[CLASS XII PHYSICS PRACTICALS]

Evaluation Scheme) 2022-2023 Examination Marks

Two experiments one from each section 07+07
Practical Record (Experiment and Activities) 05
Viva on Experiment, and Activities 05
One Activity from any section 03
Investigatory Project 03
Total 3 0

Note:-

1. Graph of Experiment No. 1 and 9,10,13,14 are to written on blank pages.

2. Observation table of experiment are to be drown on blank pages.
3. Start each experiment from a new page.
4. Practical & Activity File note book should be hand written.

PHYSICS PRACTICAL

EXPERIMENT – 1
Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
Apparatus: A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a battery, one way key, a voltmeter and an ammeter of
appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale.
V
R
Formulae Used: The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm’s Law I
Where, V : Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor)
I: Current flowing through it.
If l is the length of resistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire = R
l
Observation:
(i) Range:
Range of given voltmeter = 3 v
Range of given ammeter = 500 mA

(ii) Least count:

Least count of voltmeter = 0.05v

Page 1 (PHYSICS)
 Least count of ammeter = 10 mA
(iii) Zero error:
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 0
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0
Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading, V (v) V
Sr. No. Observed R
Value Observed Value I
1 50 500 mA 16 16x0.05=0.8 1.6 
2 35 350 mA 11 0.55 1.57 
3 32 320 mA 10 0.50 1.56 
4 19 190 mA 6 0.30 1.58 
5 10 100 mA 3 0.15 1.5 
Mean R = 1.56
Length of resistance wire: 28 cm
Graph between potential difference & current:

Scale: X – axis : 1 cm = 0.1 V of potential difference

Y – axis: 1 cm = 0.1 A of current
The graph comes out to be a straight line.

Result: It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence current voltage relationship is established i.e. V  I or Ohm’s
Law is verified.
Unknown resistance per cm of given wire = 5.57 x 10-2  cm-1
Precautions: Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
 The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
Source of Error: Rheostat may have high resistance.
The instrument screws may be loose.

EXPERIMENT – 2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge) & hence determine the specific
resistance of the material.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a one-
way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.

Formulae Used:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by:
(100  l )
X= R Where,
l
R = known resistance placed in left gap.
X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
l=length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
Page 2 (PHYSICS)
 XD 2
(ii) Specific resistance (  ) of the material of given wire is given  =
4L
Where,
D: Diameter of given wire L: Length of given wire.
Observation Table for length (l) & unknown resistance, X:
Resistance from Unknown Resistance
Sr. Length Length (100  l)
resistance box
No. AB = l cm BC = (100-l) cm X = R. 
R (ohm) l
1 2 41 59 2.87
2 4 60 40 2.66
3 6 69 31 2.69
4 8 76 24 2.52
Table for diameter (D) of the wire:
Circular Scale Reading
Observed diameter
Sr. Linear Scale No. of circular
Value D = N + n x L.C.
No. Reading (N) mm scale divisions
n x (L.C.) mm mm
coinciding (n)
1 0 34 0.34 0.34
2 0 35 0.35 0.35
3 0 36 0.36 0.36
4 0 35 0.35 0.35
Observations:
 Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cm
Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm
Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100
Pitch
Least Count =
No. of divisions on circular scale
 LC  0.001 cm
 Length of given wire, L = 25cm
Calculation:
 For unknown resistance, X:
X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4
Mean X =  2.68
4
D + D 2 + D3 + D 4
 Mean diameter, D = 1  0.035 cm
4
D 2
 Specific Resistance,   X . 4 L  1.03 10  cm
4

Result: Value of unknown resistance = 2.68 

Specific resistance of material of given wire  1.03 10 4  cm
Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking
observations.
Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean.
Instrument screws maybe loose.

