace < 330
46, 57, 58, 69–72]

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 709

Table 3  Features of representative commercialized LAM-DED processes

Process Company Laser Moving of deposi- Type of nozzle No. of Monitoring of References
tion head hopper molten pool
(EAs)

LENS Optomec Fiber Gantry type (3 and Co-axial (3 and 4 ≥2 1 vision camera [4, 32, 40, 59, 60, 76]
5 axes) tip) (Melt pool sensor)
DMD DM3D Diode/disc/fiber Gantry type and Co-axial ≥2 2 vision camera [4, 32, 58, 77–79]
Robot arm (3 and
5 axes)
DMT Inssteck Fiber Gantry type (3 and Co-axial ≥2 2 vision camera [4, 32, 80, 84]
5 axes)
LMD Trumpf Diode/disc/fiber Gantry type (3 and Co-axial (3 tip) ≥2 1 vision camera [81, 90]
5 axes)
DED MAXROTEC Fiber Robot arm Co-axial (4 tip) ≥2 IR camera [92]
(≥ 5 axes)

Fig. 7  Deposition heads for different commercialized DED process: Doosan Machine Tools Inc. with permission), and (d) DED process
(a) LENS process (reprinted from figure provided by Ph.D Yong Son (MAXROTEC Inc., reprinted from figure provided by MAXRO-
and Ph.D Hyub Lee of KITECH with permission), (b) DMT process, TECH Inc. with permission) [92]
(c) LMD process (Trumph Inc., reprinted from figure provided by

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3.2 Development of Processes and Systems powders, the flow rate of carrier gas, the diameter distribution
of powders, the beam profile of the laser, the scan speed of the
Table 3 shows features of commercialized LAM-DED pro- laser, etc. [42, 72, 94]. Despite the maximum catchment effi-
cesses. The LENS process uses a fiber laser and a gantry ciency of powders was reported to be nearly 90% for a specific
type deposition head, as shown in Table 3 and Fig. 7a [4, 32, case, the material usage efficiency of LAM-DED process is
59, 60, 76]. A recently developed LENS system includes a generally less than 30% [42, 57, 74]. The energy efficiency of
melt pool sensor with a vision camera for a feedback control the laser for LAM-DED process is less than 40%, as shown in
through real time monitoring of the variation of the molten Table 2 [42, 74]. A dilution layer with mixed chemical com-
pool during the deposition [76]. The Optomec Inc. devel- positions is formed between successive layers, as shown in
oped a LENS modular print engine to integrate the deposi- Fig. 6a [42, 57].
tion head into a conventional CNC machine tool [76]. The
modular print engine provided a promising direction related
Π(J/mm) = P∕v (1)
to technical progress of the LAM-DED process for a hybrid
system [91]. The DMD process uses three types of laser, Γ(J/mm) = mp ∕v (2)
including diode, disc and fiber lasers, as well as gantry and
The dilution ratio (α) is defined as given in Eq. (3) [42, 57].
robot arm types of deposition head, as shown in Table 3 [4,
Several researchers proposed the optimal range of the dilu-
32, 77, 79]. The DMT process utilizes a fiber laser and a
tion ratio as 10–30% to obtain a proper dilution between the
gantry type deposition head, as shown in Table 3 and Fig. 7b
first layer and the substrate [42, 99]. The amount of poros-
[4, 32, 80]. In addition, the DMT process employs two vision
ity in the fabricated part was used as an important measure
cameras for a closed-loop control of the layer thickness [80].
to estimate the optimal deposition conditions [42, 60, 98].
The LMD process of Trumpf Inc. includes three types of
Dass et al. investigated the effects of the LEL and the powder
laser, including diode, disc and fiber lasers, and a gantry type
feed rate on the occurrence of the porosity. In addition, they
deposition head, as shown in Table 3 and Fig. 7c [81]. In
predicted optimal processing regions for different alloys, as
addition, the LMD process of Trumpf Inc. employs a vision
shown in Fig. 6b. The global energy density (GED, ω) was
camera for monitoring the formation of the molten pool
introduced to investigate the porosity in the fabricated part by
during the deposition. MAXROTEC Inc. in Korea devel-
the LAM-DED process, as shown in Eq. (4) [42, 100]. Wolff
oped a robot arm type DED system, as shown in Table 3
et al. illustrated that interlayer and intralayer porosities were
and Fig. 7d [92]. The system uses a fiber laser as a thermal
taken place for regions of low and high values of the GED,
energy source. In addition, the system employs an infrared
respectively [42, 100]. Dass et al. reported that the possibility
(IR) camera for closed-loop control through monitoring of
of lack of fusion defect induced by less dilution increases with
the width of the molten pool [92]. Most commercialized
decreasing GED in the region of low GED, while the possi-
DED processes uses two or more hoppers for feeding of
bility of keyhole porosity induced by high dilution decreases
powders to deposit heterogeneous materials through selec-
with increasing GED in the region of high GED [42, 100]. In
tive mixing of different powders [93]. The feature allows
addition, they reported that the keyhole takes place when the
the DED process to easily produce a functionally graded
dilution ratio exceeds 30%, while the lack of fusion occurs
material and structure (FGM&S) [93].
when the dilution ratio is under 10% [42]. The track overlap
ratio affected the porosity of the fabricated part by the LAM-
3.3 Effects of Deposition Parameters
DED process [42, 60, 98]. The track overlap ratio of the LAM-
DED process is typically 25% of the width of the deposited
Deposition parameters of LAM-DED process can be classified
bead [58]. Paul et al. defined a transverse traverse index (TTL,
into laser, feeding, material and design, and motion and path
Ω) to consider the influence of the track overlap ratio on the
parameters, as shown in Fig. 5 [42, 57–60, 94–97]. The power
porosity of the fabricated part, as shown in Eq. (5) [60, 98].
of the laser, the scan speed of the laser and the feed rate (mass
They estimated an experimental equation, including LEL, PFL
flow rate) of powders are major parameters affecting the bead
and TTL, to predict the porosity of the fabricated Inconel 625
formation, joining between successive layers, the porosity, the
specimen by the LAM-DED process [60, 98]. In addition, they
microstructure, and the residual stress [42, 60, 98]. Several
reported that dense parts are fabricated when the TTI is close
researchers proposed a laser energy per unit length (LEL, Π)
to 0.6, while porous structures are created when the TTL is
and a powder feed per unit length (PFL, Γ) to reflect the influ-
greater than 0.7 [60, 98].
ence of the correlation between the three parameters, as shown
in Eqs. (1) and (2) [42, 60, 98]. The beam diameter and the α(%) = [𝛿∕(𝛽 + 𝛿)]100 (3)
profile of the laser beam affect the minimum size of the feature
and the formation of the molten pool [60, 94]. The catchment
efficiency of powders generally depends on the feed rate of

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ω J/mm2 = P∕ vdl (4) DED process using Ti-6Al-4 V and Inconel 625 powders
( ) ( )
[97].
Ω = 𝜉∕𝜛 (5) 3.4 Applications and Fabricated Parts
The particle diameter of the fed powders for the LAM-
DED process generally ranges from 30 to 200 μm [57, 59, Although LAM-DED processes are mainly used to fabricate
95]. Spherical powders are preferred for the feedstock in metallic parts with a near-net shape in the early stage, appli-
terms of flowability, layer spreading, and loose powder pack- cations of the LAM-DED processes have been expanded to
ing [101]. The deposition path affects the residual stress dis- repair, restoration, remanufacturing, porous coating, tailored
tribution, the microstructure, the anisotropy, the porosity, materials, tailored structures, and thermal management in
and the mechanical properties of the fabricated part [96, recent years, as shown in Table 4 [4, 32, 35, 50, 51, 79–81,
102–105]. Uni-directional, alternative directional (zig- 106–151].
zag), chessboard, and contour paths are used to fabricate
parts using the LAM-DED process [96, 100]. Riberiro et al. 3.4.1 Repair, Restoration and Remanufacturing
[102] investigated the influence of the deposition path on the
shape, the morphology, the surface roughness, the micro- LAM-DED processes have various advantageous character-
structure, and the microhardness of the AISI 316 deposited istics, such as relatively lower heat input, less distortion,
region. Wolff et al. examined anisotropic characteristics of lower dilution rate, excellent metallurgical bonding, excel-
a Ti–6Al–4V block fabricated by the LENS process using lent mechanical performance, relatively higher geometrical
an alternative directional path [103]. Li and Soshi studied accuracy, suitability for full automation, and precise thermal
the effects of the deposition path on grain morphologies of control, in terms of repair, restoration and remanufacturing
the fabricated specimen by a DED coating process using a (3R) of products as compared to welding processes [107,
Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) Potts model [104]. Soshi et al. 109]. Therefore, research on application of the LAM-DED
investigated the influence of a trochoidal deposition path on process to repair, restoration and remanufacturing remark-
the preheating effect, the molten pool size, the power catch- ably increased for the purpose of decreasing lead time, cost
ment efficiency, the material addition rate, the porosity, and and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through recycling of
the post deformation for the DED process [105]. Denlinger used materials and the simple modification of used parts
et al. studied the effects of inter-layer dwell time on distor- [4, 32, 35, 50, 106–112]. Restoration and remanufacturing
tion and residual stress of a wall structure fabricated by a using the LAM-DED process can potentially improve the
properties and the reproduction of discontinued parts [4, 32,

Table 4  Features of representative commercialized LAM-DED processes

Application Purpose References

Repair, restoration and remanufac- Repair of damaged parts Reduction of lead time, cost and [4, 32, 35, 50, 79–81, 106–123]
turing Restoration and remanufacturing GHG emission
of parts with desired shapes and Recycle of used materials and parts
properties Production of discontinued parts
Improvement of properties and
functionalities
Porous coating Metal foam Fabrication of metal foam [42, 80, 86, 124–128]
Porous structures on bio-medical Improvement of bio-compatibility
materials Improvement of BTF
Tailored materials and structures Functionally graded materials and Control of material properties [4, 42, 51, 52, 93, 129–144]
structures (FGM&S) Improvement of wear and corrosion
Multi-layer coating of heterogene- resistances as well as service life
ous materials Reduction of material cost
Hardfacing
Thermal management Moulding and forming tools with Control of temperature distribu- [4, 32, 76–80, 84, 117, 143,
conformal cooling channels tions 145–151]
(CCCs) Uniform and rapid cooling charac-
Thermal management mould teristics
Heat sink (Cooling fin) Reduction of cooling and cycle
times
Improvement of product quality

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35, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 117]. Most of previous studies only the restoration of the parts but also the improvement
related to the 3R of parts using LAM-DED processes were of the wear resistance of grooves [107, 109, 114]. Willson
focused on repair and remanufacturing of components of et al. [112] reported that there was nearly a 72.5% decrease
power plants and engines [4, 79–81, 106–112]. Hot sections, in GHG emissions and a 68.1% decrease in energy con-
knife-edges, blades, and compressor seals were repaired by sumption as compared to the fabrication of a new replac-
LAM-DEM processes to reduce cost and lead time [4, 32, ing turbine blade when 5% volume of the turbine blade was
106, 107, 109–111]. Diaz et al. examined deposition char- repaired by a LAM-DED process. InssTek Inc. [80] in col-
acteristics of Stellite6 using a LAM-DED process to repair laboration with Korean Air Force repaired the air seal of a
steam circuit components in thermal power stations [106, jet engine.
110]. Petrat et al. [113] repaired a gas turbine burner, which LAM-DED processes, including LENS, DMD, DMT,
was fabricated from a SLM process, using a LMD process. and LMD processes, were used for the sake of repair, res-
Kimi Inc. remanufactured four stroke marine pistons for not toration and remanufacturing of molding, forming and die

Fig. 8  Fabricated parts by LAM-DED processes: (a) comparison of interlayers (adapted from figures of reference 119 with permission)
external contours of remanufactured hot forging dies with those of [119], (d) example of hot forging die with DDL and TL, (e) injec-
conventional dies, (b) repaired weapon components (adapted from tion molds incorporating CCCs (adapted from figures reference 149
figures provided by Naval Shipyard of R.O.K and 3D Printing Center with permission) [149], and (f) hot stamping dies incorporating CCCs
of KITECH with permission), (c) example of compositional graded [adapted from figures reference 151 (Open Access)] [151]

