Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The researcher’s topic tackles about the Amicable Pair. In this chapter, you will see some of the

related literature and studies about the topic.

Related Literatures:

AMICABLE NUMBERS

Two numbers are said to be amicable (i.e., friendly) if each one of them is equal to the

sum of the proper divisors of the others (i.e., whole numbers less than the given numbers that

divide the given number with no remainder). For example, 220 have proper divisors 1, 2, 4, 5,

10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, and 110. The sum of these divisors is 284. The proper divisors of 284 are

1, 2, 4, 71, and 142. Their sum is 220; so 220 and 284 are amicable. This is the smallest pair of

amicable numbers.

HISTORY OF AMICABLE PAIR

The discovery of amicable numbers is attributed to the neo-Pythagorean Greek

philosopher Iamblichus of Chalcis (c. AD 250–330), who credited Pythagoras (582–500 BC)

with the original knowledge of their nature. The Pythagoreans believed that amicable numbers,

like all special numbers, had a profound cosmic significance. A biblical reference (a gift of 220

goats from Jacob to Esau, Genesis 23: 14) is thought by some to indicate an earlier knowledge of

amicable numbers.
 No pairs of amicable numbers other than 220 and 284 were discovered by European

mathematicians until 1636, when French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) found the

pair 18, 496 and 17, 296. A century later, Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)

made an extensive search and found about 60 additional pairs. Surprisingly, however, he

overlooked the smallest pair after 220 and 284, which is 1184 and 1210. It was subsequently

discovered in 1866 by a 16-year-old boy, Nicolo Paganini.

During the medieval period, Arabian mathematicians preserved and developed the

mathematical knowledge of the ancient Greeks. For example, the polymath Thabit ibn Qurra

(836–901) formulated an ingenious rule for generating amicable number pairs: Let a = 3(2 n) – 1,

b = 3(2n-1) – 1, and c = 9(22n-1) – 1; then, if a, b, and c are primes, 2 nab and 2nc are amicable. This

rule produces 220 and 284 when n is 2. When n is 3, c is not a prime, and the resulting numbers

are not amicable. For n = 4, it produces Fermat’s pair, 17, 296 and 18, 416, skipping over

Paganini’s pair and others.

Other scientists who have studied amicable numbers throughout history are Spanish

mathematician Al Madshritti (died 1007), Islamic mathematician Abu Mansur Tahir al-Baghdadi

(980–1037), French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650), and Swiss

mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783).

Professionals and amateurs alike have for centuries enjoyed seeking them (Amicable

Pairs) and exploring their properties.

AMICABLE PAIR
 An amicable pair is a pair of positive integers (m, n),m≠ n , such that (m)= (n)=m+n,

where (.) denotes the sum of divisors function. These number pairs have a long and interesting

history. Euler was the first who systematically studied amicable pairs, and a great part of the

known pairs were found with his methods and the use of electronic computers.

PROPER DIVISORS

A positive proper divisor is a positive divisor of a number , excluding itself. For

example, 1, 2, and 3 are positive proper divisors of 6, but 6 itself is not. The number of proper

divisors of is therefore given by

s0 (n) ≡ σ 0(n)-1

where σ k (n) is the divisor function. For n=1, 2, ..., is therefore given by 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 3,

2, 3, .... The largest proper divisors of n=2, 3, ... are 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 3, 5, 1, ....

The term "proper divisor" is sometimes used to include negative integer divisors of a

number n (excluding -n ). Using this definition, -3 , -2, -1, , 1, 2, and 3 are the proper divisors of

6, while -6 and 6 are the improper divisors.

To make matters even more confusing, the proper divisor is often defined so that -1 and 1

are also excluded. Using this alternative definition, the proper divisors of 6 would then be -3,

-2, 2, and 3, and the improper divisors would be -6, -1, 1, and 6.

DIVISOR FUNCTION

A divisor function is an arithmetic function related to the divisors of an integer. When

referred to as the divisor function, it counts the number of divisors of an integer.

 The sum of positive divisors function σx(n), for a real or complex number x, is defined as

the sum of the xth powers of the positive divisors of n, or

σ x ( n )= ∑ d
d ∨n

The notations d(n), ν(n) and τ(n) (for the German Teiler = divisors) are also used to

denote σ0(n), or the number-of-divisors function. When x is 1, the function is called the sigma

function or sum-of-divisors function, and the subscript is often omitted, so σ(n) is equivalent to

σ1(n)

The aliquot sum s(n) of n is the sum of the proper divisors (that is, the divisors excluding

n itself, and equals σ1(n) − n; the aliquot sequence of n is formed by repeatedly applying the

aliquot sum function.

PAIR SUM

Given an amicable pair (m,n), the quantity

σ (m) = σ (n)

=s (m) + s (n)

= m +n

is called the pair sum, where is the divisor function and is the restricted divisor function.

BREEDER

A pair of positive integers (a 1 , a2 ¿such that the equations

 a 1 + a 2 x = 𝜎 (a 1 ¿ = 𝜎 (a 2 ¿ (x + 1)

have a positive integer solution x , where σ (n) is the divisor function. If x is prime, then (

a 1 , a2 x ¿ is an amicable pair (te Riele 1986). (a 1 , a2 ¿ is a n special n breeder if

a 1=a u

a 2=a ,

where a and u are relatively prime, ( a, u ) = 1 . If regular amicable pairs of type ( i,1 ) with

i≥ 2 are of the form ( au, ap ) with prime, then( au , a ) are special breeders (te Riele 1986).

WIETHAUS’S RULE

Let a, S ∈ N with S squarefree, gcd(a, S) = 1, and

a σ (S )
=
σ ( a ) S +σ ( S ) −1

Write

σ (S)(S+ σ(S) – 1) =; D1 D 2

with D 1, D2 ϵ N. If p := D 1 + S + σ (S) and q := D 2 + σ (S) - 1 are distinct prime numbers with

gcd(p, aS) = gcd(q, a) = 1, then the following Thabit-rule holds:

if for some k 2 N the two numbers

q 1 := (p + q) pk - 1 and q 2:= (p - S) pk - 1

are prime with gcd(q 1,aS) = gcd(q 2; aq) = 1, then (aS pk q1 , aq pk q2 ) is an amicable pair.
BORHO’S RULE, SPECIAL CASE

Let (au,as) be an amicable pair with gcd(a,us) = 1 and s a prime, and let p = u + s + 1 be a prime

not dividing a. If for some k ϵ N both q 1= pk (u + 1) - 1 and q 2 = pk (u + 1)(s + 1) - 1 are primes

not dividing a, then (au pk q1; a pk q2 ) is an amicable pair.

BORHO’S RULE WITH BREEDERS

Let (au, a) be a breeder, with integer solution x. If a pair of distinct prime numbers r, s exists,

with gcd(a, rs) = 1, satisfying the bilinear equation

(r - x)(s - x) = (x + 1)(x + u)

and if a third prime q exists, with gcd(au, q) = 1, such that

q = r + s + u,

then (auq, ars) is an amicable pair.

Thâbit ibn Kurrah Rule

Thâbit ibn Kurrah's rule is a beautiful result of Thâbit ibn Kurrah dating back to the tenth century

(Woepcke 1852; Escott 1946; Dickson 2005, pp. 5 and 39; Borho 1972). Take n ≥ 2 and

suppose that

h = 3∙ 2n-1

t= 3∙ 2n−1-1

s= 9∙ 22 n−1-1
are all prime. Then (2n ht , 2n s ¿ is an amicable pair, where h is sometimes called a Thâbit ibn

Kurrah number. This form was rediscovered by Fermat in 1636 and Descartes in 1638 and

generalized by Euler to Euler's rule (Borho 1972).

In order for such numbers to exist, there must be prime 3∙ 2n-1 for two consecutive n, leaving

only the possibilities 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, 7. Of these, is prime for n = 2, 4, and 7, giving the

amicable pairs (220, 284), (17296, 18416), and (9363584, 9437056).

In fact, various rules can be found that are analogous to Thâbit ibn Kurrah's. Denote a "Thâbit

rule" by T (b 1 , b2 ¿ 2 , p , F1 , F 2 ¿ for given natural numbers b 1andb 2, a prime p not dividingb 1, b 2,

and polynomials F 1 ( X ) , F2 ( X ) ϵ Z [X] . Then a necessary condition for the set of amicable pairs (

m1 , m2¿ ¿ of the form mi= pn bi qi (i=1, 2) with q 1, q 2prime and n a natural number to be infinite is

that

p b1 b2
= +
p−1 σ (b 1) σ (b2 )

where is the divisor function (Borho 1972). As a result, mi= pn bi qi ( i=1 , 2 ) form an amicable

pair, if for some n ≥ 1 , both

p n ( p−1)(b1 +b 2)
q i= −1
σ (b 1)

For i=1, 2 are prime integers not dividing b i p (Borho 1972).

The following table summarizes some of the known Thâbit ibn Kurrah rules
T (au, p, (u +1)X,(u + a)X,(u + a) σ (u) X-1 ) (Borho 1972, te Riele 1974).