Page 3 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Observations: Table for length (l) & unknown resistance (r):

Resistance
Length Resistance
from Mean
Resistant Length BC = 100 – l 100  l
Obs. No. resistance Resistant
Coil AB = l (cm) (cm) r= .R
box, l (ohm)
R (ohm)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r1 only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
1 0.5 30 70 1.16
r2 only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1 1.3 34 66 2.52
r1 & r2 in
2 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
series
3 3.5 54 46 2.97
1 2 75 25 0.67
r1 & r2 in
2 3 82 18 0.66 0.66
parallel
3 4 86 14 0.65
Calculations:
(i) In Series: Experimental value of RS = 2.72 
Theoretical value of RS = r1 + r2 = 2.75 
(ii) In parallel: Experimental value of RP = 0.66 
r1r2
Theoretical value of RP =  0.68
r1  r2

Page 4 (PHYSICS)
Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of R S are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. RS = r1 + r2 is verified. (1) Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical
r1r2
values of RP are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. RS = is verified.
r1  r2
Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.

Balancing length when Balancing length when

E1 l1
S. No.
E1 (Leclanche Cell) is in E2 (Daniel Cell) is in Ratio 
the circuit (cm) circuit (cm) E2 l2
(l1) (l2)
1 558 437 558/437 = 1.277
2 789 617 1.278
3 848 670 1.266
4 893 706 1.265
5 662 521 1.270
E1
 1.271
E2
E1
 1.27
E2

Page 5 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 4
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000  and 500
 ), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
R. S
G=
RS
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance
E
(ii) Figure of merit: k =
( R  G) 
Where E : emf of the cell
 : deflection produced with resistance R.

Calculation: Mean G = 70.8 

(i) For G : Calculate G using formula.

Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
(ii) For k: Calculate k using formula & record in table.
Take mean of values of k.
Result:
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method:
G = 70.8 
(ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A/div
Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small
resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.

Page 7 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 5
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range &
to verify the same.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance & figure of merit are given, a constantan or manganin
wire, a battery, one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Formulae Used:
To convert a galvanometer which gives full scale deflection for current IG into an ammeter of range O to IO amperes,
 IG 
the value of required shunt is given by: S =   G
 Io  IG 
Required shunt resistant S is made using a uniform wire whose, specific resistance is  (known) & its length:
r S2
l

Observations: Given resistance of galvanometer, G = 70.8 
Given value of figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A div-1
Total no. of divisions on either side of zero, No = 30
Current for full scale deflection, IG = No x k = 6.57 x 10-4 A

a) Calculation of value of shunt resistance:

* Required range of converted ammeter, Io = 3A
* Value of shunt resistance,
 IG 
S =    G  0.0155 
 Io  IG 
* Computing the length of the wire to make resistance of 0.155 
b) Observations for diameter of the wire:
(i) Pitch of screw gauge, p = 1 mm
(ii) No. of division of circular scale = 100
(iii) Least count, a = 0.01 mm
(iv) Zero error, e = 0.0 mm
(v) Diameter of the wire = 0.98 mm, Radius = 0.049 cm
c) Specific resistance of material of wire,   1.92 10 6 cm
d) Required length of the wire,
r 2 0.0155  3.14  (0.049) 2
l S = cm = 60.8 cm
 1.72 10 6
Verification: Checking the performance of the converted ammeter:
Page 8 (PHYSICS)
Current indicated by full scale deflection (No) of converted ammeter. Io = 3A
Io
Least count of converted ammeter, k’ =  0.1 A / div.
No
Result:
 Current IG for full scale deflection = 6.57 x 10-4 A
 Resistance of shunt required to convert the galvanometer into ammeter, S = 0.0155 
 Required length of wire, l = 60.8 cm
 As error l’ – l is very small, conversion is verified.
Precautions & Sources of Error:
(i) All connections should be neat & tight.
(ii) The diameter of the wire for making shunt resistance should be measured accurately for diameter is taken
in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(iii) The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to positive pole of the battery. Also
ammeter should be in series with circuit.

Page 9 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 6
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights (2 fixed upright in middle two outer uprights with lateral movement),
convex lens, convex mirror, a lens holder, a mirror holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle, a
half meter scale.