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 713

casting tools from the viewpoint of economic efficiency [4, 86, 124–128]. Carcel et al. [86] researched the fabrication
32, 35, 51, 76, 77, 79–81, 106, 107, 109, 115–120]. Sev- of aluminum and titanium foamed layers on Ti–6Al–4V
eral researchers reported that the LAM-DED process can sheet by a LMD process. Koike et al. [124] investigated the
provide sharper and smaller deposition with focused high manufacture of stainless steel foam with titanium hydride
laser energy and improved metallurgical properties as com- using a LAM-DED process. Recently, the LAM-DED pro-
pared to traditional repair technology, such as TIG welding, cess was applied to a porous coating for implants [42]. Dass
plasma welding and GTAW welding, [107, 115, 116]. Ben- and Moridi [42] reported that the porous coating technol-
nett et al. [116] revealed that the service life of dies repaired ogy using LAM-DED process offers benefits to fabricate
by the LAM-DED process is longer than that by a traditional porous implants as compared to conventional casting. Xu
repair process by factors of 3.4–8.0 times. Research on the et al. fabricated porous titanium samples for implants from
3R of molding, forming and die casting tools started from a LENS process [42, 124]. They also performed in vivo
only the repair of tools with different types of defects, while biocompatibility studies using the fabricated porous tita-
those extended to remanufacturing of tools with improved nium samples [42, 124]. Bernard et al. [126] examined the
functionality and performance [4, 32, 35, 76, 77, 79, 80, 106, fatigue behavior of a porous NiTi alloy for implants in a
107, 116–120]. Ahn et al. remanufactured several hot forging cyclic compression loading. They manufactured the porous
dies with the wear resistance using a selective deposition NiTi alloy from a LENS process [126]. Bandyopadhyay
technology based on the LAM-DED process [4, 119]. They et al. [127, 128] applied a LENS process to fabricate porous
demonstrated that the wear resistance and the service life and functionally graded structures for load bearing implants.
can be greatly improved when remanufacturing technology In addition, they investigated the in vivo response of porous
based on the LAM-DED process is applied to the hot forging titanium implants [128]. InssTek Inc. [80] in collaboration
die, as shown in Fig. 8a [119]. Hong et al. [120] remanu- with Corentec Inc. developed porous coating technologies
factured trimming dies with 23F858 tool steel deposited on for customized implants using a DMT process.
S45C structural steel using a DMT process owing to the
improved service life of the dies. InssTek Inc. [80] remanu- 3.4.3 Tailored Materials and Structures
factured the mold of a headlamp to reduce cost and lead
time using the DMT process. Morrow et al. addressed that The developed LAM-DED process employs multiple hop-
LAM-DED processes can greatly reduce energy consump- pers for feeding of different powders [4, 32, 51–54]. The
tion, GHG emissions and manufacturing costs for repair and feeding of different materials enables in situ synthesizing
remanufacturing of molds and dies [4, 106, 117]. alloys with a location-dependent chemical compositions
LAM-DED processes were used to repair various indus- through mixing of different powders [4, 93, 129, 130]. The
trial and military parts. Lewis et al. applied the LAM-DED in situ synthesizing characteristics of the LAM-DED process
process to repair rail track. They reported that the LAM- can fabricate tailored materials [42, 52, 129, 130]. In addi-
DED process is highly recommended to repair track parts tion, inherent deposition characteristics of the LAM-DED
with a simple geometry [107, 120]. Rooyen et al. repaired process, including line-by-line and layer-by-layer deposi-
austenitic stainless steel vessels using a LAM-DED pro- tions of different materials, allow the manufacture of tailored
cess [107]. Liu et al. applied the LMD process to repair the structures in the material [4, 42, 52, 129, 130]. Representa-
sprocket of a scraper conveyor [109, 122]. Oh et al. [123] tive examples of tailored materials and structures using the
applied the DMT process to repair of damaged parts, which LAM-DED process are functionally graded materials and
were fabricated from a PBF process. Recently, LAM-DMD structures (FGM&Ss) with the graded composition as a
processes were widely used to repair military parts. The function of position [4, 42, 52, 129, 130].
military parts require a long delivery time and an expensive Three deposition strategies, including direct joining
cost. Occasionally, the military parts are discontinued by method (DJM), gradient path method (GPM) and inter-
the manufacturer. Hence, the repair of military parts has mediate section method (ISM), were utilized to create the
attracted attention as a promising application field of the FGM&S using the LAM-DED process [129]. The DJM
LAM-DED process. The 3D printing center of KITECH deposits a successive layer with heterogeneous materials on
(Korea) in collaboration with Navy Shipyard of R.O.K a substrate or a previous layer without any interlayer between
(Republic of Korea) repaired several military parts, as shown successive layers [51, 129]. The DJM was widely used to
in Fig. 8b. create bimetallic materials and structures as a common tech-
nology [4, 51, 131, 132]. Yadroitsev et al. [131] applied the
3.4.2 Porous Materials and Coating DJM to deposition of Stellite12 on stainless steel 316. They
investigated the influence of the layer thickness on gradi-
Porous materials and coating technologies are emerging as ent transition characteristics. They have estimated that the
an important application of LAM-DED processes [42, 80, minimum thickness of FGM is 200 μm [131]. In addition,

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714 International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742

they fabricated thin wall structures with the combination fabricated a metallic structure with an intermediate bond-
of bronze with stainless steel 430 L [131]. Park and Ahn ing layer of NiCr to prevent delamination and cracks via
[132] used the DJM to create bimetallic materials with a the deposition of Ti–6Al–4V on 410 stainless steel. Sev-
wear resistance layer through the deposition of Stellite6 and eral studies used graded vanadium, vanadium, chromium,
NOREM02 on SKD61 hot working tool steel. The DJM pro- and iron as materials of the intermediate bonding layer to
vided a key concept for restoration and remanufacturing of deposit Ti–6Al–4V on stainless steel [129]. Onuike et al.
products through the deposition of heterogamous materials [142] successfully deposited Ti–6Al–4V on an Inconel 718
on even and uneven substrates [4, 35, 50, 51, 123, 133]. substrate through the creation of an intermediate bonding
Several researchers and industries applied the DJM to the layer with vanadium using a LENS process. Ahn and Kim
fabrication of bimetallic parts with volumetric heat sinks, [143] applied an intermediate bonding layer with Monel 400
wear resistance and the corrosion resistance [4, 32, 51, 77, between P21 and ampcoloy 940 to the fabrication of a ther-
79, 80, 117, 120]. Cortina et al. [134] manufactured bime- mal management mould using a DMT process. Kim et al.
tallic hot stamping tools with a H13 coated layer on AISI [144] adopted a damage diminution layer (DDL) between
1045 steel from a LAM-DED process to apply a cheaper successive layers to improve the ductility of the deposited
material to tools. region. They also used transition layers (TLs) with graded
The DJM can cause cracking in the interface between compositions between successive layers to prevent cracking
different materials owing to the difference of lattice struc- induced by the differences in thermal and mechanical prop-
tures, thermal expansion coefficient and mechanical prop- erties [144]. Figure 8d shows an example of a hot forging
erties [4, 51, 119, 129, 132, 135]. The GPM and the ISM die with DDL and TL.
were used to overcome the cracking in the interface during
the creation of FGM&S [4, 51, 119, 129, 130]. The GPM 3.4.4 Thermal Management
creates compositionally graded interlayers between differ-
ent materials, as shown in Fig. 8d [51, 53, 93, 119, 130, Various studies on applications of the LAM-DED process
131, 136–140]. Ocylok et al. fabricated functionally graded to the development of structures and parts related to a ther-
multi-layers with mixed compositions between bottom and mal management are performed. Representative applications
top layers using a LAM-DED process for the sake of improv- of the LAM-DED process to the thermal management are
ing the wear and corrosion characteristics of a die casting the fabrication of conformal cooling channels (CCCs) and
mold [51, 136]. Articek et al. [137] manufactured a continu- heat sinks for molding, forming and die casting tools [4,
ously graded material consisting of H13 tool steel and Cu 32, 76–80, 84, 117, 143, 145–151]. Mazumder et al. and
from a LENS process. Caroll et al. created a bulk part with DM3D Inc. manufactured various injection molds with
compositionally graded interlayers between 304 L stainless CCCs and volumetric heat sinks from a DMD process to
steel and Inconel 625 using a RPM 557 laser deposition sys- reduce cooling and cycle times through improvement of the
tem [52, 131, 138]. Durejko et al. fabricated thin wall tubes cooling rate [4, 32, 77, 79, 117]. Kolleck et al. [145] fabri-
with a Fe3Al/SS316L graded structure in the radial direction cated hot stamping dies incorporating CCCs using a DMD
using a LENS process [129, 139]. Heer et al. developed a process. Vollmer et al. manufactured press-hardening tools
compositionally graded magnetic-nonmagnetic bimetallic with CCCs from a LMD process of Trumpf Inc. for the sake
structure consisting of 316 and 430 stainless steels using a of reducing the tool temperature and the elimination of hot
LENS process [129, 140]. Ahn et al. [119] investigated the spots in the tools [147]. Ahn et al. developed thermal man-
influence of the design of compositionally graded interlay- agement molds with volumetric heat sinks using a DMT
ers on wear characteristics, as shown in Fig. 8c. In addition, process for the purpose of uniform and rapid cooling of the
they manufactured hot working dies with a compositionally molds [32, 143]. Ahn et al. in collaboration with Woosung
graded interlayer between SKD61 substrate and Stellite21 Inc. developed several injection molds incorporating CCCs,
deposited layer for the purpose of improving wear charac- including molds for a fan of a refrigerator, a window button
teristics and service life of the die [119]. of a car, a drawer of a refrigerator, etc., using a DMT pro-
The ISM creates an intermediate bonding layer, including cess for the sake of improving the production efficiency and
additional materials, between different materials to avoid the product quality together [4, 32, 147]. They reported that
undesirable phases, which may be easily formed in the GPM injection molds incorporating CCCs can greatly enhance the
[129]. A brittle intermetallic layer was formed in the inter- production efficiency and the product quality [4, 32, 147].
face when the titanium alloys is deposited on stainless steel Ahn et al. [147] patented design and fabrication technolo-
and Inconel alloy [129, 141, 142]. An intermediate bond- gies related to CCCs on curved surfaces. Soshi et al. [148]
ing layer with additional materials was required to improve developed an injection mold incorporating a coolant grid
joining characteristics through the elimination of a brittle using a DMG Mori LASERTEC 65 3D. They revealed that
intermetallic layer [129, 141, 142]. Saharabudhe et al. [141] the injection mold incorporating a coolant grid can improve