EULER’S RULE

The numbers 2npq and 2nare an amicable pair if the three integers

p≡ 2m ( 2n−m +1 ) −1

q≡ 2n ( 2n−m +1 )−1

2
r≡ 2n+ m ( 2n−m+ 1 ) −1

are all prime numbers for some positive integer m satisfying 1 ≤ m ≤ n - 1 (Dickson 2005,

p. 42). However, there are many amicable pairs which do not satisfy Euler's rule, so it is a

sufficient but not necessary condition for amicability. Euler's rule is a generalization of Thâbit

ibn Kurrah rule.

The first few (m, n) for which Euler's rule is satisfied are (m, n) = (1, 2), (3, 4), (6, 7), (1, 8),

(29, 40), ... (Sloane's A094445 and A094446), with no others for n < 2500 , corresponding to the

triples (p, q, r) = (5, 11, 71) , (23, 47, 1151), (191, 383, 73727), ..., giving the amicable pairs

(220, 284), (17296, 18416), (9363584, 9437056), ....

AMICABLE TRIPLE

Dickson (1913, 2005) defined an amicable triple to be a triple of three numbers (l ,m, n) such

that

s (l) = m + n

s (m) = l+ n
 s (n)= l + m,

where s(n) is the restricted divisor function (Madachy 1979). Dickson (1913, 2005) found eight

sets of amicable triples with two equal numbers, and two sets with distinct numbers. The latter

are (123228768, 103340640, 124015008), for which

s(123 228 768) = 103 340 640 + 124 015 008 = 227 335 648

s( 103 340 640) = 123 228 768 + 124 015 008 = 247 243 776

s( 124 015 008) = 123 228 768 + 103 340 640= 226 569 408,

and (1945330728960, 2324196638720, 2615631953920), for which

s( 1 945 330 728 960) = 2 324 196 638 720 + 2 615 631 953 920

= 4 939 828 592 640

s(2 324 196 638 720) = 1 945 330 728 960 + 2 615 631 953 920

= 4 560 962 682 880

s( 2 615 631 953 920) = 1 945 330 728 960 + 2 324 196 638 720

= 4 269 527 367 680.

AMICABLE QUADRUPLE

An amicable quadruple as a quadruple (a, b, c, d) such that

σ (a) = σ (b) = σ (c) = σ (d) = a+ b + c +d,

where σ (n) is the divisor function.

If (a, b) and (x, y) are amicable pairs and

GCD (a, x) = GCD (a, y) = GCD (b, x) = GCD (b, y) =1,

Then (a x, a y, b x, b y) is an amicable quadruple. This follows from the identity

σ ( a, x) = σ (a) σ(x) = (a, b) (x + y) = a x + a y + b + x + b y.

The smallest known amicable quadruple is (842448600, 936343800, 999426600, 1110817800).

Large amicable quadruples can be generated using the formula

a 173 ∙1 933058 921∙ 149 ∙103 540 742849

⌊ b ⌋ = C n ⌊ 173 ∙1 933 058 921∙ 15 531111 427 499 ⌋ ,
c 336 352 252 427 ∙149 ∙ 103570 742 849
d 336 352 252 427 ∙15 531 111 427 499

where

n−1 9 2 4 2 2 2
C n=2 M n ∙5 ∙ 7 ∙11 ∙17 ∙19 ∙ 29 ∙ 67 ∙ 71 ∙ 109∙ 131∙ 139 ∙179 ∙ 307 ∙ 431∙ 521∙ 653 ∙1019 ∙ 1279∙ 2557 ∙3221 ∙5113

and M n is a Mersenne prime with n a prime >3 (Y. Kohmoto; Guy 1994, p. 59).

MULTIAMICABLE NUMBER

Two integers n and m< n are (α,β) -multiamicable if

σ(m)-m= α n

and
 σ(n)-n= β m,

where σ(n)is the divisor function and are positive integers. If α= β= 1, (m,n) is an amicable

pair.

m cannot have just one distinct prime factor, and if it has precisely two distinct prime factors,

then α = 1and m is even. Small multiamicable numbers for small α,β are given by Cohen et al.

(1995). Several of these numbers are reproduced in the table below.

αβ m n

16 76455288 183102192

17 52920 152280

17 16225560 40580280

17 90863136 227249568

17 16225560 40580280

17 70821324288 177124806144

1 7 199615613902848 499240550375424

QUASIAMICABLE PAIR

Let 𝜎 (m) be the divisor function of m. Then two numbers m and n are a quasiamicable pair if

𝜎 (m) = σ (n) = m + n +1.

The first few are (48, 75), (140, 195), (1050, 1925), (1575, 1648), ... (Sloane's A005276).

Quasiamicable numbers are sometimes called betrothed numbers or reduced amicable pairs.
SUPER UNITARY AMICABLE PAIR

Two integers (m, n) form a super unitary amicable pair if

σ ¿ (σ ¿¿ ¿ ( m ))=σ ¿ (σ ¿ ( n ) )=m+n , ¿

¿
where σ ( n )is the unitary divisor function. The first few pairs are (105, 155), (110, 142), (2145,

3055), (47802, 65278), (125460, 164492),

UNITARY AMICABLE PAIR

A pair of numbers m and n such that

¿ ¿
σ ( m )=σ ( n )=m+n ,

¿
where σ ( n ) is the unitary divisor function. Hagis (1971) and García (1987) give 82 such pairs.

The first few are (114, 126), (1140, 1260), (18018, 22302), (32130, 40446), ...

On Jan. 30, 2004, Y. Kohmoto discovered the largest known unitary amicable pair, where each

member has 317 digits. Kohmoto calls a unitary amicable pair whose members are squareful a

proper unitary amicable pair.

RATIONAL AMICABLE PAIR

A rational amicable pair consists of two integers and for which the divisor functions are equal

and are of the form

P( a ,b)
σ (a) = σ (b) = ≡ R (a,b),
Q (a , b)
where P( a ,b) and Q( a ,b)are bivariate polynomials, and for which the following properties

hold (Y. Kohmoto):

1. All the degrees of terms of the numerator of the right fraction are the same.

2. All the degrees of terms of the denominator of the right fraction are the same.

3. The degree of P is one greater than the degree of .

If and P( a ,b) is of the form ma ' , then it reduces to the special case

m
σ (a) = a,
n

so if m/n is an integer, then a is a multiperfect number.

Consider polynomials of the form

Rn (a, b) = ¿ ¿

For n=1, it reduces to

1
σ (a) = σ (b) = (a + b)
2

of which no examples are known. For n =2, it reduces to

σ (a) = σ (b) = ¿ ¿ (a + b) ,

so ( a, b) form an amicable pair. For n = 3, it becomes

 σ (a) = σ (b) = ¿ ¿ .

AUGMENTED AMICABLE PAIR

A pair of numbers m and n such that

σ (m)= σ (n) =m + n -1,

where σ (m)is the divisor function. Beck and Najar (1977) found 11 augmented amicable pairs.

AMICABLE PAIRS FOR ELLIPTIC CURVES

An Amicable Pair for the elliptic curve E is a pair of distinct good reduction primes (p, q)

satisfying
~ ~
# E k ( F q) = q and # E k ( F q) = p:,

Example. The smallest amicable pair on the elliptic curve

2 3
y + y = x −x

is (1622311; 1622471) and there are no other amicable pairs smaller than107 .

(853, 883); (77761, 77999) ,…,

(94248260597, 94248586591).

HARSHAD AMICABLE PAIRS

 Harshad (or Niven ) numbers are those numbers which are divisible by their sum of the

digits. For example 1729 ( 19*91) is divisible by 1+7+2+9 =19, so 1729 is a Harshad number.

We define Harshad Amicable Pair as an Amicable Pair (m, n), such that both m and n are

Harshad numbers. For example, consider amicable pair (2620, 2924), where 2620 is divisible by

2+6+2+0 = 10 (i.e. 2620/10 = 262) and 2924 is divisible by 2+9+2+4 = 17 (i.e. 2924/17 = 172).

So both 2620 and 2924 are Harshad numbers and hence the Amicable Pair (2620, 2924) is

Harshad Amicable Pair. Other examples are (10634085,14084763), (23389695, 25132545),

(34256222, 35997346) etc. The search for such amicable pairs can be a good past time. There are

192 Harshad Amicable Pairs in first 5000 Amicable Pairs.

HAPPY AMICABLE PAIRS

If you iterate the process of summing the squares of the decimal digits of a number and if

the process terminates in 1, then the original number is called a happy number.

For example 7 -> 49 -> 97 -> 130 -> 10 -> 1.

We define Happy Amicable Pair as an Amicable Pair (m, n), such that both m and n are

Happy numbers. For example, consider amicable pair (10572550, 10854650), where 10572550 -

> 129 -> 86 -> 100 -> 1 and 10854650 -> 167 -> 86 -> 100 -> 1. So both 10572550 and

10854650 are Happy numbers and hence the amicable pair (10572550, 10854650) is Happy

Amicable Pair. Other examples are (32685250, 34538270), (35361326, 40117714), (35390008,

39259592) etc. The search for such amicable pairs can be a good past time. There are 111 Happy

Amicable Pairs in first 5000 Amicable Pairs.