Formula Used:
R
Focal length of a convex mirror f 
2
Where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.
Observation:
(i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(ii) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex mirror, y = 15 cm
(iii) Index error = y - x = 15 – 15 = 0 cm No index correction
Observation Table:
Position of: Radius of
S. N. Object needle Lens Mirror Image needle Curvature
0 (cm) L cm M cm I (cm) MI (cm)
1 25 50 56 70.5 14.5
2 28.5 50 60 73.3 13.3
3 31.5 50 65 78.4 13.4
4 30.5 50 60 74 14
Mean R = 13.8

Calculation:
R
Mean corrected MI = R = 13.8 cm f=  6.9 cm
2
Result:
The focal length of the given convex mirror = 6.9 cm
Precautions:
(i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of lens should be at the same height.
(ii) Convex lens should be of large focal length.
(iii) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the position of the lens &
needle uprights should not be changed.

Page 11 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 7
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph:
1 1
(i) between u and v (ii) between and
u v
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles &
a half-metre scale.

Formula Used:
The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is:
1 1 1
 
f v u
Where f: focal length of convex lens
u: distance of object needle from lens’ optical centre.
v: distance of image needle from lens’ optical centre.
Observations:
(i) Rough focal length of the lens = 10 cm
(ii) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
(iv) Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 14.1 cm.
(v) Index correction for the object distance u, x – y = – 0.2 cm
(vi) Index correction for the image distance v, x – z = +0.9 cm
Observation Table:

Position of: (cm)

S. No. Object Image u (cm) v (cm) 1/v (cm-1) 1/u (cm-1)
Lens
needle needle
1 66 50 26 16 24 0.041 0.062
2 67 50 27 17 23 0.043 0.058
3 68 50 28 18 22 0.045 0.055
4 70 50 30 20 20 0.05 0.05
5 75 50 33 23 17 0.058 0.043
6 80 50 34 24 16 0.062 0.041

Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

(i) u – v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola:
Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v
AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f

Page 12 (PHYSICS)
 OB OC
f = and also f 
2 2
 Mean value of f = 10.1 cm.
1 1
(ii)  graph : The graph is a straight line.
u v
1
Scale; X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
u
1
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
v
1 1
Focal length, f =   10.2cm.
OP OQ
Result:
(i) From u-v graph is, f = 10.1 cm

1 1
(ii) From  graph is, f = 10.2 cm
u v
Precautions:
(i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.

EXPERIMENT – 8
Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a concave lens (more focal length),
two lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle & a half – metre scale.

Formulae Used: From lens formula, we have:

uv
f 
u v
Observations:
Actual length of knitting needle, x= 15 cm.
Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15 cm.
Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15 cm.
Index correction for u = x – y = 0 cm
Index correction for v = x – z = 0 cm

Page 13 (PHYSICS)
Observation Table:
Position of (cm) uv
S. No. ’ u = IL2 v = I’L2 f=
0 (cm) L1 at O1 I L2 I u v
1 29 50 75 69 78 6.0 9.0 –18.0
2 27 50 71.5 65 77.5 6.5 12.5 –13.54
3 25 50 70.5 65 72.8 5.5 7.8 –18.64
4 28 50 71.3 63 71.2 8.3 8.2 –17.45

Calculations:

Mean f =
f1  f 2  f 3  f 4
4
= – 16.9 cm  - 17cm.
Result: The focal length of given concave lens = – 17 cm.
Precautions:
(i) The lenses must be clean.
(ii) A bright image should be formed by lens combination.
(iii) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave lens, so that the combination is
convex.

EXPERIMENT – 9
Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
& angle of deviation.
(ii) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper & protector.

Formulae Used:
The refractive index,  of the material of the prism is given by:
 A  Dm 
sin  
 
2  Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.
 A
sin  
2
Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, i and angle of deviation, we get the value of Dm (angle of minimum
deviation): Dm = 37.8o

Thus,
 A  Dm 
sin   =

sin 97.8
o

2

 
2 
 A
sin 30o
sin  
2
  1.5077

Page 14 (PHYSICS)
Result:
(i) From i  D graph we see that as i increases, D first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) & then again
starts increasing for further increase in i .
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation = Dm = 37.8o
(iii) Refraction index of material of prism,   1.5077
Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o.
(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.
Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.

EXPERIMENT – 10
Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.
Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.