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 715

cooling efficiency [148]. Extreme Fabrication Technology 4.1 Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
Group (EFTG) of KITECH manufactured various injection Process
and blow molding molds, including molds for a TPE boot,
a wheel hub cap, etc., to reduce cooling and cycle times, as 4.1.1 Characteristics and Principle of WAAM Processes
shown in Fig. 8e [149]. In addition, the EFTG developed a
direct metal tooling process for injection mold with curved The WAAM combines an arc, including electric and plasma
CCCs [150]. Cortina et al. [151] have fabricated hot stamp- arcs, as heat energy and a wire as a feed stock [4, 24, 42, 43,
ing dies incorporating CCCs using a LMD process, as shown 59, 65, 154]. The WAAM process can be classified into three
in Fig. 8f. types according to the principle of the welding process: (a)
gas metal arc welding (GMAW), (b) gas tungsten arc weld-
ing (GTAW) and (c) plasma arc welding (PAW) [24, 42, 43,
4 Wire Feeding Type DED Processes: 65, 154–157]. Table 5 shows merits and demerits for dif-
State‑of‑the Art ferent WAAM processes [24, 65, 165]. Because the feeding
direction of the wire is co-axial with the welding torch, the
Wire feeding type DED processes are essentially the exten- deposition path is easily created, as shown in Table 5 [24,
sion of welding and cladding processes, as shown in Fig. 2 65, 157]. The set-up cost of the GMAW is cheaper than that
and Table 1 [1, 4, 24, 40, 46, 58–60, 62–73]. The capture of the GTAW and the PAW [165]. However, the GMAW
efficiency of the feedstock for the wire feeding type DED includes several disadvantages, including residual stress, dis-
processes is nearly 100%, as shown in Table 2 [24, 57–59, tortion and deterioration induced by an excessive heat input,
152]. The material usage efficiency of the wire feeding type [158]. Cold metal transfer (CMT) technology is the modi-
DED process is extremely greater than that of the LAM- fied GMAW using the controlled dip transference [24, 65,
DED process [152]. In addition, wires are cheaper than pow- 157]. The CMT technology can provide several advantages,
ders [152]. Due to a higher deposition rate and the ability such as a very low heat input, spatter-free metal transference,
to fabricate larger structures, the wire feeding type DED extremely stable electric arc, and sound welds, [24, 65, 157,
process is proper to fabricate a part with a large volume [24, 165]. In addition, the CMT technology can control the arc
42, 65, 152, 153]. The wire feeding type DED process is length on its own [157]. The GTAW and the PAW are more
effective for simple geometries and a surface coating [58]. stable and reliable process than the GMAW [157].
The WAAM process based on GTAW can fabricate metal-
lic parts with relatively smooth surface and high strength
[54, 165]. The GTAW can greatly reduce porosity as com-
pared to the GMAW [158]. The high temperature region of
the arc of the PAW is narrower than that of GTAW. Hence,
the WAAM based on PAW can create relatively narrower
deposition bead [24]. WAAM processes based on GTAW

Table 5  Merits and demerits for different WAAM processes [24, 65, 156, 157, 159, 160]
Type Merits Demerits Electrode Deposition rate (kg/h)

GMAW High efficiency and low cost Unstable process in uneven deposi- Consumable 3–4 (CMT : 2–3)
Low initial set-up cost tion surfaces
Relatively less complex process Low arc stability
Co-axial feeding of wire High spattering
Relatively easier deposition path Excessive heating
Excessive residual stress and
deterioration
Poor surface roughness
Relatively greater distortion
GTAW​ Smooth surface finish Off-axis feeding of wire Non-consumable 1–2
High strength of the deposited part Change of welding direction
Reduced porosity Sensitive to arc length
Relatively reliable process Complicated deposition path
PAW Narrow high temperature zone as compared Necessity of rotation of torch 2–4
to GTAW (Narrow weld beads)
Relatively reliable process
Relatively high welding speed

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and PAW are used to deposit titanium due to the arc wander- and 2–4 kg/h, respectively, as shown in Table 5 [160]. Wu
ing problem of the WAAM process based on GMAW [65]. et al. [160] summarized materials used in WAAM processes,
Unlike the WAAM process based on GMAW, WAAM pro- as shown in Table 6.
cesses based on GTAW and PAW off-axially feed the wire
[4, 24, 65, 152–157]. The off-axial feeding of wire leads to 4.1.2 Development of Processes and Systems
a change of the welding direction and excessive sensitiv-
ity of the arc length [157]. The WAAM processes based on Table  7 summarizes representative research groups and
GTAW and PAW require rotation of the torch to maintain an used thermal energy sources for WAAM processes. Cran-
identical feeding direction of the wire [65, 159]. The WAAM field University (U.K), University of Sheffield (U.K), Uni-
processes based on GTAW and PAW need a complicated versity of Wollongong (Australia), Tennessee Technologi-
path program [65, 157]. cal University (U.S.A), Oak Ridge National Laboratory
The WAAM process employs CNC gantries and robot (U.S.A), Indian Institute of Technology (India), and Harbin
systems for manipulating the motion of the welding torch Institute of Technology (China) are representative active
and the wire feeder [65]. A typical layer thickness and the research groups working on WAAM processes, as shown
minimum feature size ranges from 1000 to 2000 μm together, in Table 7 [24, 44, 65, 161, 170]. In the early 1990s, Wil-
as shown in Table 2 [24, 65, 154]. The energy efficiency of liams et al. in the Welding Engineering Center (WEC) of
WAAM is less than 90%, as shown in Table 2 [4, 24]. The Cranfield University began to research the development of
BTF ratio of WAAM can be reduced to 1.2 [65, 154]. The a WAAM process based on GMAW to increase the BTF
WAAM process can greatly reduce the waste of material ratio of expensive and high performance alloys through
due to a low BTF ratio as compared to conventional subtrac- cooperation with Rolls-Royce plc [65, 155, 170]. They con-
tive manufacturing (SM) processes [65, 154, 155, 157, 159]. tinuously developed advanced WAAM processes and their
The deposition rate of the WAAM process typically ranges applications [65, 155, 159, 170]. WAAM3D was incorpo-
from 16.7 to 66.7 g/min [24, 65]. The surface roughness of rated to commercialize WAAM technologies of Cranfield
the fabricated part by the WAAM process is nearly 200 μm University [162]. Advanced Manufacturing Research Center
of ­Ra [59]. Deposition rates of WAAM processes based on (AMRC) at the University of Sheffield in collaboration with
GMAW, GTAW and PAW lie in ranges of 3–4 kg/h, 1–2 kg/h seven partners initiated Rapid Product of Large Aerospace

Table 6  Used materials by WAAM process for different WAAM processes [4, 24, 65, 157–160, 166]
Applications Aerospace Automotive Marine Corrosion resistance High temperature Tool and molds

Alloy Ti, Al, Ni A1, Steel Ti, Steel, Bronze Ti, Ni Ti, Ni Steel

Table 7  Representative research groups and used thermal energy sources of WAAM process
Research group Country Thermal energy source References

Cranfield Univ. (WAAM3D Inc.) U.K GMAW, GTAW, PAW [24, 44, 65, 154, 155, 158, 159, 161,
162, 170, 173]
Univ. of Nottingham U.K GMAW [24, 44, 160, 173]
Univ. of Sheffield (Advanced manufac- U.K GTAW​ [24, 44, 65, 153, 155, 160, 161, 170]
turing research center)
Univ.of Wollongong Australia GMAW, GTAW​ [24, 44, 160, 161, 170, 174]
Ock Ridge National Laboratory U.S.A GMAW, GTAW​ [115, 163, 164]
Tennessee Technological Univ. U.S.A GMAW (CMT), GTAW​ [54, 165]
RAMLAB Inc. Netherlands GMAW [166]
MX3D Inc Netherlands GMAW [167, 172]
Indian Institute of Technology India GMAW, PTA [24, 44, 161, 175]
Harbin Institute of Technology Chania GMAW, GTAW​ [24, 44, 161, 175]
Beijing Institute of Technology Chania GTAW​ [152]
Federal Univ. of Parana Brazil Micro-PTA [64]
IK4-LORTEK Inc. Spain GMAW (CMT), GTAW (TopTIG) [157]
Norsk Titanium Inc. Norway PAW [42, 57, 169]

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 717

Components (RAPOLAC) in 2005 [65, 153, 155, 170]. The material of wire, diameter of wire, etc., as shown in Fig. 9
project was focused on the WAAM process based on cold [58, 152–161, 168, 171–181]. Ji et al. [152] investigated
wire-fed GTAW to fabricate large parts with a variety of the influence of heat input, layer thickness, deposition path,
aerospace material [155, 170]. University of Wollongong and wire curvature on the formation and the mechanism of
developed a robot WAAM process integrated a closed loop defects to control macro defects for the fabrication of TC4
control system [24, 160, 161]. Kim et al. et al. of Tennessee alloy using a WAAM process based on GTAW. Rodriguez
Technological University developed a robot WAAM process et al. [157] examined the effects of deposition parameters,
based on CMT and GTAW, as shown in Fig. 10a [54, 165]. including the arc current, the wire feed rate, the arc voltage,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in collaboration the travel speed, the arc length, the deposition rate, and the
with Wolf Robotics and Lincoln Electric developed a robot deposition path, on bead formations, temperature histories
WAAM process based on the GMAW for a metal big area during deposition and tensile properties for WAAM pro-
additive manufacturing (MBAAM), as shown in Fig. 10b cesses based on CMT and TopTIG. In addition, they per-
[162, 163]. Rodriguez et al. [157] developed WAAM pro- formed building experiments of large parts using selected
cesses based on CMT and TopTIG for stainless steel. Norsk proper deposition conditions for the WAAM processes based
Titanium commercialized a WAAM process based on PAW, on CMT and TopTIG [157]. Dinovitzer et al. [171] investi-
which is a Rapid Plasma Deposition (RPD) process, to fabri- gated the effects of the wire feed rate, the travel speed, the
cate a large part using titanium alloys [42, 57, 169]. Several arc current, and the argon flow rate on the bead geometry
WAAM machines, such as GTarc300-3 WAAM machine and the microstructure of the fabricated HASTELLOY X
(Gefertec GmbH, Germany), VARIAXISj-600 AM (Mazak, part by a WAAM process based on GTAW through a design
Japan), Addilan V0.1 (Addilan, Spain), ArcMan-600 (Nan- of experiments (DOEs) . They reported that the bead height
jing Enigma Automation, China), RC-WAAM-3000 (Nan- is greatly dependent on the feed rate of the wire, while the
jing Zhongke Raycham Laser Technology, China), etc., were melting depth and the surface roughness are independent on
commercialized [162, 169]. the feed rate [158, 171].
Yehorov et al. [176] studied on the effects of the travel
4.1.3 Effects of Deposition Parameters speed, the deposition rate, and the wire feed rate on the
surface quality of a thin wall part fabricated by a WAAM
Representative deposition parameters of the WAAM process process based on GMAW. Shen et al. [177] examined the
are arc current, arc voltage, working distance, travel speed, influence of the arc current and the interpass temperature on
feed rate of wire, flow rate of shielding gas, deposition the morphology, the phase change, the hardness, the chemi-
path, interpass time, dwell time between successive layers, cal composition, and the tensile property of a Fe3Al-based

Fig. 9  Deposition parameters of wire feeding type DED processes [24, 46, 58, 66–68, 71, 73, 152, 154–165, 168, 170–181, 185, 188, 189, 191,
194, 200, 203, 204, 212, 217–219, 221–224]

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iron aluminide part fabricated by a WAAM process based fabricated part by a robotic WAAM process. Ma et al. [181]
on GTAW. Wu et al. [178] examined the influence of the employed weaving techniques for improving the surface
heat accumulation on arc characteristics and metal transfer flatness of a large and thin wall structure. Wu et al. [174]
behavior during deposition in WAAM of Ti–6Al–4V parts. studied the effects of forced interpass cooling on the bead
Gokhale et al. investigated the effects of the arc current, the geometry, the surface oxidation, the macrostructure, the
torch speed, the wire feed rate, and the torch angle on the microstructure, the hardness, the mechanical properties, and
formation of the bead to fabricate a thin wall structure using the fracture behavior of the fabricated Ti–6Al–4V part by a
a WAAM process based GTAW [158, 179]. They reported WAAM process based on GTAW.
that the torch angle is a dominant parameter to determine the
formation of the bead. Martina et al. [159] investigated the 4.1.4 Applications and Fabricated Parts
influence of the wire feed rate, the arc current and the travel
speed on the bead formation and the surface waviness of the The WAAM processes widely applied to the fabrication of
deposited part to obtain a processing map for a WAAM pro- a large-sized part using expensive materials, as shown in
cess based on PAW. Jhavar et al. [175] examined the effects Table 8 [65, 162, 166, 167, 169, 172, 182]. The WEC of
of the plasma power, the travel speed and the wire feed rate Cranfield University fabricated large-sized aerospace com-
on the formation and the quality of the deposited bead by a ponents, including a Ti–6Al–4V wing spar, a Ti–6Al–4V
WAAM process based on a micro PTA. external landing gear rib, an aluminum wing rib, and a
Rodrigues et al. [172] reported that the deposition path Ti–6Al–4V pylon mount, using WAAM processes based on
greatly affects defects, including the porosity, the surface PAW and CMT, as shown in Table 8 [65, 162, 172, 182].
waviness, the hump, recurrent macrostructural problems, The WEC reported that the WAAM processes can greatly
etc., and residual stress distributions of the fabricated part reduce the BTF and the fabrication cost as compared to
by a WAAM process. Li et al. [168] investigated the influ- conventional manufacturing, such as conventional and high-
ence of the overlap ratio of in-plane and out-of-plane and speed machining, processes as shown in Table 8 [65, 172,
the deposition path of out-of-plane on the surface profile 183]. In addition, in order to reduce the lead time, the WEC
of the fabricated part by a robot WAAM process based of Cranfield University fabricated a wing for wind tunnel
on GMAW. Ding et al. [180] proposed a tangent overlap test and a profiled cone using a WAAM process based on
model to improve the surface profile and roughness of the CMT, as shown in Table 8 [65]. Clark et al. investigated the