GENERATORS AND UNITARY AMICABLE PAIRS

 There are at least three methods of producing generators. McClung found sixteen in a

limited computer search. Briefly, he characterized generators with π (f ) = 2 and π (k ) = 1 and

searched for generators of the forms

(2 ∙ p, 2a ) , (22 ∙ p, 2b ), and (3 • p,3c ).

He found five, eight, and three, respectively. By the nature of the characterization, all are

primitive. The characterization of other generator forms remains a fertile area of endeavor. It

appears, for example, that in the case π (f ) = π (k ) = 2 is not an integer.

REDUCED AND AUGMENTED AMICABLE PAIRS

A reduced amicable pair is a pair of natural numbers, m and n, such that

m = 𝜎 (n)-n-1; n- 𝜎 {m) -m-1,

where d is the sum of divisors function. Jerrard and Temperley studied numbers k satisfying

k = a(k)-k±l which they named almost perfect numbers. Lai and Forbes first studied reduced

amicable pairs and discovered nine pairs with smaller number < 105. (They coined the name

"reduced amicable pair.") In an earlier paper, we extended the search to pairs with smaller

number < 106, finding six new pairs. Hagis and Lord extended the list to 107, discovering thirty

one new pairs, including two missed in. The present paper extends the listing to 108. The paper

included a study of pairs m and n satisfying

m = 𝜎 (n) - n +1; n - 𝜎 (m) -m + 1,

called augmented amicable pairs and listed all pairs with smaller number less than 106. There

were nine plus two other pairs both of whose elements exceeded one million. These arose from

iterating the function s+(n) = o(n)-n + l on integers less than one million.
AMICABLE PAIRS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION

There are only a handful of CM curves defined over Q and having E(Q)tors= 0. They do

indeed have a large number of amicable pairs. Further experiments revealed the step in our

heuristic argument that is flawed for CM curves. Recall:

1
Prob( N q = p | q = N pis prime) ≫≪
√p

because p ≈ q and Nq lies in an interval of length √4 q , so the chance of Nq hitting any particular

1
value is about √ p.
4

This appears to be true for non-CM curves, but for CM curves (other than the Ek curves) we

found that

1
Prob(Nq = p | q = Np is prime) ≈
2

FRIENDLY PAIR

Define

σ (n)
∑ ( n) ≡ n
,

where σ ( n )is the divisor function. Then a pair of distinct numbers ( k , m) is a friendly pair (and k

is said to be a friend of m) if
 ∑ ( k ) =∑ ( m )

For example, (4320, 4680) is a friendly pair, sinceσ ( 4320 )=15120 , σ ( 4680 )=16380, and

15120 7
∑ (4320) ≡ =
4320 2

16380 7
∑ (4680) ≡ =
4680 2

Another example is (24, 91 963 648), which has index 5/2. The first few friendly pairs, ordered

by smallest maximum element are (6, 28), (30, 140), (80, 200), (40, 224), (12, 234), (84, 270),

(66, 308), ...

Friendly triples and higher-order tuples are also possible. Friendly triples include (2160,

5400, 13104), (9360, 21600, 23400), and (4320, 4680, 26208), friendly quadruples include (6,

28, 496, 8128), (3612, 11610, 63984, 70434), (3948, 12690, 69936, 76986), and friendly

quintuples include (84, 270, 1488, 1638, 24384), (30, 140, 2480, 6200, 40640), (420, 7440,

8190, 18600, 121920).

Numbers that have friends are called friendly numbers, and numbers that do not have

friends are called solitary numbers. A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for n to be a

solitary number is that (σ (n), n) =1, where (a, b) is the greatest common divisor of a and b.

There are some numbers that can easily be proved to be solitary, but the status of numbers 10,

14, 15, 20, and many others remains unknown (Hickerson 2002).

Hoffman (1998, p. 45) uses the term "friendly numbers" to describe amicable pairs.

REGULAR PAIRS
 Let (m, n) be a pair of amicable numbers with  m < n , and

write m=gM and n=gN where g is the greatest common divisor of m and n. If M and N are

both coprime to g and square free then the pair (m, n) is said to be regular, otherwise it is

called irregular or exotic. If (m, n) is regular and M and N have i and j prime factors respectively,

then (m, n) is said to be of type (i, j).

For example, with (m, n) = (220, 284), the greatest common divisor is 4 and so M = 55

and N = 71. Therefore (220, 284) is regular of type (2, 1).

How do we know whether a whole number is divisible or not?

We say that number b can be divided by number a when a number q exists, such that .

We can then say that b is a factor of a and that a is a multiple of b.

To find particular divisors, we need only know certain criteria for divisibility:

A number is divisible by 2 if its last digit is 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8;

A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 3;

A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by taking its last two digits is divisible by four;

A number is divisible by 5 if its last digit is either 0 or 5;

A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 9;

A number is divisible by 10 if its last digit is 0.

A prime number is a whole number with only two distinct factors: 1 and itself.

It is important to know the smallest prime numbers. These numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,

23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, ...

To find out if a number is a prime number:

First check that the divisibility criteria do not apply;

Then divide the number by the prime numbers 7, 11, 13, 17,... Each time, check that the

remainder from the division is not zero (the result of the division is not exact). When the quotient

becomes less than the divisor, there is no need to continue.

larger than the number itself. Thus, 9, with proper divisors 1, 3, is deficient; 12, with

proper divisors 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, is abundant.

Related Studies:

Title: “Amicable Pairs, a Survey”

Author: Mariano Garcia, Jan Munch Pederson and Herman te Riele

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problems:

1. Are there an infinite number of amicable pairs?

2. Is there an amicable pair whose members have opposite parity?

3. Is there an amicable pair whose members are relatively prime?

4. Is there an amicable pair with pair sum equal to 1 mod 3?

5. For any given prime p, is there an amicable pair whose members have no prime factors < p?

6. Are there any amicable pairs whose members have different smallest prime factors?

7. Are there amicable pairs for all possible types?

Procedure: In 1750, Euler published an extensive paper on amicable pairs, by which he added

fiffty-nine new amicable pairs to the three amicable pairs known thus far. In 1972, Lee and

Madachy published a historical survey of amicable pairs, with a list of the 1108 amicable pairs

then known. In 1995, Pedersen started to create and maintain an Internet site with lists of all the

known amicable pairs. The current (February 2003) number of amicable pairs in these lists
exceeds four million. This may stimulate research in the direction of finding proof that the

number of amicable is infinite.

Conclusion: The researchers trust that this paper has convinced the reader that the answer to Q1

is yes. The researchers also believe that the answer to Q5 is yes. The researchers do not have an

opinion on the other questions.

One of the referees has pointed out that the question about the infinity of the number of

amicable pairs may be compared with the same question for Carmichael numbers, which has

been answered affirmatively in 1994, when Alford constructed 264 of them at once. There are

“rules" for constructing Carmichael numbers which are quite similar to the rules given here for

amicable numbers. For example, (6k+1)(12k+1)(18k+1) is a Carmichael number provided all

three factors are primes. The reader might study to discover possible approaches to proving that

there are infinitely many amicable pairs.

Title: ON AMICABLE NUMBERS AND THEIR GENERALIZATIONS

Author: THOMAS E. MASON

Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 28, No. 5 (May, 1921)

Problem: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: The researcher used the method of finding amicable number

Conclusion: The methods of finding amicable number sets are very largely those of trial.

Experience in working with such numbers will suggest the likely numbers to try, but there is no

sure guide yet known. The number of cases that need to be tried out becomes very large for some

of the larger numbers that the researcher might choose for n1 , n2 , ..., n kin seeking k-tuples of the

form an1 , an 2,…,an k For example, the number 1108800 is the sum of the divisors of at least

twenty different sets of prime factors no one of which is less than 19. If the researcher is using
the method suggested by Dickson and are seeking amicable sextuples the researcher shall have as

many possibilities as there are combinations of twenty, six at a time. The same set offers 20 C 3

possibilities for amicable pairs, 20C 3 for triples, etc. Any systematic search for amicable

numbers among the large numbers will furnish a vast amount of work.

Title: On Generating New Amicable Pairs from Given Amicable Pairs

Author: Herman J. J. te Riele

Source: Mathematics of Computation. Vol. 42, No. 165 (January, 1984)

Problem: The researcher aimed on generating new amicable pairs from Given Amicable pairs.

Procedure: Methods are given for constructing new amicable pairs from given amicable pairs. By

applying these methods to 1575 “mother” pairs known t the author, 1782 amicable pairs were

generated, so that the offspring” of these mother pairs is greater than 1.

Conclusion: The average daughter pair considered was much larger in size than the average

mother pair considered, which led to much larger values of C. Nevertheless, the researchers

found 88 new “granddaughter” pairs from the smallest 400 daughter pairs.