Formulae Used:
real depth r r
Refractive index    3 1
apparent depth r2  r1
Observations:
Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm
Mean values: r1 = 0 mm r2 = 6.81 mm r3 = 10.25 mm
Observations: Reading of Microscope focused on:
Mark without slab Mark with slab on it Powder on top of slab
S. No.
r1 = M + n x LC min r2 = M + n x LC min R3 = M + n x LC min
1 0 6.5 + 29 x 0.01 = 6.79mm 10 + 23 x 0.01 = 10.23mm
2 0 6.5 + 31 x 0.01 = 6.81mm 10 + 25 x 0.01 = 10.25mm
3 0 6.5 + 33 x 0.01 = 6.83mm 10 + 27 x 0.01 = 10.27mm
Calculations:
Real depth = dr = r3 – r1 = Mean dr = 10.25 mm
Apparent depth = da = r2 – r1
Mean da = 6.81 mm
real depth d
 Refractive index,    r    1.52
apparent depth d a
Result:
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as 1.52 = 
Precautions:
(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only
rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
(ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen.
Page 15 (PHYSICS)
 EXPERIMENT – 11
Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0-
3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key, connecting wires.

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error = –
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error = –
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2  A/div Zero error = –
Observation Table:
Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
S. No.
(V) (mA) (V) (  A)
1 10 x 0.02 = 0.20 2 x 0.2 = 0.4 10 x 1 = 10 5 x 2 = 10
2 0.30 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 15 16
3 0.40 6 x 0.2 = 1.6 20 22
4 0.50 11 x 0.2 = 2.2 25 30
5 0.60 18 x 0.2 = 3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 = 4.6 35 48
7 0.80 31 x 0.2 = 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 = 7.8 45 72

Page 16 (PHYSICS)
Calculations:
Graph is plotted between forward – bias voltage (VF) (on x-axis) and forward current, IF (on y – axis)
Scale: X – axis: 1 cm = V of VF Y – axis: 1 cm = mA of IF
Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, VR (along X’ axis) and reverse current, IR (along Y’ axis).
Scale: X’ axis = 1 cm = V of VR Y’ axis = 1 cm = A of IF
Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.
Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight. (ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not
being used. (iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty.


A)

Page 17 (PHYSICS)
 ACTIVITY NO. 1 1

AIM: To aasemble a household cireuit comprising three bulbe, three (on/ofn switches, a fuse and a
power source.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Three bulb holders, three bulbs (say of 26 W, 60 W and 100 W ratings), four on/ot
switches, a kit-kat for putting fuse wire and fuse wire and PVC coated flexible connecting wires.
THEORY: House hold cireuitfunetions on main supply 220 V, 50 Hz and current rating of6 A(16 A for heavy
loads like A.C. refrigerations etc.). All the appliances are always connected in parallel to the main supply of 220
while FUSE in connected in series.
In domestic cireuit, the total power consumed is the of individual power consumed by each
sum appliance.
ie., P P+P, +P,+..
where P,, P, Py.. are powers drawn by appliances.
At a potential V, the curent I drawn is given by:
P = VI

PROCEDURE:
1 Connect bulbs B,, B, B, in series with switches S, S, S,
respectively and connect each set of Bulb-Switch in parallel
with each other.
2. Connect the fuse in series with the power source. One end of
parallel combination of Bulb-Switch is connected at one end B
and other to the other end.
AC
33 Check the circuit again before you start the experiment. Ammelar
Testing of Fuse: Ifbulbs are of (5V, 1.0 W) each, then current
drawnwill be:
BOLUre
I 100.2A Main
upply
For 8 bulbs total current drawn should not
exceed 0.6 A. Fig. 3.1. Three bulb eireult.
cONCLUSION:The house-hold electrical cireuit has been assembled and
tested succesafully.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The insulated wires should be used for
connections.
Physics Lab Manual-XIl/ 40
irgspstli
 The terminals or exposed portion of wires should not be
touched when power supply is on.
Switches should be put on the live wire and not on the neutral wire.
4 The safety fuse must be suitably selected.
Bulbs of stated rating should be used, otherwise the fuse
selected should be appropriate value.
 ACTIVITY NO. 24