Table 8  Applications of WAAM processes

Applications Dimension/ Based process Materials Deposition BTF of CM BTF of WAAM Cost References
weight rate (kg/h) reduction
(%)

Wing spar 1.2 × 0.2 m2 (In- PAW Ti–6Al–4V 0.8 6.5 2.15 29 [65, 162, 172,
plane)/17 kg 182]
External land- 0.8 × 0.7 m2 (In- PAW Ti–6Al–4V 0.8 12 2.3 69 [65, 162, 172,
ing gear rib plane)/24 kg Steel 0.8 12 2.3 55 182]
Wing rib 2.5 m CMT (two Al 1.1 45 2.9 65 [65, 162, 172,
(Conventional (Length)/15 kg torches) 182]
machining)
Wing rib (High 2.5 m CMT (two Al 1.1 45 2.9 61 [65, 162, 172,
speed machin- (Length)/15 kg torches) 182]
ing)
Wing for wind 0.8 m (Length) CMT High strength 3.5 – – – [65]
tunnel test steel
Pylon mount 7.6 kg – Ti–6Al–4V 5.1 1.5 7 [65, 162, 172,
(Original 182]
design)
Pylon mount 3.9 kg – Ti–6Al–4V – 6 1.5 29 [65, 162, 172,
(Topologi- 182]
cally opti-
mized)
Profiled cone 0.4 m (Diameter) CMT Mild steel 2.6 – 1.25 – [65]
Propeller 1.35 m (Diam- GMAW Bronze alloy – – – – [166]
eter)/180 kg

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 719

Fig. 10  WAAM systems and fabricated parts: (a) WAAM system of (reprinted from figure of reference 164 with permission) [164], (d)
Tennessee Technological University (reprinted from figure provided fabricated part with a large volume (reprinted from figure provided
by Prof. Duck Bong Kim of Tennessee Technological University by Prof. Duck Bong Kim of Tennessee Technological University with
with permission), (b) MBAAM system and fabricated parts of ORNL permission) and (e) examples of BAMS (reprinted from figures pro-
(reprinted from figure of reference 164 with permission) [164], (c) vided by Prof. Duck Bong Kim of Tennessee Technological Univer-
fabricated mould for compression molding by MBAAM system sity with permission)

application of a shape metal deposition (SMD) process to with a large volume using high entropy alloy, as shown in
the fabrication of a nickel alloy part for aero engine com- Fig. 10d. Li et al. [56] manufactured stiffened panels from a
ponents [183]. RAMLAB Inc. [166] successfully manufac- WAAM process based on a tandem GMAW. They created Al
tured a ship propeller with a diameter of 1350 mm, dubbed 2325 stiffeners with a thin wall on an Al2219 alloy.
WAAMpeller, from a WAAM process based on GMAW. A Several researchers fabricated bimetallic additively-man-
bronze alloy, Nickel Aluminum Bronze (NAB), was used ufactured structures (BAMS) through mixing of the mate-
as the deposition material [166]. Norsk Titanium Inc. pro- rial using a dual wire feeding into the molten pool [54].
duced the FAA approved structural components of Boeing Kim et al. of Tennessee Technological University fabricated
787 Dreamliner using a WAAM process using PAW [169, BAMS from a WAAM process based on CMT, as shown in
184]. RAMLAB and Norsk Titanium forecasted that WAAM Fig. 10e [54, 165]. Kim et al. deposited different materials
processes can greatly reduce the lead time, the cost and the in bottom and top regions to create a BAMS. Wu et al. [156]
waste [166, 169]. In addition, Norsk Titanium predicted manufactured a different type BAMS, in which a Ni depos-
that the RPD process can reduce the used titanium alloys by ited region is parallel to a steel deposited region in the hori-
nearly 25–75% as compared to forging and metal working zontal direction, from a WAAM process based on GTAW.
processes [169]. ONRL fabricated a big metallic part with
a large volume, as shown in Fig. 10b, c [164]. Kim et al. of
Tennessee Technological University fabricated various parts

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4.2 Wire and Laser Additive Manufacturing (WLAM) 5–15 times of the wire diameter [59, 186]. Hence, in order
Process to decrease the minimum feature size of the WLAM pro-
cess, the wire diameter should be reduced [186]. The mean
4.2.1 Characteristics and Principle of WLAM Processes surface roughness of the WLAM part ranges from 40 μm of
­Ra to 60 μm of R­ a for the case of flat deposition [73, 185].
The WLAM process is one of the MAM processes to pro- The travel speed of the laser commonly lies in the range
duce metallic parts without porosity using a laser, such as of 0.05–2.4 m/min in the WLAM process [24]. Unlike the
diode, disc, Nd:YAG, ­CO2, and fiber lasers, as a thermal WAAM process, a hardness gradient within the top region
energy source and an metallic wire [4, 24, 61, 67, 73, 153, of the deposited part by the WLAM process manifests due to
185–202]. The WLAM process fundamentally uses the con- repeated rapid heating, melting, solidification, and cooling
cept of laser cladding and welding, as shown in Table 1 [4, cycles during the deposition process [153, 187, 193]. The
24, 66, 67]. As compared to the LAM-DED process using hardness gradients affect the increased tensile strength of
powders, the WLAM process provided promising advan- the top region [153, 187]. The tensile strength in the deposi-
tages, such as a clean fabrication environment without metal tion direction is greater than that in the building direction
dust pollution, reduced cost to produce wire, reduced mate- [153, 187, 193]. Anisotropic characteristics with different
rial wastage, improved surface roughness, and a high depo- mechanical properties in the deposition and building direc-
sition rate, from the viewpoint of a green technology [188, tion appear in the fabricated part by the WLAM process
189]. The deposition rate of the WLAM generally ranges [153, 187, 191, 193].
from 1.5 to 48.0 g/min, as shown in Table 2 [24]. The layer
thickness of the WLAM process is typically greater than
1000 μm [186, 201]. The WLAM process is widely applied 4.2.2 Development of Processes and Systems
to surface protection, surface treatment, repair and feature
addition [190–192]. Recently, the application of the WLAM Various types of WLAM processes and systems have been
process area was extended to the mBAAM for the manu- developed [24, 61, 66, 153, 187–193]. The WLAM process
facture of metallic parts with an extremely large volume can be classified into lateral and co-axial types according to
due to characteristics of a high deposition rate [190, 191]. the feeding type of the wire [24, 59, 61, 153, 185, 188–195,
Ti-based, Ni-based, Fe-based, and Al-based alloys are uti- 198]. Lateral feeding of the wire is a common method to
lized as the material of the wire [24, 61, 185–191]. Many deliver the wire to the molten pool in the WLAM process
researches focused on Ti–6Al–4V to develop applications of [24, 59, 66, 73, 185, 194–197, 199]. Miranda et al. [194]
the WLAM process to the aerospace industry in recent years developed a WLAM set-up for rapid prototyping using a
[24, 153]. The diameter of the used wire by the WLAM Ti–6Al–4V wire. The system included a Yb fiber laser with
process normally ranges from 0.2 to 1.2 mm [24, 186]. The a maximum power of 8 kW, a fiber coupler and a five axis
WLAM process employs a high power laser for melting the rig [194]. EDAS Innovation Works Inc. devised an experi-
substrate and the wire [4, 24, 191]. The width of the bead mental set-up consisting of a lateral wire feeder (Weldaix
deposited by the WLAM process usually lies in the range of Inc.), Nd:YAG laser with a maximum power of 3.5 kW, a

Fig. 11  Developed WLAM systems: (a) robotized laser-wire direct (reprinted from figure provided by Ph.D Jae Gu Kim of KIMM with
metal deposition system (reprinted from figure of reference 191 with permission) and (c) LMWD system with a coaxial wire deposition
permission) [191], (b) WLAM system with a rotating wire feeder head (reprinted from figure reference 61 with permission) [61]

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 721

high accuracy 6-axis robot (KR 100, KUKA Inc.), a COMS feeding type WLAM process, several co-axial feeding type
camera, and a thermography camera for the WLAM process WLAM processes with vertical feeding of the wire have
[153, 187]. Research Center for Advanced Manufacturing been introduced [61, 199–203]. The wire is vertically fed to
at Southern Methodist University developed a robotized the laser focus for the case of the co-axial wire feeder. Sev-
laser-wire direct metal deposition system, including a 6-axis eral split separate beams and an axisymmetric multi-laser
robot (KR-60) with a 2-axis rotary table, an fiber laser with a beam source are focused on a focal point through lateral
maximum power of 4 kW (IPG Inc.), a wire feeding system irradiation of the laser beam for the case of the laser clad-
(Binzel Inc.), and a CMOS camera (Prosilica GC640), as ding head with a co-axial wire feeder [191, 201]. The co-
shown in Fig. 11a [191]. axial feeding type WLAM process allows omni-directional
ORNL in cooperation with GKN aerospace Inc. devel- deposition [191, 201]. Wang et al. [200] devised a co-axial
oped a WLAM system, including a laser with a maximum feeding type of directed laser deposition (DL) system with
power of 20 kW, a lateral wire feeder, and an online moni- vertical wire feeding inside of an annular laser beam.
toring camera, for mBAAM using a titanium alloy [190, Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology
191]. Su et al. [196] devised a WLAM system using a pulsed (IWS) commercialized a novel laser cladding head with a
Nd:YAG laser. The system included an infrared thermo- co-axial wire feeder (COAXwire) [191, 201]. ORNL in col-
graph and a CNC worktable [196]. Lincoln Electric Com- laboration with GKN aerospace developed a WLAM process
pany (USA) developed a work cell, including a laser hot using a COAX laser wire feeding system [190]. Brueckner
wire (LHS) system mounted on a Fanuc robot, for near-net et al. [201] employed a COAXwire cladding head consist-
shaping using metallic wires [197]. The LHS system offered ing of an IPG fiber laser with maximum power of 400 W
potential for a high deposition rate using a low laser power and a modified DINSE wire feeding system for fabricating
owing to resistive preheating of the wire [197, 198]. In addi- a small-sized part. Motta et al. [61] developed a laser metal
tion, the LHS could provide several advantages, including wire deposition (LMWD) system. The system consisted of
low melt-back of the diluted region, thermal stability and a coaxial wire deposition head (CoaxPrinter) a multi-mode
metallurgical control, for additive manufacturing of metals active fiber laser with a maximum power of 3 kW (YLS-
[196]. In order to improve the process stability through the 300), a 6 axis anthropomorphic robot with a rotary table
reduction of the risk of process stoppage induced by wire (ABB IRB 2400-10), and a high speed imaging system
oscillation and the productivity through the application of (Fastcam Mini AX200), as shown in Fig. 11c [61]. Kotar
additional wires, the diameter of the laser beam was larger et al. [202] devised an experimental set-up to investigate the
than that of the wire for the case of a conventional WLAM initial transient phase and the stability of the annular laser
process [68, 185, 194]. Kim and Lee [195] developed a novel beam direct wire deposition (ALB-DWD) process. Fu et al.
WLAM process with a rotating metal wire feeder to ensure [199] developed a WLAM process using an axisymmetric
front feeding of the wire irrespective of the deposition path, multi-laser source and vertical wire feeding. They used three
as shown in Fig. 11b. Demir [186] investigated a micro laser beams and a coaxial wire feeder [199].
laser metal wire deposition (MLMWD) process for additive
manufacturing of thin-wall structure. The MLMWD process
employed a pulsed Nd:YAG laser and an in-house built wire 4.2.3 Effects of Deposition Parameters
feeder for precise control of the deposited region [186]. In
the MLMWD process, the beam diameter was comparable The quality and the properties of parts fabricated by the
to that of the wire to allow correct positioning of the laser WLAM process are dependent on the laser power, the travel
over the deposited wire unlike a conventional WLAM pro- speed, the beam diameter, the track overlap ratio, the deposi-
cess [186]. tion path, the interpass time, the interlayer dwell time, the
Although the lateral feeding type easily implements the wire feeding direction, the feeding angle, the wire tip posi-
concept of the designed WLAM process, the lateral feeding tion, etc., as shown in Fig. 9 [24, 66–68, 73, 185, 188, 189,
type of WLAM process is greatly sensitive to wire feed- 191, 193, 200, 201, 204]. Several researchers reported that
ing and deposition conditions [24, 59, 73, 153, 189, 195]. the wire tip should be immersed in the molten pool to create
With the lateral feeding type WLAM process, it is difficult continuous and smooth beads with a uniform surface aspect
to create the deposition path considering the proper feeding [66, 194]. The combination of the wire feeding direction and
direction and location of the wire during the deposition of the wire tip position in the molten pool remarkably affected
a complex shape as compared to the co-axial feeding type the droplet transfer and the bead quality [24, 61, 67, 73,
[191]. In addition, the lateral feeding of the wire causes ani- 185, 189, 199, 205]. Most previous research works revealed
sotropic deposition problems, limited mobility of the deposi- that front and side feeding can fabricate a good deposition
tion head and reduced flexibility of the deposition geometry bead as compared to back feeding [24, 67, 73, 185, 199,
[61, 153]. In order to overcome disadvantages of the lateral 205]. In addition, it was suggested that the proper feeding