Title: ORTHOMODULARITY AND THE DIRECT SUM OF DIVISION SUBRINGS OF

THE QUATERNIONS

Author: RONALD P. MORASH

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let D be any division subring of the real quaternions H. Let ° D denote the linear

space of all finitely nonzero sequences from D and let L denote the lattice of all " | ┴ -closed"

subspaces of °D, where " ┴_" denotes the orthogonality relation derived from the H-valued form

(a, b)= ∑ (a i b i*:i=1,2,…) where a, b ϵ °D, a = (a 1,a 2,..,a N ,0,0..) and b≠(b 1,b 2,.. b M ,0,0…),and
b∗¿i ¿ is the quaternionic conjugate of b¡. Then, the lattice L is complete and

orthocomplemented, but is not orthomodular.

Conclusion: The researchers conclude by posing a question, whose affirmative answer would

imply our main result and give more information about the class of lattices the researchers are

studying. The question is suggested by a definition due to D. E. Catlin .An atomic,

orthocomplemented lattice L is said to have the σ-hyperoctant property if, for every countable

orthogonal family of atoms {a i :i=1,2…} in L, there exists an atom a ϵ L such that a≤\/ { a i :

i=1,2…}, but a fails to commute with any of the a i. Certainly, the lattices arising from the direct

sums, discussed above, do not have this property. The researchers ask whether an infinite-

dimensional Hilbert lattice necessarily has the σ-hyperoctant property.

Title: PAIRS OF MONOTONE OPERATORS

Author: S. SIMONS

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to prove show some pairs of montone operators.

Procedure: This note is an addendum to Sum theorems for monotone opera- tors and convex

functions.

Conclusion: In it, the researchers prove some new results on convex functions and monotone

operators, and use them to show that several of the constraint qualifications considered in the

preceding paper are, in fact, equivalent.

Title: ON THE REPRESENTATIONS OF AN INTEGER AS THE SUM OF PRODUCTS

OF INTEGERS

Author: S. M. JOHNSON
Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Finding the number of representations of an integer N as a sum of products of pairs of

positive integers.

Procedure: By elementary methods Ingham found an asymptotic formula for the number R(N)

of representations of N as a sum of two products of pairs. His result was R(N) = (l/2γ(2)) •σ(N)

2
log N + O(σ(N) log N) where σ(N) is the sum of the divisors of N.
2
Conclusion: His conclusion was that the conjecture is false in the case of ∑ d3 (n). The heuristic
n≤ N

result did not agree with the result given by elementary methods.

Title: Generating Pseudo-Random Numbers by Shuffling a Fibonacci Sequence

Author: Friedrich Gebhardt

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: To proposed to mix two pseudo-random number generators.

Procedure: The researchers have proposed to mix two pseudo-random number generators in the

following way: The first generator is used at the beginning to fill an array with pseudo-random

numbers; whenever a random number is needed; the second generator determines which element

of the array is to be used and replaced by a new number from the first generator.

Conclusion: In this study, only one generator is utilized for both purposes; moreover, the

generator chosen (a Fibonacci sequence) is by itself a rather poor one. Nevertheless, the final

sequence of pseudo-random numbers passed all statistical tests applied to it, including X 2 -

tests of the maximum and minimum of two to ten succeeding numbers and tests applied to

sequences immediately following a small number or two almost equal ones.

Title: RANDOM FIBONACCI SEQUENCES AND THE NUMBER 1.13198824

Author: DIVAKAR VISWANATH

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Is there a short analytic description of °f?

Procedure: For the familiar Fibonacci sequence (defined by f 1 = f 2 = 1, and f n = f n -1 + f n - 2

for n > 2), f n increases exponentially with n at a rate given by the golden ratio (1 +√ 5

)/2=1.61803398 …. But for a simple modification with both additions and subtractions - the

random Fibonacci sequences defined by t 1 = t n 2 = 1, and for n > 2, t n = ± t n-1 ± t n-2, where each

± sign is independent and either + or - with probability 1/2- it is not even obvious if |tn| should

increase with n. Our main result is that

√n ¿ tn ∨¿ ¿ 1.13198824… as n ∞

with probability 1. Finding the number 1.13198824 … involves the theory of random matrix

products, Stern-Brocot division of the real line, a fractal measure, a computer calculation, and a

rounding error analysis to validate the computer calculation

Conclusion: To conclude, the researchers ask: Is there a short analytic description of °f? The

fractal quality of °f suggests no. But let °f (p) be the Lyapunov exponent of the obvious

generalization t 1 = t 2 = 1, and for n ≥ 2, t n = ±t n−1± t n−2 with each ± sign independent and either

+ with probability p or - with probability 1-p. Unfortunately, the techniques described in this

paper for °f (1/2) do not seem to generalize easily to °f (p), 0 < p < 1.
Title: APPROXIMATION OF REAL NUMBERS WITH RATIONAL NUMBER

SEQUENCES

Author: RISTO KORHONEN

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let α ∈ R, and let C > max {1, α}. It is shown that if {pn/qn} is

a sequence formed out of all rational numbers p/q such that

|α− qp|≤ C1q where p ∈ Z and q ∈ N are relatively prime numbers, then either {pn/qn} has
2

finitely many elements or

¿ log log q n
lim ⁡ n → ∞ ≥1 ,
log n

where the points {qn }n∈ N are ordered by increasing modulus.

Conclusion: This implies that the sequence of denominators {qn}n∈N grows exponentially as a

function of n, and so the density of rational numbers which approximate α well in the above

sense is relatively low.

Title: PRIMITIVE DIVISORS OF LUCAS AND LEHMER SEQUENCES

Author: PAUL M. VOUTIER

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Reduced the problem of determining all Lucas and Lehmer sequences whose nth

element does not have a primitive divisor to solving certain .

Procedure: The researcher reduced the problem of determining all Lucas and Lehmer sequences

whose nth element does not have a primitive divisor to solving certain.

Conclusion: The equations, the researchers determine such sequences for n < 30. Further

computations lead us to conjecture that, for n > 30 , the nth element of such sequences always

has a primitive divisor.

Title: SPORADIC AND IRRELEVANT PRIME DIVISORS

Author: STEPHEN MCADAM AND L. J. RATLIFF, JR.

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let I represent a regular ideal in a Noetherian ring R. If W is a finite set of prime

ideals in R, some conditions on W are given assuring that an I can be found such that W is

exactly the set of primes which are in Ass R/ I but not in Ass R/ I n for all large n.

Conclusion: As a conclusion, if I is fixed, and if P is a prime ideal containing /, some conditions

are given assuring that in the Rees ring R = R[u, It], (u, P, / It)R is a prime divisor of uR.

Title: ON THE NUMBER OF ISOGENY CLASSES OF PAIRING-FRIENDLY ELLIPTIC

CURVES AND STATISTICS OF MNT CURVES

Author: JORGE JIM´ENEZ URROZ, FLORIAN LUCA, AND IGOR E. SHPARLINSKI

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let m be a fixed odd integer. Since the equation fixes the congruence class of n

modulo m2 in at most m° (1) ways as m→ ∞, the researchers expect the main contribution to E(z)

1
to come from systems of parameters where m ≤ z 2 −∈ with a small error term depending on ε.
Conclusion: The researchers give an upper bound on the number of finite fields over which

elliptic curves of cryptographic interest with a given embedding degree and small complex

multiplication discriminant may exist, and present some heuristic arguments which indicate that

this bound is tight. The researchers also refine some heuristic arguments on the total number of

so-called MNT curves with prime cardinalities which have been recently presented by various

authors.

Title: THE UNITARY AMICABLE PAIRS TO 108

Author: RUDOLPH M. NAJAR

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Showing unitary amicable numbers below108 .

Procedure: The researchers shall say that a pair of positive integer’s m and n is unitary amicable

numbers by using the method of finding unitary amicable numbers

Conclusion: The researchers present an exhaustive list of the 185 unitary amicable pairs whose

smaller number is less than 108 and a new unitary sociable set of four numbers.

Title: ON AN INTEGER'S INFINITARY DIVISORS

Author: GRAEME L. COHEN

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: The notions of unitary divisor and biunitary divisor are extended in a natural fashion

to give k-ary divisors, for any natural number k . The researchers show that the researchers may

sensibly allow k to increase indefinitely, and this leads to infinitary divisors.

Conclusion: The infinitary divisors of an integer are described in full, and applications to the

obvious analogues of the classical perfect and amicable numbers and aliquot sequences are

given.

Title: Lower Bounds for Relatively Prime Amicable Numbers of Opposite Parity

Author: Peter Hagis, Jr.

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Whether or not a pair of relatively prime amicable numbers exists is an open question.

Procedure: In this paper p and q will always represent primes while P j will be used to denote the

jth odd prime. Thus, P1 = 3 and P54 = 257. If pa | mn but pa +1 , mn the researchers shall write a =

EXP (p). m and n will be understood to be a pair of relatively prime amicable numbers of

opposite parity so that M + n= σ(m) = σ(n), ; where σ(k) represents the sum of the positive

divisors of k.