AIM: To asemble the components ofagiven electrioal eireuit (eay the circuit used for verification of
ohm's law).
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Resistors, ammeters, voltmeter, battery and key.
THEORY : In an electrical circuit, ammeter is always connected in
series and voltmeter in parallel across those points of a circuit where A
potential difference is to be determined.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components (resistors, inductors etc.) in series with
each other as shown in Fig. 4.l and then in series with the battery.
2. For measurement of current in the circuit, connect the ammeter
R
in series with the components.
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3. For measurement of potential drop, connect the voltmeter in
parallel with the circuit element.
4. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit in Fig. 4.1. Electric circuit using given

complete. components.
5. Test the assembly of electrical circuit, put the plug in gap of key K. If assembly is correct, ammeter and
voltmeter give some readings.
CONCLUSION: Assembly of the components of a given electrical circuit has been completed and tested.
 ACTIVITY NO. 36

AIM:To draw the diagram ofagiven open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistorírheostat, ke
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the cireuit
and also the circuit diagram.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: A battery eliminator or an accumulator, a rheostat, a one way Key, a d.c. ammeter
(range about 0 to 1.5 A) a d.c. voltmeter (range 0 to 3 V) and connecting wires.
THEORY: While making a circuit, the following points are to be followed:
1. The ammeter is to be used in the series of the circuit and the current from the battery flowing through the
circuit should enter through the positive terminal of ammeter and should leave through the negative termina
of ammeter.
2. The voltmeter is to be connected in parallel across a given resistor of the cireuit, acrosS which potential diference
is to be determined. The positive terminal of voltnmeter is to be connected to that end of resistor through which
the current from battery enters the resistor and negative terminal of voltmeter is to be connected to that end
of resistor from which the current leaves the resistor.
3. A rheostat when is to be used as a variable resistor is to be used in circuit, with one lower terminal and the
other upper terminal of it.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R
B
R
B
K

A A

V
Rh Rh
ww K
wwW
Fig. 6.1. Wrong circuit diagram. Fig. 6.2.The correct circuit diagram.
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 6.1.
2. Arrange the various components ofthe circuit in the same manner as shown in circuit diagram 6.1.
3. Rub the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper and clean the different terminals.
 4. Take out the plug the one key and make
Fig. 6.1
irom
using connecting wires.
the neat and tight connections as shown in the
circuit diagrams,
5 Close key K and note the readings of ammeter
and voltmeter.
6. We do not observe any reading in ammeter
and voltmeter. It is due
are not connected properly in the circuit.
to the fact that the ammeter and voltmeter
7. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in
Fig. 6.2.
8. Take out the plug from one way key K and make the neat and
tight connections as shown in circuit diagram
Fig. 6.2, using connecting wires.
9 Close key K. Now both the ammeter and voltmeter show readings.
10. By adjusting rheostat, we can have various observations for the resistance, connected in the cireuit.
11. In this way you can check and correct any electrie circuit.
 ACTIVITY NO. 41
AIM: Toidentify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor froma mixed collection
ofsuch items.
MATERLALS REQUIRFr Amixed collection of diode, a transistor, an IC, a resistor, a capacitor and multimeter.
THEORY: LED (Light emitting diode), resistor and capacitor all have two terminals each. A
transistor has three
terminals and an IC has minimum of eight terminals. Thus IC and transistor can be easily identified just by countingg
their legs.
For the identification of two terminal devices, following characteristics of components can be utilized.
1. Resistor: When D.C. current is passed through it, it shows a constant current.
When
2.
Capacitor: connected
suddenly shows zero deflection.
in a d.c. cireuit, a multimeter set at R initially shows a full scale defletion and

It when forward biased and do not conduct when reverse biased. When it emits
3.
Diode: conducts electricity
light, then it is termed as LED.
PROCEDURE:
1.
First pick up the components
would have
withflatmaximum
face
number of legs, i.e., one which has eight than eight legs.
or more
of flat metal strip. Then this component is T*C.
This component
Fig. 1.1.e).
a and its legs are

2. The component with three legs is a transistor [Fig. 1.1(d).

3. Take a multimeter with selector switch turned on to position R for
checking the continuity.
4. Now touch the two pribes ofmultimeter with the two ends of respective device if.
 then the componentis
is aa resistor
resistor
(i) The multimeter shows deflection in direct as well as in reverse direction,
Fig. 1.1 (a).
one direction. But,
when we reverse the polarity it shows no
LThe multimeter shows deflection only in
detlection, then such a component is known as diode [Fig. 1.1c)J.
(iii) While conducting, if component emits light, then it is LED [Fig. 1 (c).
to zero with a passage of time, then
(iu)The multimeter shows a full scale deflection initially but it decays
such a component is termed as capacitor [Pig. 1.1(6)).