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722 International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742

angle of the wire ranges from 20 o to 60 o [67, 73, 185]. the temperature distribution and the residual stress. Caiazzo
Syed and Li [205] reported that pores hardly appear in the [206] derived an equation to estimate the deposition rate of
multi-layer deposited part when front feeding of the wire is wire. The porosity of the deposited region was considered
adopted. Xiao et al. reported that rear feeding of the wire is in the equation [206].
more effective than front and side feeding for the case of the Characteristic dimensions of the deposited region, the
aluminum welding using a C ­ O2 laser [24, 205]. Syed and Li diluted region and the HAZ for the WLAM process are
[205] suggested that the trail edge is a proper position of the greatly influenced by the three major deposition parameters
wire in the molten pool for the case of rear feeding. [24, 67, 186, 188, 189, 197, 200, 206]. Mok et al. reported
The laser power, the travel speed and the wire feed rate that the height of the bead is mainly influenced by the
are major deposition parameters to determine the deposi- travel speed, whereas the width of the bead is significantly
tion rate of the material, the characteristics of the deposited dependent on the laser power [24, 67]. Demir [186] esti-
region and the occurrence of defects [24, 61, 66, 185, 188, mated empirical equations related to relationships between
189, 194]. The feed rate of the wire is limited by the LEL process parameters, including the laser energy, the pulse
[24, 188, 189]. The intermittent dripping phenomenon in duration and travel speed, on characteristics dimensions of
the deposited bead occurs when the feed rate of the wire the deposited bead and the diluted region for the deposition
is very low for a high LEL, while a stubbing phenomenon of AISI 301 wire on the AISI 316 substrate using the pulsed
in the deposited bead takes place when the feed rate of the Nd:YAG laser. Kottman et al. [197] estimated process maps
wire is excessively high for a low LEL [24, 61, 188, 189]. for dilution as a function of the laser power and the hot wire
Motta et al. [61] predicted the process feasibility map to power when the Ti–6Al–4V wire is deposited by the laser
estimate an appropriate LEL for the deposition of AISI hot wire process. Caiazzo [206] examined the effects of the
308 stainless steel using the LMWD process with a coaxial laser power, the travel speed, and the wire feed rate on the
wire deposition head. In addition, they reported that power formation of the bead, the fusion zone and the pores in the
decay strategies or close-loop temperature control is needed vicinity of the deposited region. Brandl et al. [207] exten-
to maintain a stable molten pool size through the preven- sively investigated the influence of the laser power, the travel
tion of heat accumulation during multi-layer deposition [61]. speed, and the wire feed rate to the travel on dimensions and
Kotar et al. [202] developed process-stability windows to hardness of the bead, the fusion zone and the HAZ for the
predict an appropriate combination of initial laser power deposition of Ti–6Al–4V using a Nd:YAG laser.
and workpiece irradiation proportion (WIP) of each wire The deposition path, the interpass time and the interlayer
feed rate for the deposition of SS 316 wire on a SS 304 dwell time (interlayer cooling time and interlayer time inter-
substrate using the ALB-DWD process. Deposition rate and val) greatly affected residual stress distributions, mechanical
area can be estimated by the ratio of the wire feed rate to the properties and microstructures in the vicinity of the depos-
travel speed when the diameter of the wire is fixed [24, 186, ited region [191, 193, 203, 204]. Akbari and Kovacevic
194]. Demir [186] defined equations to predict the deposited [191] examined the effects of the interlayer time interval on
volume of the wire, the delivered volume of the wire and the thermal history, the microstructure and the mechanical
the material use efficiency for the deposition of single and properties of the fabricated part by the robotized LWDMD
multiple layers. Chua et al. [203] investigated the influence process. Bandari et al. investigated the influence of the inter-
of the laser power, the travel speed and the bead length on layer cooling time on distortion and mechanical properties in

Fig. 12  Fabricated parts by the developed WLAM systems: (a) heli- from figure provided by Ph.D. Jae Gu Kim of KIMM with permis-
cal screw and propeller fabricated by the robotized laser-wire direct sion) and (c) cylindrical thin wall structure with a small volume
metal deposition system (reprinted from figures of reference 191 with fabricated by a LMWD system with a coaxial wire deposition head
permission) [191], (b) Ti–6AL–4V structures on curved surfaces fab- (reprinted from figure of reference 61 with permission) [61]
ricated by the WLAM process with a rotary wire feeder (reprinted

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 723

the WLAM process to deposit Ti–6Al–4V [193, 208]. They 4.3 Wire and Electron Beam Additive
reported that a longer interlayer cooling time increases the Manufacturing (WEAM) Process
distortion of the fabricated part, while the interlayer cooling
time hardly affects the mechanical properties of a large scale 4.3.1 Characteristics and Principle of WEAM Processes
part [193]. Chua et al. [204] examined the effects of the dep-
osition path, the deposition direction, and the interpass time The WEAM process uses an electron beam (ebeam) as a
on thermo-mechanical characteristics for Ti–6Al–4V thin thermal energy source. The ebeam is a stream of acceler-
wall deposition through a three-dimensional finite element ated electrons with kinetic energy unlike the laser [211]. A
analysis (FEA). Chua [209] proposed a control scheme of thermal energy is generated by a collision between electrons
the interpass time to make a uniform interpass temperature and materials when the ebeam is applied to the material pro-
during successive deposition of the bead in a plane using cessing [211]. The ebeam is applicable to highly reflective
FEAs. Ding et al. [210] developed a path planning program and conductive materials, such as copper, aluminum, etc.,
based on Matlab software to deposit a complex part using [41, 46, 212]. The energy density, the energy efficiency, the
an 8-axis robotized WLAM system. scan speed, the penetration depth, and the deposition rate of
the ebeam are significantly greater than those of the laser,
4.2.4 Applications and Fabricated Parts as shown in Table 2 [24, 46, 62, 63, 69–71, 213, 214]. The
deposition rate and the layer thickness of the WEAM process
The WLAM process is not actively applied to industrial are less than 330 g/min and 3000 μm, respectively, as shown
parts yet. Feasibility studies are in progress to fabricate in Table 2 [24, 40, 69–71]. The WEAM process is also suit-
metallic parts using developed WLAM systems. Brandl et al. able for the fabrication of parts with a large volume. The
[153] fabricated a Ta-200 cylinder and Ti–6Al–4V thruster ebeam gun included a vacuum environment to prevent elec-
using a laser beam based deposition process. Akbari and tron scattering induced by the collisions between electrons
Kovacevic [191] created several thin wall structures with and molecules of elements of air [46, 63, 69–72, 211]. In
a medium volume, such as a ball structure, a helical screw addition, a vacuum furnace with a protective environment is
structure, a propeller structure, etc., on thin plates and cylin- needed to prevent both electron scattering in the furnace and
drical bar from a robotized laser-wire direct metal deposition X-ray irradiation to the operator [46, 63, 69–72, 211, 214].
system, as shown in Fig. 12a. Kim and Lee [195] deposited The deposition of the material in a vacuum environment
several Ti–6Al–4V structures on flat and curved surfaces ensures clean operation without a consumable shield gas
using a WLAM process with a rotary wire feeder, as shown [212]. The vacuum environment can reduce impurities [215].
in Fig. 12b. Kottman et al. [197] applied a WLAM process Two types of ebeam gun, including thermionic and
using a hot wire to repair of a shot block for die casting. plasma Ebeam guns, are adopted for the WEAM process.
Fu et al. [199] fabricated several test parts using a WLAM Table 9 shows features of a thermionic ebeam (T-ebeam) and
process with a vertical wire feeder. WLAM processes with a a plasma ebeam (P-ebeam). The T-ebeam and the P-ebeam
coaxial wire feeder frequently used to fabricate small metal- use hot and cold cathodes to generate a stream of free elec-
lic parts with a thin wall structure. Motta et al. [61] manu- trons, respectively, as shown in Table 9 [41, 46, 211, 212].
factured a cylindrical thin wall structure with a small volume Free electrons are emitted by heating of the filament in the
from a LMWD system, as shown in Fig. 12c. Demir [186] T-ebeam gun, while they are emitted by the collision of the
created a small-sized thin wall structure with an aspect ratio activated ions from the plasma gas into the cold cathode [41,
of up to 20 on an AISI 316 substrate using the μLMWD 211, 212]. The emission temperature of the hot cathode is
process. Brueckner et al. [201] fabricated a near-net-shape greater than 2200 °C, while that of the cold cathode is nearly
pin structure with an extremely small volume. room temperature [211]. Hence, the service life of the hot
cathode is remarkably short than that of the cold cathode
due to evaporation and erosion of the hot cathode, as shown

Table 9  Comparison of features Features Thermionic electron beam (T-ebeam) Plasma electron beam (P-ebeam)
of a thermionic ebeam with
those of a plasma ebeam [41, Cathode Hot cathode Cold cathode
46, 211, 213]
Emission temperature (oC) > 2,200 (for tungsten) ≈ room temperature
Service life of cathode (hours) < 50 > 100
Vacuum (Torrs) 10−4–10−6 10−2–10−4
Cost of gun Relatively expensive Relatively cheap
Acceleration voltage (keV) 1–150 (commercialized system) 1-30 (commercialized system)

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in Table 9 [41, 46, 211, 212]. The T-ebeam gun requires a wires to fabricate parts with different feature sizes or two
high level vacuum environment in the range of ­10−4 to ­10−6 different alloys to create the product with gradient proper-
Torrs to avoid oxidation of the cathode material, while the ­ BF3 system, including a maximum
ties [217]. The portable E
P-ebeam gun needs a low level vacuum environment in the acceleration voltage of 20–30 keV and a single wire feeder,
range ­10−2 to ­10−4 Torrs, as shown in Table 9 [41, 46, 211, was developed to investigate the influence of the micrograv-
212]. The WEAM system using P-ebeam is cheaper than ity on the fabrication characteristics [217, 218]. The ­EBF3
that using T-ebeam [46]. The typical diameter of the wire for process used an off-axis feeding method of the wire [46,
the WEAM ranges from 0.5 mm to 3.0 mm [46]. A coating 218]. The ­EBF3 process has been applied to the deposition
of the wire using a corrosion-resistive material is needed to of Ni, Ti, Cu, and Al alloys for aerospace application [218].
prevent oxidation of the wire [46]. Sciaky Inc. (U.S.A) patented an electron beam additive
manufacturing (EBAM) process using a T-ebeam gun, as
4.3.2 Development of Process and System shown in Table 10 [46, 69]. Sciaky Inc. collaborated with
NASA LaRC to develop the EBAM system [69, 218]. Sciaky
Research on the WEAM process was initiated by Dave et al. Inc. developed several EBAM systems with different deposi-
of MIT in U.S.A. [213, 216]. NASA Langley Research tion volumes to fabricate parts with medium, large and mega
Center (LaRC, U.S.A) patented the electron beam free- scales, as shown in Fig. 13a [46, 69, 215]. The maximum
form fabrication ­(EBF3) process [24, 46, 69, 212, 214]. acceleration voltage was more than 60 keV [46, 69, 214].
The ­EBF3 process used a T-ebeam gun to weld materials The maximum power of the EBAM system ranged from
[46, 214, 217]. NASA LaRC developed two types of E ­ BF3 15 kW to 42 kW, as shown in Table 10 [46, 69]. The EBAM
system, including ground-based and portable systems [46, systems included a dual wire feeder to create a function-
217]. The ground-based consisted of T-ebeam guns with a ally graded material (FGM) [46, 215]. The structure and
maximum acceleration voltage of 60 keV and a dual wire the configuration of the EBAM system of Sciaky Inc. were
feeder, respectively [46, 217]. The dual wire feeder of the ­ BF3 system. Sciaky Inc. developed
similar to those of the E
ground-based ­EBF3 system used to feed either fine or coarse five types of EBAM systems, as shown in Table 10 [46, 69].