Conclusion: In this paper it is proved that if m and n are a pair of relatively prime amicable

numbers of opposite parity then mn is greater than 10121 and m and n are each greater than 1060.

Title: Primes of the Form n 4 + 1

Author: M. Lai

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: In this note the researchers report 172 new primes of the form n 4 + 1and tabulate all

such primes for 1 ≤ n ≤ 4004.

Procedure: The researcher used a method based on the four solutions of the congruence equation

4
x + 1 ≡ 0 ( mod p)
For all primes of the form 8k + 1. With primes less than 4 × 106 ,numbers n 4 + 1 for ≤ 2000 have

been completely factorized.

Conclusion: The researcher has made a conjecture regarding the number of primes Q(N) of the

N
dn
form n 4 + 1 for 1≤ n ≤ N and has given the following expression: Q(N) ~.66974 ∫
2 log n

Title: A SEARCH FOR ALIQUOT CYCLES BELOW 1010

Author: DAVID MOEWS AND PAUL C. MOEWS

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Searching for Aliqout Cycles Below 1010

Procedure: For all natural numbers n , define o(n) to be the sum of the divisors of n , and define

s(n) to be the sum of the divisors of n exclusive of n , that is, s(n) = a(n) - n . An aliquot cycle of

length k is a finite sequence of distinct natural numbers (a 1, ... , a k) such that a 1 = s(a k), and for

each i = 1, ... , k - 1, a i+1= s(a 1 ¿. Aliquot cycles of length 1 correspond to perfect numbers, and

cycles of length 2 are commonly referred to as amicable pairs. Several thousand amicable pairs

have been discovered; te Riele has conducted an exhaustive computer search which found 1427

amicable pairs with smaller member less than 1010.

Cycles with length exceeding 2 have been called sociable numbers; only a few are

known. Poulet discovered two such cycles in 1918, one of length 5 and one of length 28. Borho

derived forms which could be used to construct aliquot cycles with lengths exceeding 2. He was

able to use one of these forms to construct a 4-cycle. Twenty-one more 4-cycles, two 8-cycles,
and a 9-cycle were later found by computer searches. Little is known about sociable numbers. It

has been conjectured that for all k, infinitely many cycles of length k exist. Erdös has proved that

for each k > 2, the density of the members of aliquot cycles of length k is 0.

Findings : A search for aliquot fc-cyclesb elow 101 with k > 3 is described. Two new 4-cycles

are exhibited. Six new 4-cycles not below 10 are also exhibited.

Conclusion: It has been conjectured from numerical evidence that there exists a constant ß > 0

such that log b j is asymptotically ß log j, where b. is the smaller member of the amicable pair

with the jth smallest smaller member. In fact it appears that ß = 2. Figure 1 is intended to provide

evidence for or against a similar conjecture for 4-cycles. It shows logo, plotted against log j,

where a j is the jth smallest largest member of an aliquot 4-cycle, and j ranges from 1 to 24. The

least squares best-fit line for this data is also shown. It has slope 3.23 and y-intercept 11.9.

Title: NEW SOCIABLE NUMBERS

Author: ACHIM FLAMMENKAM

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Finding new sociable numbers.

Procedure: For each natural number n, the researchers write s(n) = σ(n) - n for the number of its

divisors excluding itself. If this function is iterated by s j+1(n) = s( s j(n)), it defines the so-called

aliquot sequence of n: s0(n), s1 (n), s2 (n), ... , starting with s°(n) = n . If the sequence for a given

n is bounded, either it ends at 0 (since s(0) is undefined), or it becomes periodic. If it is constant,

it has reached a perfect number. If it is alternating, it represents a pair of amicable numbers, or in

general produces after k iterations a cycle sk +1(n), sk +2(n),..., sk +1(n) of minimal length t, which

forms a sociable group of order t.

Conclusion: An exhaustive search has yielded new sociable groups; one of order 9, two of order

8, and the others of order 4.

Title: MULTIAMICABLE NUMBERS

Author: GRAEME L. COHEN, STEPHEN F. GRETTON, AND PETER HAGIS, JR.

Source: www.ams.org/

Problem: the researcher aimed to investigate about multiamicable numbers.

Procedure: Multiamicable numbers are a natural generalization of amicable numbers: two

numbers form a multiamicable pair if the sum of the proper divisors of each is a multiple of the

other.

Conclusion: Many other generalizations have been considered in the past. This paper reviews

those earlier generalizations and gives examples and properties of multiamicable pairs. It

includes a proof that the set of all multiamicable numbers has density 0.

Title: NEW AMICABLE FOUR-CYCLES

Author: KARSTEN BLANKENAGEL, WALTER BORHO, AND AXEL VOM STEIN

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Finding New Amicable Four-Cycles.

Procedure: Let 𝜏 (n) denote the sum of proper divisors of a natural number n, and let (n) = n + 𝜏

(n). The researchers consider when the sequence n, 𝜏 (n), τ (2)(n) := 𝜏 (𝜏 (n)), . . . becomes

periodic. If n = τ (k) (n) with k minimal, then n1 = n, n2 = 𝜏 (n), n3 = τ (2) (n), . . . , nk = τ (k−1)n) is

called an amicable k-cycle. The study of amicable 1-cycles (perfect numbers) and of amicable 2-
cycles (amicable pairs) has a thousand year- old history. Here the researchers study amicable

four-cycles.

Conclusion : Fifty new amicable four-cycles are discovered by the constructive method invented

in 1969 by the second author.

Title: On Amicable and Sociable Numbers

Author: Henri Cohen

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Search for Amicable Pairs and Social Numbers

Procedure: Let n 7î 2 be an integer, and

σ(n) = ∑ d , s(n) = σ(n) — n = ∑ d ,.

d ∨n d ∨n ; d∨≠n

the researchers wish to study the behavior of the sequence:

a 0(n) = n

a 0(n) = s(a k {n))

which will be called the aliquot series of n. It is clear that if this sequence is bounded as k → ∞it

is periodic, since a k (n) can take only a finite number of values.

Findings: An exhaustive search has yielded 236 amicable pairs of which the lesser number is

smaller than 108 , 57 pairs being new. It has also yielded 9 new sociable groups of order 10 or

less, of which the lesser number is smaller than 6.107 ; the 9 sociable groups are all of order 4.

The sequence of iterates of the function s(n) = a(n) - n starting with 276 has also been extended

to 119 terms.

Conclusion: From these results a number of conjectures can be made.

Let A{x) be the number of amicable pairs of which the smaller number is less than
x; then empirically one can conjecture:

Conjecture 1. There exists ß > 0 such that

Log A(x) ~ ß. Log(.x).

This conjecture of course implies the as yet unknown fact that there exists an infinity of amicable

pairs.

Conjecture 2. There exists an infinity of sociable groups of order 4. This is a particular case of a

general conjecture of Erdös . Furthermore in the same paper Erdös states that the density of

sociable groups of any order is 0. Combining this with Catalan's conjecture as revised by

Dickson one obtains:

Conjecture 3. For almost all n (i.e. with density 1 ) the associated sequence converges.

Title: On Divisibility By Nine of the Sums of Even Amicable Pairs

Author: Elvin Lee

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: The sums of all even amicable pairs M, N are divisible by nine with the exception of

the following three forms :

(a) M = 2e II B II C , N = 2e ' II B' II C , M + N ≡ 2 mod 3 ,

(b) M = 2e II B II C, N = 2e ' D II B' II C', M + N ≡ 0mod3,

(c) M = 2° II B II C, N = 2e DI I B' II C", M + N ≡ 0 mod3 ,

where A, B, C, D are factor types defined in Table I, o and e refer to odd and even respectively,

II denotes the product of an unspecified number of terms of the type indicated unless subscripted

o when it refers to an odd number and the primes distinguish exponents and factors in N which

are not necessarily all distinct from, corresponding quantities in M.

Findings: Most known even amicable pairs have sums divisible by nine .The general form of the

exceptions to the rule of divisibility by nine (Gardner's rule) is deduced and the results expressed

in the form of a theorem. A computer search based on a corollary to the theorem is described and

six new exceptions to Gardner's rule are found.

Title: BREEDING AMICABLE NUMBERS IN ABUNDANCE

Author: STEFAN BATTIATO AND WALTER BORHO

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: To compute many amicable numbers by “breeding" them in several generations.

Procedure: An extensive computer search was later performed (in 1988), and demonstrated the

remarkable effectiveness of this breeding method: the number of known amicable pairs was

easily quadrupled by this search. As we learnt recently (1999) from the internet, Pederson and te

Riele have again multiplied that number roughly by ten. While they give no information on their

method of search, the researchers publish here our method and summarize the computations.

Conclusion: The results provide some modest evidence for the following conjecture.

Conjecture 1. For some start-values a the number of breeders resp. amicable pairs produced by

our algorithm in generation n increases at least exponentially with n.