1234 1000uF
Wire 6V
0.47 F
Paper
Electrolytlc
Rings Mica
(a) Carbon Reslstor (b) Cepacltor

pnp or npn

LED
T
(d) Translstor
(c) Dlodes

213146
UUUUOUUU
(e) Integrated Circult

Fig. 1.1. Some of the commonly available electronic components.

RESULT: Various items have been identified from mixed collection of electronic components, e.g., resistor,
capacitor, diode, LED, transistor and IC.
VIVA-VOCE
 ACTIVITY NO. 5

AIM: To observe polarisation oflight using two polaroida.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: An unpolarised source of light, e.g., sunlight, electric bulb, two polaroid pieces.
THEORY: A polaroid passes only that part of light which has vibrations along the axis of polarisation ofthe
polaroid. It means that unpolarised light after passing through the polarised piece becomes plane polarised.
If the axis of two polaroid pieces are perpendicular to each other then no light will pass through the second piece
and ifboth the axes are parallel to each other then polarised light produced by the first polaroid is able, to pass through
the second polaroid Fig. 5 (a) and (b).
PROCEDURE:
1 Place the polaroid (P,), in front of light say a bulb and look at the intensity of light, it will decrease.

22. Now take another polaroid (P,) in front of P, and now lok at the intensity of light through the combined
system.
3. Rotate one polaroid with respect to the other.
 Tourmaline crystal

Unpolarised light Polarised light Polarised Iight

Plane Polarised (Parallel axis of P, and P2)

Light
P Axis Pat Axis
Polariser Analyser

Unpolarised light No Light

iHE Pa
Crossed portion or P, and P
(axis of P, lies on axis of P,)

Fig, 5. (a) Plane polarised light is produced by the polaroid P, Ifpolaroid

P,is placed parallel to P, then the plane
polarised light passes through P, also.
of to that of P,
(b) No light passes if the two polaroids are crossed, i.e., axis P, is perpendicular
The second polaroid P, is called an analyser and the first polaroid is polariser.

CONCLUSION: When the transmission axis of polaroid and analyser are parallel, then the intensity of light
from analyser will be same from polariser.
When the transmission axis of polaroid and analyser
are closed, no light comes out from analyser.

VIVA-VOCE
 ACTIVITY NO. 6
AIM: To observe diffraction oflightdue to a thin slit.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Two micro slides, two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen andlaser pencil, black paper
THEORY: When visible monpchromatic light passes through anarrow slit whose width is of the order ofwavelength
of light and impinges on a dark background, it produces a single slit diffraction pattern. The location of dark fringes is
given by the equation
d sin 6, = tna
where n 1,2, 3,...
6, =
angle of diffraction of the nth order
n = 0 is not included in this equation, indeed, it corresponds to the central maximum.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place two razor blades facing their sharp edges to each other such that there is a small gap between both the
razor blades.
2. Paste the blades leaving no gap between paper and glass plate. Glass plate

3. Cut small slit between the sharp edges of blades.

4. Place the slit about 0.5 m from a wall and a source oflight with a slit Blades
in front of it at distance of about 20 cm from the slit.
5. Observe the light falling on the wal. Black paper
6. It will be observed that instead of having a bright slit like light on

the wall, the light spreads on the screen/wall. Fig. 6.1.

CONCLUSION: When light waves are made to be incident on very
fine slit they always bond showing the phenomenon of diffraction of light.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The slit should be as thin as
possible
2. Black paper should be pasted such that there is no air gap between the glass plate and paper

VIVA-VOCE