Table 10  Characterizes of ebeam guns and wire feeders of different WEAM systems [46, 63, 69–71, 214, 217–219]
Process Company/institute Type of ebeam Feeding type Power (kW) Acceleration Model
voltage (keV)

EBF3 NASA LaRC T-ebeam (Siacky ebeam welder) Off-axis 15-42 20-60 Ground-based system, portable
system
EBAM Siacky Inc. T-ebeam Off-axis 15-42 30-60 EBAM68, EBAM88, EBAM110,
EBAM150, EBAM330
Nuclear AMRC T-ebeam (Pro-beam ebeam Off-axis 40 80 K2000 based system
welder)
xBeam Xbeam Inc. P-ebeam Co-axial <5 10-15 xBeam Lab., xBeam Works,
xBeam Grand

Fig. 13  Developed WEAM systems: (a) EBAM system of Siacky Inc. (adapted from figures provided by Siacky Inc. with permission) [69] and
(b) xBeam systems of xBeam Inc. (adapted from figures provided by xBeam Inc. with permission) [70]

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 725

Nuclear Advanced Manufacturing Research Center 4.3.3 Effects of Deposition Parameters

(Nuclear AMRC) of University of Sheffield (U.K) in col-
laboration with Pro-beam Inc. developed EBAM systems The product quality of the WEAM process is influenced
based on the K2000 T-ebeam welding facility [46, 71, 219]. by the acceleration voltage, the beam current, the travel
A T-ebeam gun with an acceleration voltage of 80 keV and speed, the beam diameter, the track overlap ratio, the dep-
a maximum power of 40 kW was mounted on a 3-axis CNC osition path, the interpass time, the interlayer dwell time,
controlled gantry system [46, 71, 219]. In addition, a 2-axis the wire feeding direction, the feeding angle, the wire tip
rotation table, including turn and tilt table, was installed position, etc., as shown in Fig. 9 [24, 46, 62, 71, 72, 218,
in the K2000 facility [71, 219]. The deposition rate and 219, 221–224]. However, so far a few research works on the
the layer thickness of the EBAM system lay in ranges of effects of deposition parameters have been carried out to
0.6–5.7 kg/h and 0.4–1.7 mm, respectively [71, 219]. An improve the product quality and the deposition efficiency for
off-axis wire feeding method was applied to the EBAM sys- WEAM. Taminger et al. investigated the effects of the beam
tem [71, 219]. power, the travel speed and the wire feed rate on micro-
NVO Chervona Hvilya Inc. in Ukraine patented a method structures and tensile properties of 2219 Al and Ti–6Al–4V
and a system for manufacturing of three-dimensional parts fabricated by the E ­ BF3 process [212, 217, 218]. They
objects, referred to as the xbeam process, [46, 63, 70, 220]. performed feasibility studies on the ability to carry out a
Figure 13b illustrates the deposition concept of xBEAM post finishing process of parts deposited by the ­EBF3 process
systems [70]. The xbeam system had two key features: (a) [212, 217, 218]. Wanjara et al. [221] examined the influence
a voltage P-ebeam with a hollow conical cathode and (b) a of the travel speed and a consecutive re-melting pass on the
coaxial wire feeding system [46, 63, 70, 214, 220]. The volt- porosity of the deposited region, the efficient growth rate
age P-ebeam with a conical cathode could reduce vacuum of the buildup and the height to width ratio of the buildup
levels of the furnace, X-rays during the deposition, protec- for the deposition of BNi-2 brazing paste on a stainless
tive facilities for the X-rays, and system costs, while that steel type 321 substrate using a Sciaky EBAM system.
could improve the service life of the cathode [63, 70, 214]. Węglowski et al. [72] studied the effects of the beam cur-
The coaxial wire feeding system overcame disadvantages rent, the acceleration voltage, the travel speed, and the wire
of the off-axis feeding system, including porosity in the feed rate on the width and the height of reinforcement for
deposited region and forming of non-uniform metal struc- an EBAM process. Baufeld et al. obtained proper deposition
tures induced by an asymmetrical thermal field as well as conditions for different materials and shapes using an EBAM
difficulties in accurate and stable feeding of the wire caused process based on K2000 [71, 219]. Kovalchuk and Ivaishin
by internal thermal stress, through omni-directional deposi- [63] investigated the influence of the deposition length on
tion [63, 214]. The coaxial wire feeding allowed the metal to the residual distortion for the xBeam process. Tarasov et al.
continuously transfer from the fused end of the wire to the [222] examined the effects of the deposition path on micro-
molten pool [214]. The acceleration voltage of the P-ebeam structure, crystalline lattice parameter and residual strain for
gun for the xBeam system lay in the range of 10–15 keV the deposition of 304 stainless steel using an experimental
[214]. The spot diameter of the P-ebeam for the xBeam pro- EBAM machine. Denlinger et al. [223] developed a thermo-
cess was nearly 1 mm [214]. Kovalchuk et al. reported that mechanical analysis method based on a finite element analy-
the service life of the cathode is greater than 1000 h [214]. A sis to estimate residual stress and distortion of the EBAM
low acceleration voltage of the P-ebeam gun created a rather process for Ti–6Al–4V. They proposed a reset scheme of the
shallow molten pool on the substrate [214]. A low specific stress and strain to account for stress relaxation during the
power input of the xBeam process greatly decreased residual deposition [223]. They also carried out an inverse simulation
stresses of fabricated parts [214]. The deposition rate and to determine the absorption efficiency, the emissivity and
the surface roughness of the xBeam process were less than the stress relaxation temperature through the comparison
2000 cm3/h and 1 mm, respectively [63, 70]. The minimum of experimental results using a Sciaky system and analyti-
wall thickness of the fabricated part by the xBeam process cal results [223]. Chen et al. [224] investigate the deposi-
was nearly 1.5 mm [70]. The xBeam process focused on the tion path in the building direction and the beam current on
application of titanium alloy [63, 70, 214]. Kang’s research temperature, distortion and residual stress distributions of a
group of Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH thin-walled Ti–6A–4V part fabricated by the ­EBF3 process.
in Korea) performed fundamental research into the develop-
ment of a WEAM process using a P-ebeam system. 4.3.4 Applications and Fabricated Parts

NASA LaRC fabricated aluminum, titanium and nickel

alloys parts using the ­EBF3 process for aerospace appli-
cations [212, 217, 218]. Brice et  al. [213] successfully

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Fig. 14  Fabricated parts by the developed WEAM systems: (a) fab- parts by xBeam systems of xBeam Inc. (adapted from figures pro-
ricated parts by a EBAM system of Siacky Inc. (adapted from figures vided by xBeam Inc. with permission) [70]
provided by Siacky Inc. with permission) [69] and (b) fabricated

EBAM process is adopted [69]. Sciaky Inc in collabora-

tion with Airbus produced a large sized titanium rear upper
spar to reduce the lead time and the cost [225]. Nuclear
AMRC applied the developed EBAM system to fabricate
Ti–6Al–4V, high strength corrosion resistance steel and
stainless steel 316L parts [71, 219]. Nuclear AMRC pro-
duced several Ti–6Al–4V ducts, a Ti–6Al–4V bowl, a HSCR
Fig. 15  Schematic diagram of hybrid AM (HAM) process combining (High strength corrosion resistant) steel duct, a stainless
AM with SM processes: (a) as built and (b) as post-processing steel trefoil, etc. using the developed EBAM system [71,
219]. In addition, Nuclear AMRC created steel features on
produced a Ti–6Al–4V F-22 AMAD bracket using the E ­ BF3 a cylinder [219]. xBeam Inc. fabricated several examples,
process. NASA LaRC manufactured several generic rocket such as Ti–6Al–4V honeycomb structure, Ti–6Al–4V frame
nozzles with a thin wall, a gradual transition angle and a structure, titanium stiffened structure, titanium bracket, etc.,
large volume using the E ­ BF3 process [218]. NASA LaRC using an xBeam system, as shown in Fig. 14b [63, 70, 214].
produced three types of generic rocket nozzles with a near- xBeam Inc. began to develop industrial applications in
net shape, including an In 718 rocket nozzle with a height recent years [70].
of 457 mm, a Ti–6Al–4V rocket nozzle with a height of
360 mm, and a Cu–Ni bimetallic nozzle with a height of
460 mm, [218]. In addition, in order to improve the energy 5 Current Research Issues
efficiency, the stiffness and the acoustic damping, NASA
LaRC created Al 2219 stiffened panels with linear and cur- 5.1 Hybrid AM Processes and Systems
vilinear stiffeners for aircraft structures and launch vehicles
using the ­EBF3 process [218]. The DED process needs additional post-processing to
Sciaky Inc. fabricated various large sized titanium parts improve the surface roughness and the geometrical accu-
using an EBAM system [69, 225]. Sciaky Inc. cooperated racy of the fabricated part, as shown in Fig. 15 [36, 42, 55,
with Lockheed Martin Aeronautics and Airbus to fabri- 57, 119, 143, 147, 226, 227]. An additional post-process
cate titanium components for US Air Force [46, 69, 225]. is generally performed on a different apparatus in separate
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Inc. in collaboration with shop floors [55, 57, 227]. Hence, the additional post-pro-
Sciaky Inc. developed titanium propellant tanks with a cessing can increase the lead time and the cost to produce a
thin wall structure using an EBAM system of Sciaky, as final product [55, 57, 227]. The hybrid AM (HAM) process
shown in Fig. 14a [69]. They reported that the lead time, combining DED and SM processes can overcome disadvan-
the cost and the waste to produce the titanium propellant tages of the additional post-processing, which are induced
tanks can be reduced by 80%, 55% and 75%, respectively, by using different machines in separate shop floors through
when the EBAM system is used [69]. Sciaky Inc. in col- the realization of multi-tasking in the integrated system [57,
laboration with Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Inc. fabricated 206, 227]. Cortina et al. [227] summarized the benefits of
a F-35 flaperon spar using an EBAM system, as shown in the hybrid system; (a) no need to change part during manu-
Fig. 14a [69]. Sciaky Inc. forecasted that the manufacturing facturing, (b) reduction of material movement inside the fac-
cost of the flaperon spar can be greatly reduced as com- tory, (c) manufacture of parts with higher complexity, (d)
pared to the traditional manufacturing process when the decrease in BTF, (e) reduced factory space, (f) simplicity

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 727

Table 11  Features of HASM processes and systems

Process Research group Combination Machine tool type System Position of depo- References
and industry sition head