This is a very specific version of saying: Conjecture 2. The number of amicable pairs is infinite.

Title: A Note on Chowla's Function

Author: M. Lai and A. Forbes

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Professor Chowla defined a number-theoretic function, L(n),

for n > 1.

L(n) = σ(n) - (1 + n)

where σ(n) = ∑ d .That is, L(n) denotes the sum of the divisors of n except n
d ∨n

and unity.

For n prime, L(ri) = 0. The rth iterate of L(n) is denoted by

Lr (n) = L( Lr−1(n)); L1(n)= L(n).

Conclusion: For n ≤ 105, it was found that there are only 9 reduced amicable pairs. These pairs

are given in Table 1.** If A(n) is the number of reduced amicable pairs of which the smaller

number is less than n, then the distribution of A(n) is as follows: A(n) = 1 for n ≤ 102, A (n) = 2

for n≤103, A(n) = 8 for n ≤ 104 and A(n) = 9 for n ≤ 105. It is of interest to note that the number

of amicable pairs for n≤ 105 is 13, which is comparable to that found for the reduced amicable

pairs.

Iterates of a number-theoretic function, defined by L(n) = σ(n) — (1 + n), are

investigated empirically, for n ≤ 106 . This search has yielded 9 reduced amicable pairs.

Title: Some Large Primes and Amicable Numbers

Author: W. Borho
Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Finding new large amicable numbers.

Procedure: The researchers found, however, two new large amicable number pairs by means of

"Thabit rules" of the following different type: If for some n > 1 the two numbers q 1 = (u + 1) pn -

1, and q 2 = (p — u)(u + 1) pn — 1 are simultaneously prime, then au pn q1 and a pn q2 are amicable.

Findings: Some new large primes of the form 3 • 2" - 1 and 9 • 2" — 1, related to amicable

numbers, are given. Two new large amicable number pairs are found by the method of so-called

"Thabit rules".

Conclusion: The researchers generated 37 new such rules by the procedure described in [1,

Theorem 4]. The two rules mentioned above actually give amicable numbers, both for n = 2. The

numbers have 42 (resp. 43) digits. The researchers also confirmed and extended te Riele's

computations, who found three large amicable pairs by means of Thabit rules derived

fromknown amicable pairs applying Theorem 3 of [1].

Title: NEW AMICABLE PAIRS OF TYPE (2, 2) AND TYPE (3, 2)

Author: PATRICK J. COSTELLO

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Finding amicable pairs of type (2, 2).

Procedure: A UBASIC computer program was developed to implement a method of te Riele for

finding amicable pairs of type (2, 2).

Findings: Many previously known pairs of type (2, 2) were produced by the program when small

values of e1 and e2 were used.

Over 2250 new amicable pairs were discovered with the computer program and more are

being discovered weekly. The search for odd amicable pairs yielded a tremendous number of the

new amicable pairs. The smallest new pair found is the pair of odd numbers

12735506841255 = 33 ∗ 5 ∗ 112 ∗ 47 ∗ 263 ∗ 63073,

12777310556505 = 33 ∗ 5 ∗ 112 ∗ 47 ∗ 2683 ∗ 6203.

Title: Are There Odd Amicable Numbers Not Divisible by Three?

Author: S. Battiato and W. Borho

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Find an odd amicable pair with one, but not both numbers divisible by three.

Procedure:

Step 1. Construction of an appropriate common factor a.

Step 2. Successive computation of a few "complementary" prime factors s1, s2,.., p1, p2,… to

make (a * u,a * v) with u = s1 s 2 ..., v — p1 p 2 ... a suitable input for the last step, for instance by

the method of "breeders" or an appropriate modification thereof;

Step 3. Computation of the three largest prime factors by the so-called method of Bilinear

Diophantine Equations, including the necessary primality tests.

Conclusion: Conjecture of Bratley and McKay, according to which odd amicable numbers

should be divisible by three, is disproved by some counterexamples.

Title: Breeding Amicable Numbers in Abundance

Author: W. Borho and H. Hoffmann

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to show and list breeding amicable numbers in abundance.

Procedure: The researchers give some new methods for the constructive search for amicable

number pairs.

Conclusion: Our numerical experiments using these methods produced a total of 3501 new
amicable pairs of a very special form. They provide some experimental evidence for the infinity
of such pairs.

Title: Computation of All the Amicable Pairs Below 1010

Author: H. J. J. te Riele

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to compute amicable pairs below 1010

Procedure: An efficient exhaustive numerical search method for amicable pairs is described.

With the aid of this method all 1427 amicable pairs with smaller member below 1010 have been

computed, more than 800 pairs being new. This extends previous exhaustive work below 108 by

H. Cohen.

Conclusion: In three appendices (contained in the supplements section of this issue), various

statistics are given, including an ordered list of all the gcd's of the 1427 amicable pairs below

10
10 (which may be useful in further amicable pair research). Suggested by the numerical results,

a theorem of Borho and Hoffmann for constructing APs has been extended.

Title: A SEARCH FOR ALIQUOT CYCLES AND AMICABLE PAIRS

Author: DAVID MOEWS AND PAUL C. MOEWS

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed for a search for aliquot cycles and amicable pairs.

Procedure: A search for aliquot cycles below 3.6 • 1010 and amicable pairs below 1011 is

described.

Conclusion: Three new cycles of length 4 and one new cycle of length 6 are exhibited. Four

triples of amicable pairs with the same pair-sum are also exhibited.

Title: AMICABLE PAIRS OF THE FORM (i, j)

Author: PATRICK COSTELLO

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure:

Step 1. Choose a range of s-values.

For each s

If s is not prime then

Calculate σ(s)

If σ(s) - 1 is prime then

Save s and (s + σ(s) - l)/σ(s) in a list

Step 2. Choose a range of e-values.

For each e

Calculate σ(e)/e

Search the list created in Step 1 for a match

If a(e)/e = (s + a(s) - l)/a(s) then

 If (e and s are relatively prime) and

(e and a(s) - 1 are relatively prime) then

Print that es, e(σ(s) - 1) is an amicable pair.

Conclusion: The nice thing about this approach to discovering new amicable pairs is that new

pairs can be discovered with single-precision arithmetic on 32-bit computers. This approach,

when restricted to e- and s-values less than 1010 , requires no multiple-precision software and can

produce new amicable pairs up to about 18 digits long. This approach also lends itself quite

readily to parallel processing. If one makes the Step 1 data file available to several processors (or

machines), one can have each processor (or machine) work on a different range of e-values.

Title: On perfect, amicable, and sociable chains

Author: Jean-Luc Marichal

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Give an exhaustive list of all the perfect, amicable, and sociable chains.

Procedure: Let x = ( x o, . . . , x n−1) be an n-chain, i.e., an n-tuple of non-negative integers < n.

Consider the operator s : x → x′ = ( x ' o, . . . , x ' n−1), where x′ j represents the number of j’s

appearing among the components of x. An n-chain x is said to be perfect if s(x) = x.

Conclusion: Analogously to the theory of perfect, amicable, and sociable numbers, one can

define from the operator s the concepts of amicable pair and sociable group of chains.
Title: ON ∅ -AMICABLE PAIRS

Author: GRAEME L. COHEN AND HERMAN J. J. TE RIELE

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let ∅ (n) denote Euler's totient function, i.e., the number of positive integers < n and

prime to n. The researchers study pairs of positive integers (a o, a 1) with a o ≤ a 1 such that ∅ (a o) =

∅ (a 1) = (a o +a 1)/k for some integer k ≥ 1. The researchers call these numbers ∅{amicable pairs

with multiplier k, analogously to Carmichael's multiply amicable pairs for the σ-function (which

sums all the

divisors of n).

Findings: The researchers have computed all the ∅-amicable pairs with larger member ≤ 109 and

found 812 pairs for which the greatest common divisor is squarefree. With any such pair

infinitely many other ∅-amicable pairs can be associated. Among these 812 pairs there are 499

so-called primitive ∅-amicable pairs. The researchers present a table of the 58 primitive ∅-

amicable pairs for which the larger member does not exceed 106. Next, ∅-amicable pairs with a

given prime structure are studied. It is proved that a relatively prime ∅-amicable pair has at least

twelve distinct prime factors and that, with the exception of the pair (4, 6), if one member of a ∅-

amicable pair has two distinct prime factors, then the other has at least four distinct prime

factors. Finally, analogies with construction methods for the classical amicable numbers are

shown; application of these methods yields another 79 primitive ∅-amicable pairs with larger

member > 109 , the largest pair consisting of two 46-digit numbers.
Title: On Amicable Numbers with Different Parity

Author: Germano D’Abramo

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Provide a straightforward proof that if a pair of amicable numbers with different parity

exists (one number odd and the other one even), then the odd amicable number must be a perfect

square, while the even amicable number has to be equal to the product of a power of 2 and an

odd perfect square.

k k k kn
Procedure: Given the general prime factorization N = p1∙ p2∙ p3∙…∙ pn it is easy to verify that the

number n of all the proper divisors of N is obtained iteratively as ni = k i ・ (ni−1 + 1) + ni−1, for i

= 2, 3, 4, ..., n. The researchers remind that n1 = k 1 , as shown in Case 1. Since the choice of the

first prime factors to study in the same order as in Case 1 and Case 2 is free, the researchers are

allowed to conclude that only if all the k i ’s are even then an even amicable number can exist

associated to the odd number N. As a matter of fact, it is sufficient to have a single prime factor

raised to an odd power (for example, pkd

d ) to apply the arguments showed in Case 2, namely

taking that factor, multiplying it by any other factor (even one raised to an even power), for

example pkd kj
n
d ∙ p j and starting the analysis done in Case 2. In this case 2 results to be odd and,

according to equation n¿ ¿ + 1) + ni−1, every ni will be odd for all the i’s. As a trivial

consequence, nn will be odd too, implying that the second amicable number M will be odd.

Therefore, the only possibility for M to be even is that all the k i ’s have to be even, namely that N

must be a perfect square.

Conclusion: In the present note the researchers have proved that if a pair of amicable numbers

with different parity exists, then the odd number must be a perfect square, while the even number

has to be equal to the product of a power of 2 and an odd perfect square. This theorem might be

useful in the implementation of an algorithm for numerical search of possible existing pairs of

amicable numbers with different parity. Hopefully, it might turn out to be useful also within a

future, wider theorem which proves the (none) existence of such pairs.

Title: THE FIRST KNOWN TYPE (7; 1) AMICABLE PAIR

Author: MARIANO GARCIA

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let E and M be two relatively prime natural numbers such that (E) ∙

𝜎 (M) = E∙ (M+ 𝜎 (M)-1). Then E M∙ p∙ q and E∙ [𝜎 (M) ∙ (p+1) ∙ (q+1)-1 ] constitute an

amicable pair, provided p, q and 𝜎 M) ∙ (p+1∙ (q +1)-1 are prime numbers not dividing E or M

and satisfying the equation

(p -M + 1) ∙ (q -M + 1) = M ∙ (M - 1) + 1:

Findings: The author has obtained several amicable pairs generated from the type

(7,1) pair. These numbers are of the form (2 ∙ 52 ∙ 19∙ product of eight primes, 2 ∙ 52 ∙ 19∙ product

of two primes). There are 122444006400 cases to be considered in the generation algorithm, and

with the facilities available to us, it would take the author several years to obtain all the amicable

pairs arising in this manner. As an illustration, one of the pairs obtained is the following:

M = 2 ∙ 52 ∙ 19∙ p1 ∙ p2∙ p3 ∙ p4 ∙ p5∙ p6∙ p7∙ p8,

N = 2 ∙ 52 ∙ 19∙ q 1 ∙ q 2,
where p1 , p2, p3 , p4 , p5, p6, and p7are the same as in our type (7,1) pair, q 1 is a prime with 102

digits, and p8, and q 2 are primes with 125 digits each.

Title: QUASI-AMICABLE NUMBERS ARE RARE

Author: PAUL POLLACK

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Define a quasi-amicable pair as a pair of distinct natural numbers each of which is the

sum of the nontrivial divisors of the other.

Procedure: The researcher used propositions to prove that quasi-amicable numbers has

asymptotic density zero.

Findings: The researchers prove that the set of n belonging to a quasi-amicable pair has

asymptotic density zero.

Title: POWERFUL AMICABLE NUMBERS

Author: PAUL POLLACK

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Procedure: Let l ≥1. A natural number n is said to be `-full (or `-powerful) if pl divides n

whenever the prime p divides n. As shown by Erd}os and Szekeres in 1935, the number of l -full

n ≤ x is asymptotically c l x1 /l , as x→∞. Here c l` is a positive constant depending on l.

Findings: The researchers show that for each fixed l, the set of amicable l -full numbers has

relative density zero within the set of l -full numbers.

Title: RECURRENCES FOR THE SUM OF DIVISORS

Author: JOHN A. EWELL

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to present recurrences for the sum of divisors.

Procedure: The researcher presents two recursive determinations of the sum of positive divisors

of a given positive integer. Each recurrence in then discussed with regard to economy of

computation, and in this light is compared with the well-known recurrence of Niven and

Zuckerman.

Conclusion: The researcher concluded that as far as methods of proof are concerned, everything

is accomplished within the algebra of formal power series.

Title: TWO NOTES ON IMBEDDED PRIME DIVISORS

Author: L. J. Ratliff, Jr.

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher investigates and shows the two notes on imbedded prime divisors.

Procedure: The first note shows that if R< T are any two Noetherian rings, then there exists a

Noetherian ring between R and T which has a maximal ideal N such that grade(N)≤ 1 and N ∩ R

is a maximal ideal. The second note shows that if R is a Noetherian ring, then there exists a free

quadratic integral extension ring B of R such that Spec(B) ≈ Spec(R)

Conclusion: The researcher concluded that that if I is any regular ideal in R and P1 ∩ … ∩ Pg are

prime ideals in R containing I, then there exists an ideal in B integrally dependent on IB such that

the prime ideals Pi corresponding to the are prime divisors of J n for all n ≥ 1.

Title: COUNTING DIVISORS WITH PRESCRIBED SINGULARITIES

Author: Israel Vainsencher

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to show the cunting divisors with prescribed singularities.

Procedure: Given a family of divisors ( D 3) in a family of smooth varieties ( D3) and a sequence

of integers m1, . . . , mt the researchers study the scheme parameterizing the points(s, y 1, . . . , y t )

such that is a (possibly infinitely near) m1–fold point of.

Conclusion: The researcher obtain a general formula which yields, as special cases, the formula

of de Jonquires and other classical results of Enumerative Geometry. The researcher also studies

the questions of finiteness and the multiplicities of the solution.

Title: WHAT DRIVES AN ALIQUOT SEQUENCES?

Author: Richard K. Guy and J. L. Selfridge

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to show what drives an aliquot sequences.

Procedure: The concept other “driver” of an aliquot sequence is discussed by the researcher.
Conclusion: It is shown that no driver can expected to resist indefinitely. A definition of driver is

given which leads to just 5 drives apart from the even perfect number.

Title: WEIL AND CARTIER DIVISORS

Author: James Hornell

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher showed and investigate how Weil divisors is related to Cartier divisors.

Procedure: The researcher used a generalized equivalence relation. A difficulty of the

nonreduced case is discussed.

Conclusion: Subqoutient of the group of Weil divisors is shown to be isomorphic to the group of

Cartier divisors modulo linear equivalence for a reduced subscheme of a projective space over a

field.

Title: ADVANCES IN ALIQUOT SEQUENCES

Author: Manuel Benito and Juan Varona

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to show advances in aliquot numbers.

Procedure: In this paper the researcher describe some advances in the knowledge of the behavior

of aliquot sequences starting with a number less than 10000.

Conclusion: For some starting values, it is shown for the first time that the sequence terminates.

The current record for the maximum of a terminating sequence is located in the one starting at

4170; it converges to 1 after 869 iterations getting a maximum of 84 decimal digits iteration 289.

Title: ALL NUMBERS WHOSE POSITIVE DIVISORS HAVE INTEGRAL HARMONIC

MEAN UP TO 300

Author: T. Goto and S. Shibata

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to prove that all numbers whose positive divisors have integral

harmonic mean up to 300.

Procedure: A positive integer n is said to be harmonic when the harmonic mean H(n) of its

positive divisors is an integer.

Conclusion: The researcher proved that every perfect number is harmonic. No nontrivial odd

harmonic numbers are known. In this article, the list of all harmonic numbers n with H(n) ≤ 300

is given. In particular, such harmonic numbers are all even except 1.

Title: NUMBERS WHOSE POSITIVE DIVISORS HAVE SMALL INTEGRAL

HARMONIC MEAN

Author: G. L. Cohen

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem:The researcher aimed to list all the harmonic number s less than 2 × 109
Procedure: A natural number n is said to be harmonic when the harmonic mean H(n) of its

positive diviosrs is an integer. These were first introduced almost fifty years ago.

Conclusion: In this paper, all harmonic numbers less than 2 × 109 are listed, along with some

other useful tables, and all harmonic numbers n with H(n) ≤ 13 are determined.

Title: DIVISORS IN RESIDUE CLASSES

Author: H. W. Lenstra, Jr.

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to prove a statement about divisors in residue classes.

Procedure: : In this paper the following result is proved. Let r, sand n be integers satisfying 0≤ r

< s < n,s >n1 /3 ,gcd(r, s) =1. Then there exist most 11 positive divisors of n that are congruent to r

modulo s.

Conclusion The researcher concluded that there exists an efficient algorithm for determining all

theory. It is not known whether 11 are best possible, in any case it cannot be replaced by 5. Nor

is it known whether similar results are true for significantly smaller values of log s/log n. The

algorithm treated in the paper has applications in computational number theory.