Shape deposition Carnegie Mellon Microcast- CNC (5-axis) – Fixed to side of [24, 36, 228]
manufacturing Univ. and Stan- ing + machining spindle
(sdm) ford Univ.
Hybrid manufac- Mazak WAAM 5-axis vertical VARIAISj Fixed to side of [172]
turing (GMAW) + machin- -600 M spindle
ing
Controlled metal Fraunhofer Insti- LAM-DED or 5-axis – Fixed to side of [57, 58, 229]
buildup (CMB) tute WLAM + machining vertical spindle
Hybrid manufac- De Montfort LAM-DED + machin- 3-axis vertical RECLAIM In spindle (AM) [36, 57, 111]
turing Univ.* ing Machine Stored in tool
magazine (SM)
Hybrid manufac- Hamuel LAM-DED + machin- Retrofit to HSTM-1000 In spindle (AM) [36, 57, 230, 231]
turing Maschinenbau ing machine tool Stored in tool
GmbH* magazine (SM)
Hybrid manufac- DMG Mori Seiki LAM-DED + machin- 5-axis vertical LASERTEC In spindle (AM) [36, 57, 95, 226,
turing ing 65 3D hybrid Stored in own 227, 231]
compartment
(SM)
Hybrid manufac- Mazak* LAM-DED + machin- 5-axis horizontal INTEGREX i-400 In spindle (AM) [36, 57, 227, 232]
turing ing AM Stored in tool
magazine (SM)
LENS Opotomec LAM-DED + machin- Retrofit to MTS500, Fixed to side of [55, 57, 76]
ing machine tool MTS860 spindle
Hybrid manufac- ELB-Schliff* LAM-DED + machin- Grinding (Creep milGrind Fixed to side of [57, 233]
turing ing feed: 5- axis) spindle
Hybrid manufac- Okuma** LAM-DED + machin- 5-axis vertical MU-8000 V Fixed to side of [227, 234]
turing ing LASER EX spindle
Hybrid manufac- Doosan machine LAM-DED + machin- 5-axis vertical DVF8000-AML Fixed to side of –
turing tool** ing spindle
Hybrid manufac- MAXROTEC LAM-DED + machin- Robot arm MDP-1000 In spindle (AM) [92]
turing ing (6-axis) Stored in own
compartment
(SM)
3D welding and KIST and KIMM WAAM 3-aixs vertical – Fixed to side of [24, 235]
milling (GMAW) + machin- spindle
ing
Hybrid WAAM & Beijing Univ. of WAAM (Tandem Robot arm – Fixed to side of [56]
milling (HWM) Technology GMAW) + machin- spindle
ing
Hybrid WAAM Beihang Univ. WAAM Robot arm RASM Fixed to side of [181]
and milling (GMAW) + machin- spindle
(HWM) ing
Hybrid plasma Wuhan Univ. of WAAM 3-aixs vertical – Fixed to side of [236, 237]
deposition and Technology (PAW) + machining spindle
milling (HPDM)

*Collaboration with Hybrid Manufacturing Technology Inc

**Collaboration with Trumpf Inc

for operator, (g) lower overall investment, and (h) reduced deposition manufacturing (SDM) process was developed by
cost of the final part. Most research works and developed Carnegie Mellon University in U.S.A, various HAM pro-
systems related to the HAM process were focused on the cesses based on DED processes were introduced, as shown
combination of DED with machining processes [24, 36, 42, in Table 11 and Fig. 16 [36, 55, 57, 226, 227].
55, 57, 119, 143, 147, 226, 227]. Features of HAM processes HAM processes based on LAM-DED processes can
and systems are summarized in Table 11. Since a shape be classified into in spindle and side of spindle types

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Fig. 16  Examples of commercialized HAM system based on DED (adapted from figures of reference 232 with permission) [232] and (c)
processes: (a) LASERTEC 65 3D hybrid system of DMG Mori DVF8000-AML system of Doosan Machine Tool Inc. (adapted from
Seiki Inc. (adapted from figures provided by Partners Lab. Inc. with figures provided by Doosan Machine Tool Inc. with permission)
permission) [238] (b) INTEGREX i-400 AM system of Mazak Inc.

according to the position of the deposition head [36, 57]. used AMBIT™ laser-based DED heads (Hybrid Manu-
In the in spindle type, an automatic tool changer (ATC) facturing Technology Inc.) as the deposition head. The
is employed for automatically attaching the deposition AMBIT™ laser-based DED head can be stored in the tool
head and the machining tools to the spindle [36, 57, 232, magazine of the machining center [239]. The deposition
233]. The deposition head is stored in the tool magazine head is always located in the side of spindle type HAM
and its own compartment during the SM process [57, 92, systems, unlike in spindle type HAM systems [57, 76, 229,
232]. RECLAIM Machine (De Mont fort University), 234]. MU-8000 V LASER EX (Okuma) and DVF8000-
HSTM-1000 (Hamuel Maschinenbau GmbH), INTE- AML (Doosan Machine Tool) adopted the DED head of
GREX i-1400 AM (Mazak), and milGrind (ELB-Schliff) Trumpf Inc. to improve the reliability for operation of

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 729

the DED head [227, 234]. A LENS modular print engine shown in Table 12 [48, 61, 75, 77, 79–81, 92, 191, 196, 201,
(Optomec) can be easily integrated in the CNC machine 251–265].
[36]. The LENS modular print engine was used to retro- The visible cameras used for in situ monitoring include
fit a legacy CNC machine tool in recent years [36]. The a charge coupled device (CCD) camera, a complementary
HAM system based on LAM-DED processes commonly metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) camera, and a high
utilized a 5-axis CNC system [36, 55, 57, 227]. One of speed camera, as shown in Table 12. Most of the commer-
the important research issues related to the HAM system cialized LAM-DED processes have employed CCD cameras
based on LAM-DED process is the development of appro- for monitoring the formation of the molten pool, as shown
priate CAM (Computer aided manufacturing) software, in Tables 1 and 2. The visible cameras are generally used to
including identification of a suitable build orientation, the investigate the geometry of the molten pool, the tempera-
part decomposition, the collision avoidance algorithm, the ture distribution in the molten pool, the deposition height,
path planning, etc., to optimize the fabrication procedure and particle effects for the case of a LAM-DED process, as
of parts [36, 42, 227]. shown in Table 12 and Fig. 17a [75, 77, 79–81, 251, 253,
HAM processes based on wire feeding type DED pro- 256]. In addition, the visible cameras were employed for
cesses can be classified into 3 axis CNC and robot arm monitoring the deposition height of the fabricated part by
types according to the machine tool system [36, 57]. The DMD and DMT processes, as shown in Table 12 [77, 79,
development of HAM systems based on the WAAM pro- 80]. The measured data were used for feedback control of
cess were refocused due to a relatively higher deposition the layer thickness [77, 79, 80]. The visible cameras were
rate and cheaper cost of the system in recent years [56, 172]. adopted to measure the geometry of the molten pool, the
Hence, most of the developed HAM processes based on wire temperature distribution of the molten pool, the interaction
feeding type DED processes adopted the WAAM process between the wire tip and the molten pool, and the formation
as the deposition process, as shown in Table 11 [24, 56, of the droplet for the case of a WLAM process, as shown in
181, 236, 237]. In order to enhance the production efficiency Table 12 and Fig. 17b [61, 191, 201, 252, 255]. Heralić et al.
and the fabrication volume of the HAM process, multiple employed visible cameras for monitoring the formation of
robot based HAM systems, including multi-deposition heads the molten pool and the height of the bead for a WLAM pro-
and multi machining tools, were adopted in recent research cess [252, 255]. They applied measured data to the control
works [65, 181]. Relatively excessive residual stress distri- of the height and the width of the deposited bead through an
butions occurred in the vicinity of the deposited region due iterative learning controller [252, 255]. In order to measure
to the relatively higher deposition rate for the case of the temperature distributions in the molten pool, IR and near IR
WAAM process [65, 172]. WEC of Cranfield University (NIR) filters were attached to visible cameras [192, 254].
developed a hybrid process, including high pressure inter- IR cameras were employed for in situ monitoring of the
layer rolling in a WAAM process, for the sake of refinement temperature distributions of the molten pool. Clamir Inc.
and overall improvement of microstructures [65, 160, 172, developed a closed-loop control system based on an IR cam-
240]. The hybrid process was used to reduce the residual era to control the laser power [258, 259]. Taminger et al.
stress and the distortion of the fabricated part by the WAAM [254] applied visible and IR cameras to the ­EBF3 process
process [65, 172, 241–245]. In addition, the hybrid process for the sake of monitoring the temperature distribution of the
was used for the purpose of decreasing the porosity and molten pool. Optomec Inc. in collaboration with STRATON-
improving the surface finish [172, 245, 246]. ICS Inc. developed a Melt-pool Sensor based on pyrometer
and a thermal imager based on a Thermalviz software to
5.2 In‑situ Monitoring control the laser power by monitoring the temperature distri-
butions of the molten pool [261, 262]. Pyrometers to meas-
The process optimization is one of the hot research issues ure the temperature at a spot and temperature distribution in
related to the DED process and system for the purpose of a line were used through combination of the other monitor-
improving the product quality and the process reliability. ing device in recent years [266, 267]. Thermocouples (TCs)
In-situ monitoring is one of the major research directions in were used to directly measure temperature at a spot in the
term of the process optimization of the DED process [36, 42, vicinity of the molten pool [48]. X-ray have been adopted
65, 172, 227]. In-situ monitoring techniques are applied to to monitor the occurrence of defects, the dynamics of the
DED processes for the sake of enhancing product qualities molten pool, and the interaction between powders and the
and decreasing material discontinuities through the process molten pool during the deposition [263–265].
optimization [42, 247–250]. Visible cameras, pyrometers, Recently, combinations of different monitoring devices
infrared (IR) cameras, thermocouples (TCs), and X-rays were used for in-process monitoring of the DED process, as
are commonly employed for monitoring DED processes, as shown in Table 12 [78, 94, 160, 178, 202, 266–270]. Com-
binations of a visible camera and a pyrometer were used to

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Table 12  Classification of in situ monitoring methodologies of DED process according to measurement devices

Devices Monitoring/goals DED process Feedback References

Visible camera (CCD and Geometry of molten pool LENS No [75]

CMOS) Deposition height (Layer thickness) DMD Yes [77, 79]
Geometry of molten pool and deposition height DMT Yes [80]
Geometry of molten pool (Trumpf Inc.) LMD No [81]
Geometry and temperature of molten pool (using IR filter) WLAM No [191]
Temperature of molten pool LAM No [251]
Geometry of molten pool and control of bead geometry WLAM Yes [252]
Deposition height LAM No [253]
Temperature distribution of molten pool (using NIR filter) EBF3 No [254]
Interaction between the wire tip and the molten pool WLAM Yes [255]
Control of deposition height using iterative learning controller
Visible camera (High Geometry of molten pool and droplet formation WLAM No [61]
speed) Droplet formation WLAM No [201]
Geometry of molten pool, particle effects (using 4 cameras) LENS No [256]
IR camera Temperature distribution of molten pool (MAXROTEC Inc.) LAM No [92]
Temperature distribution of molten pool WAAM No [190, 257]
Temperature distribution of molten pool WLAM No [196]
Temperature distribution of molten pool and control of power LAM Yes [258, 259]
Temperature distribution of molten pool LMD No [260]
Temperature distribution of molten pool (Short-wave IR) EBF3 No [254]
Pyrometer Temperature distribution of molten pool and control of power LENS Yes [261, 262]
(Melt-Pool Senor, Thermal Imager based on Thermal Viz.)
Thermocouple Temperature history in the vicinity of the molten pool LENS No [48]
X-ray Probing the phase evolution LAM No [263]
Defects and molten pool dynamics LAM No [42, 264]
Defects, molten pool dynamics and powder-molten pool interaction LAM No [42, 265]
Visible camera + pyrom- Control of molten pool temperature and deposition height DMD Yes [78]
eter Effects of heat accumulation on arc characteristics and metal transfer WAAM No [178]
behavior
Visible camera + IR Geometry and temperature of molten pool WAAM Yes [160]
camera
IR camera + pyrometer Temperature distributions and histories of molten pool LENS No [250, 266]
Effects of temperature distribution on microstructure formation
Temperature distributions of molten pool LENS No [250, 267]
Prediction of porosity
Visible came + pyrometer Intensity distribution of beam and geometry of molten pool LAM No [94]
+ IR camera Interaction between wire and molten pool WLAM No [202]
Estimation of process map
Temperature distribution of molten pool LMD No [268, 269]
Particles-in-flight tracks and particle transport
Particles-in-flight tracks and mass flow rate LAM No [270]
Temperature distributions and histories of molten pool

control the temperature of the molten pool and the deposi- to investigate temperature distributions and histories of the
tion height of part for the DMD process and to investigate molten pool as well as the effects of heat accumulation on
the effects of the temperature distribution on the microstruc- arc characteristics and metal transfer behaviors for the LENS
ture formation of the WAAM process [78, 178]. Wu et al. process [250, 266, 267]. In addition, the combination of an
[160] employed a combination of a visible camera and an IR camera and a pyrometer were used to predict the poros-
IR camera for monitoring the geometry and the temperature ity of the deposited region by the LENS process [267]. In
of the molten pool of a WAAM process. Several researchers several research works, a combination of triple monitoring
utilized the combination of an IR camera and a pyrometer devices consisting of a visible camera, a pyrometer and an

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 731

Fig. 17  Examples of in  situ monitoring of DED processes: (a) for- permission) (b) variation of the molten pool area according to num-
mation of the molten pool for LENS process (adapted from figures ber of layer for a robotized WLAM process (adapted from figures of
provided by Ph.D. Yong Son and Ph.D Hyub Lee of KITECH with reference191 with permission) [191]

IR camera was adopted to examine temperature distribu- Thin wall structures are generally adopted to perform
tions, temperature histories and geometries of the molten modeling and validation for thermo-mechanical analyses
pool as well as intensity distributions of the laser beam for with different shapes [223, 271–274, 276]. Stender et al.
LAM-DED processes [94, 268–270]. The combination of [275] studied the workflow of a thermo-mechanical analy-
triple monitoring devices was used to investigate particles- sis for a LENS process. Heigel et al. [276] investigated the
in-flight tracks, the particle transport and the mass flow rate effects of the convection model on the residual stress and the
for LAM-DED processes [268–270]. In addition, the com- distortion of the fabricated part by a LENS process. Den-
bination of triple monitoring devices was adopted to inves- linger et al. [223] examined the effects of the stress relaxa-
tigate the interaction between the wire and the molten pool tion temperature on the distortion of the created part by a
and to estimate the process map for a WLAM process [202]. WEAM process to predict a proper relaxation temperature
and residual stress distribution. Several researchers inves-
5.3 Thermo‑Mechanical Analysis tigated the effects of deposition parameters, including the
laser power, the scan speed and the feeding rate, on residual
In order to reduce residual stresses in the fabricated part stress distributions of fabricated parts by WLAM and LAM
by DED processes, various experimental and analyti- processes, as shown in Table 13 [203, 277–279]. Vundru
cal approaches were performed [97, 203, 204, 223, 224, et al. [278] predicted relationships between non-dimensional
271–286]. Recently, researches on thermo-mechanical deposition parameters, including non-dimensional power,
analyses steadily increased to predict the desired deposition feed rate and scan speed, and the non-dimensional stress
method through the control of heat transfer characteristics parameter to obtain a process map for the residual stress
and the reduction of residual stress evolution, as shown in through thermo-mechanical analyses. In addition, they esti-
Table 13. mated the relationship between non-dimensional deposition
Research related to thermo-mechanical analyses to inves- parameters and the normalized dilution [278]. In order to
tigate residual stress and distortion during the fabrication obtain proper designs of fabricated parts by DED processes,
of the part using the DED process can be classified into the influence of geometry parameters, including the bead
four categories; (a) modeling and validation, (b) effects of length, the up-lift height, the wall height, the wall thickness,
deposition and geometry parameters, (c) effects of deposi- the radius, etc., on residual stress and deflection distributions
tion paths and times, (d) preheating and post cooling, as was examined using thermo-mechanical analyses for DED
shown in Table 13. In general, in situ monitoring of tem- processes [203, 277, 280]. Zhang et al. [280] studied the
perature distributions, distortions and deflections is carried effects of radius and height of a circular thin wall part on
out to obtain an appropriate model for thermo-mechanical residual distortion distributions for a LAM-DED process.
analysis using a TC, an IR camera, a digital image camera Deposition strategies, including the deposition path,
(DIC), a X-ray diffraction (XRD), and a linear displacement the interpass time, the inter-layer dwell time, etc., greatly
sensor (LDS), as shown in Table 13 [97, 223, 224, 274, 275, affected residual stress distributions and final shapes for
277, 281–283, 286]. In addition, a scanner, a neutron dif- the case of DED processes. Hence, various research works
fraction (ND), a hole drilling (HD), an optical microscope, a based on thermo-mechanical analyses were performed to
XRD, a table encoder, and a coordinate measuring machine estimate appropriate deposition paths and characteristic
(CMM) are commonly employed for comparing the results times for DED processes [97, 204, 224, 281–284]. Chua
of thermo-mechanical analyses to those of experiments from et al. [204] investigated the effects of the deposition path,
viewpoints of residual stress, distortion and deflection, as the interpass time and the cooling time on residual stress
shown in Table 13 [203, 204, 223, 271–273, 276, 279, 281, and deflection distributions for a WLAM process. Chen
284, 285]. et al. [282] studied the influence of the deposition path on

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Table 13  Researches on thermo-mechanical analyses related to the residual stress and the distortion
Researches Analysis/goal Shape Measurement device DED References
In-situ Post

Modeling and validation Modeling/prediction of Rectangular hollow wall – Scanner LENS [271]
residual stress Thin wall – ND LAM [272, 273]
Modeling/prediction of dis- Airfoil (Thin wall) TC + DIC – LAM [274]
tortion and bulging
Workflow of thermo-mechan- Cylinder IR camera – LENS [275]
ical analysis
Effects of convection model Thin wall TC,LDS HD LENS [276]
on deflection and residual
stress
Effects of stress relaxation Sloped thin wall TC,LDS HD WEAM [223]
temperature on distortion,
Prediction of residual stress
Deposition and geometry Effects of laser power, scan Single line – OM WLAM [203]
parameters speed and bead length on
residual stress distribution
Effects of deposition param- Thin wall TC + IR + DIC – LAM [278]
eters on distortion and
residual stress distributions
Relationship between non- Single line – – LAM [278]
dimensional parameters on
residual stress, process map
Effects of laser power and Plane – XRD LENS [279]
scan speed on residual
stress
Effects of radius and height Circular thin wall – – LAM [280]
of circular thin wall on
residual distortion
Deposition path and time Effects of deposition path and Thin wall – Table encoder WLAM [204]
interpass time on residual
stress and deflection
Effects of deposition path Thin wall XRD – EBF3 [224]
on distortion and residual
stress
Effects of pattern of zig-zag Plate IR XRD LAM [281]
deposition on residual stress
Effects of deposition path on Block TC – DMT [282]
residual stress
Effects of inter-layer dwell Thin wall TC + LDS – LAM [97, 283]
time and material on distor-
tion and residual stress
Effects of inter-layer dwell Cylindrical hollow wall – HD WAAM [284]
time on residual stress
Pre heating and post cooling Effects of number of pre- Thin-wall – CMM, HD, ND BEAM [285]
heating on distortion and
residual stress
Effects of preheating method Rectangular hollow and TC + LDS – LAM [286]
and cooling rate on distor- S-shape wall
tion and residual stress

residual stress and distortion of a thin wall part fabricated [284] studied the influence of the inter-layer dwell time on
by the ­EBF3 process. Denlinger et al. examined the effects residual stress distributions of a cylindrical hollow part
of the inter-layer dwell time on distortion and residual fabricated by a WAAM process. Several studies related to
stress of Inconel 625 and Ti–6Al–4V thin wall parts fab- thermo-mechanical analyses have focused on preheating
ricated by a LAM-DED process [97, 283]. Li and Xiong and post cooling technologies to reduce the residual stress

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International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (2021) 8:703–742 733

and the distortion for DED processes. Cao et al. [285] and wire feeding types of DED processes were the usage of
examined the effects of the number of preheating on dis- high functionality materials, the prevention of defects and
tortion and residual stress distributions of a thin wall part the mitigation of the residual stress. The LAM-DED process
fabricated by a BEAM process. Lu et al. [286] investigated provided various impressive applications from the viewpoint
the influence of preheating temperature and post cooling of green technology: (a) repair, restoration and remanufac-
rate on distortion and residual stress distributions of rec- turing, (b) porous materials and coatings, (c) FGM&s and
tangular and S-shaped Ti–6Al–4V parts fabricated by a (d) thermal management.
LAM-DED process. Important current research issues related to DED pro-
cesses were investigated. Researches related to HAM
systems concentrated on the development of novel HAM
6 Summary systems based on LAM-DED processes and their opera-
tion software, including programs for path generation and
This paper reviewed recent research trends of DED pro- collision avoidance, due to various merits of HAM sys-
cesses and their applications. Key technologies and the state- tems. A robot based WAAM system was used to develop
of-the art for different DED processes were investigated a HAM system for the fabrication of a large-sized part. In
from viewpoints of the development of process and system, addition, a hybrid process, including a high pressure inter-
the optimization of the deposition strategy, and the appli- rolling in a WAAM process, was proposed for the sake of
cation. Through the literature survey, important processing reducing the residual stress and distortion of the fabricated
data to manufacture metallic products from different DED part through the refinement, and improving the microstruc-
processes were examined. In addition, significant applica- ture. Various in situ monitoring technologies using visible
tions and benefits of the DED process were discussed. Most cameras, IR cameras, pyrometers, TCs and XRDs were
of research works related to DED processes concentrated employed for improving the product quality and the pro-
on the improvement of the product quality, the reduction cess reliability together. Most of researches related to the
of the fabrication time, the increase in the building volume, in situ monitoring were focused on in-process investigation
and the diversity of the material. Researches related to the of temperature distributions of the molten pool, dynam-
LAM-DED process were focused on the enhancement of ics of the molten pool, interactions between fed materials
the quality and the reliability of the product as well as the and the molten pool, and the occurrence of defects during
decrease in the fabrication time through the process opti- the deposition. In order to improve the process reliability,
mization. WAAM processes were considered to be applica- the in situ monitoring technologies were applied to feed-
ble to industrial parts with a large volume from viewpoints back control of process parameters. Thermo-mechanical
of the cost efficiency and the process flexibility. WEAM analyses for DED processes were mainly focused on the
processes were suitable to the fabrication of large sized influence of deposition strategies, including deposition
aerospace and military components using expensive high parameters, deposition paths, characteristic times, preheat-
performance alloys for the sake of reducing the BTF, the ing conditions, post cooling rates, and product geometries
lead time and the cost. Common research themes of powder on residual stress, deflection and distortion distributions

Table 14  Future research issues

and opportunities of DED Novel processes and systems Development of novel HAM processes and systems
processes Development of software for HAM systems (including
programs for path generation)
Retrofit of machine tool
Development of processes and systems for the fabrica-
tion of a large-sized part (BAAM)
Process optimizations Development of process map
Development of methodologies of in situ monitoring
Feedback control of process parameters through in situ
monitoring
Development of algorithm for feedback control (includ-
ing machine learning)
Thermo-mechanical analyses to estimate deposition
strategies
Sustainable applications Repair, restoration and remanufacturing
Porous materials and coatings
Functionally graded materials and structures (FGM&S)
Thermal management
Near-net shaping of metallic parts with a large volume

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275. Stender, M. E., Beghini, L. L., Sugar, J. D., Veilleux, M. G., Dong‑Gyu Ahn  received his B.S.
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556–566. degrees from KAIST, Korea in
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mechanical model development and validation of directed energy Ahn is currently a Professor at
deposition additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V. Additive Man- the Department of Mechanical
ufacturing, 5, 9–19. Engineering, Chosun University,
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energy. Procedia Manufacturing, 48, 697–705.

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