Title: MULTIARIATE CLUSTER-SUM DISTRIMBUTIONS

Author: Gavin G. Gregory

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to investigate about multiariate cluster-sum distributions.

Procedure: A family of discrete multivariate Poisson-stopped-sum distributions is studied.

Assciations are non-negative and univariate marginal distributions can be any specified

collection of univariate Poisson-stopped sum distribution.

Conclusion: Theoretical and numerical results are given when marginal distributions are chosen

from: negative binomial, the Neyman Type A, the Poly-Aeppli, the Legrangian Poisson, and the

Poisson.

Title: SUM-FREE SETS OF INTEGERS

Author: H. L. Abbott and E. T. Wang

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to obtain some evidence and way to say that an integer is a sum-

free.

Procedure: A set S of integers is said to be sum-free if a, b S implies a + b ∈ S. In this paper, the

researchers investigate two new problems on sum-free partition of{1,2,…,f(k)} into k sum-free

sets, and let h(k) denote the largest positive integer for which there exists a partition {1,2,

…,h(k)} into k sets which are sum-free mod h(k) + 1.

Conclusion: The researchers obtain evidence to support the conjecture that f(k)=h(k) for all k. (2)

Let g(n, k) denote the cardinality of largest subset of {1,2,…, n} that can be partitioned into k

sum-free sets. The researchers obtain upper and lower bounds for g(n, k). The researchers also

show that g(n,1)=[(n+1)/2] and indicate how one may show that for all n < 54,g(n,2)=n-[n/5].

Title: Divisibility Discovery: A New Divisibility Rule

Author: Casey L. Fu

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: Is there a general divisibility rule, or pattern, that applies to any number?

Hypothesis: The researcher hypothesized that there is a general divisibility rule for any divisor

ending in 1, 3, 7, and 9.

Procedure: The researcher used 11, 21, 31, and 41 as divisors ending in 1 and chose some of

their multiples as dividends. The researcher studied the relationship between the digits of the

dividends and divisors and performed different operations on the digits to find the operation that

would always produce results that are multiples of the divisors. This operation would be the

divisibility rule for divisors ending in 1. I established the rules for divisors ending in 3, 7, and 9

in the same way. Then The researcher used Microsoft Excel to test my rules with greater

dividends and divisors.

Conclusion: The researcher’s hypothesis is supported because the results show that there is a

general divisibility rule for divisors ending in 1, 3, 7 and 9, and the rule is related to A, a(1), and

B. The rules that the researcher established contribute to the number theory and can be applied to

prime number testing, which is important in fields such as cryptography.

Title: ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIABLE NUMBERS

Author: MITSUO KOBAYASHI, PAUL POLLACK, AND CARL POMERANCE

Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to investigate on the distribution of sociable numbers.

Procedure: For a positive integer n, define s(n) as the sum of the proper divisors of n. If s(n) > 0,

define s2(n) = s(s(n)), and so on for higher iterates. Sociable numbers are those n with sk n) = n

for some k, the least such k being the order of n. Such numbers have been of interest since

antiquity, when order-1 sociables (perfect numbers) and order-2 sociables (amicable numbers)

were studied. In this paper the researchers make progress towards the conjecture that the sociable

numbers have asymptotic density 0.

Conclusion: The researchers show that the number of sociable numbers in [1, x], whose cycle

contains at most k numbers greater than x, is o(x) for each fixed k. In particular, the number of

sociable numbers whose cycle is contained entirely in [1, x] is o(x), as is the number of sociable

numbers in [1, x] with order at most k. The researchers also prove that but for a set of sociable
 17

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methods and materials which are needed in the study. It

deals with solving number to identify if it has Amicable pair or not. The researcher will

show the steps in determining Amicable Pair and determining its type.

Getting Started

The researcher read some articles in internet and books that tackles about

Amicable Number and Amicable Pair where the researcher found it hard and longer to

determine a pair. The said steps will be shown lately in the procedure.

Visualization

The researcher applied certain steps to identify a number if it has Amicable Pair

or not. The researcher solved each number from 1 to 3000 until the researcher identify the

numbers that have Amicable Pair. The researcher also identified the type of amicable pair

that have been found and showed the proper divisors of each numbers from 1-3000.

Research Method

This study was to investigate more about Amicable Pair. The main objective of

this study was to identify the Amicable Pairs from numbers 1 to 3000.

Materials

The materials that were used in the researcher’s study were pen, paper and calculator.
 18

Procedures in identifying Amicable Pairs:

1. Take down the number you wanted to test.

2. Find the proper divisors of the first number.

3. Add the proper divisors of the first number.

4. The sum of the proper divisors of the first number will be the second number.

5. Find the proper divisors of the second number.

5. Add the proper divisors of the second number.

6. The sum of the proper divisors of the second number will be denoted as the

third number. If the third number is equal to the first number then the first number

and the second number is an Amicable Pair.

Procedures in identifying the type of Amicable Pairs:

1. Let an amicable pair be denoted (m, n) with m < n.

2. If (m, n) = (gM,gN), where g≡ GCD (m, n) is the Greatest Common Divisor,

[GCD (g,M) = GCD(g, N) =1]

then the amicable pair is called regular pair. If it does not satisfy the condition then it is
called exotic.
 19

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter covers the presentation, as well as the

interpretation of data for inquiry. The problems posed by the

researcher at the start of the study provided a guide for the discussion;

and this time the researcher was capable on answering those

problems.

The researcher was able to solve the following questions.

1. What are the proper divisors of the amicable pairs found from

numbers 1 to 3000?

2. What are the amicable pairs that can be found from numbers 1 to

3000?

3. Identify the type of each amicable pair found from 1 to 3000.

4.1 Investigating the Amicable Pairs

In problem #1, the researcher was able to enumerate the proper

divisors of each numbers from 1 to 3000. In problem #2,as the

researcher found out, there were three amicable pairsfrom1to3000.

The three amicable pairs that were found from numbers one to three

thousand are 220 and 284, 1184 and 1210, and 2620 and 2924.In

problem #3, the researcher found out that the types of amicable pairs
 20

from 1 to 3000 are called regular pairs. Refer to the tables shown in

the next pages. The full contents of the tables shown are found in the

Appendices.
 21

Table 4.1–The First 30 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
1 0
2 1 1
3 1 1
4 1, 2 3
5 1 1
6 1, 2, 3 6
7 1 1
8 1, 2, 4 7
9 1, 3 4
10 1, 2, 5 8
11 1 1
12 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 16
13 1 1
14 1, 2, 7 10
15 1, 3, 5 9
16 1, 2, 4, 8 15
17 1 1
18 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 21
19 1 1
20 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 22
21 1, 3, 7 11
22 1, 2, 11 14
23 1 1
24 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 36
25 1, 5 6
26 1, 2, 13 16
27 1, 3, 9 13
28 1, 2, 4, 7, 14 28
29 1 1
30 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 42

Table 4.1 presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 1 to 30.There were no pairs found to satisfy the

 22

definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 100, see

Appendix A.

Table 4.2- The Next 101-128 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
101 1 1
102 1, 2, 3, 6, 17, 34, 51 114
103 1 1
104 1, 2, 4, 8, 13, 26, 52 106
105 1, 3, 5, 7, 15, 21, 35 87
106 1, 2, 53 56
107 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 36,
108 172
54
109 1 1
110 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55 106
111 1, 3, 37 41
112 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 28, 56 136
113 1 1
114 1, 2, 3, 6, 19, 38, 57 126
115 1, 5, 23 29
116 1, 2, 4, 29, 58 94
117 1, 3, 9, 13, 39 65
118 1, 2, 59 62
119 1, 7, 17 25
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20,
120 240
24, 30, 40, 60
121 1, 11 12
122 1, 2, 61 64
123 1, 3, 41 45
124 1, 2, 4, 31, 62, 12 100
125 1, 5, 25 31
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 14, 18, 21, 42,
126 186
63
127 1 1
128 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 127
 23

Table 4.2 presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 101 to 128. There were no pairs found to satisfy

the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 200, see

Appendix B.

Table 4.3- The Next 203-220 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
203 1, 7, 29 37
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 17, 34, 51, 68,
204 300
102
205 1, 5, 41 47
206 1, 2, 103 106
207 1, 3, 9, 23, 69 105
208 1, 2, 4, 8, 13, 16, 26, 52, 104 226
209 1, 11, 19 31
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21, 30,
210 366
35, 42, 70, 105
211 1 1
212 1, 2, 4, 53, 106 166
213 1, 3, 71 75
214 1, 2, 107 110
215 1, 5, 43 49
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 27,
216 384
36, 54, 72, 108
217 1, 7, 31 39
218 1, 2, 109 112
219 1, 3, 73 77
Regul
1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, Amica
220 284 ar
55, 110 ble
Pair

Table 4.3 presented above showed that there is one amicable

pair found from numbers 203 to 220.The number 220 is divisible by 1, 2, 4,

 24

5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110 and 220. The number 284 is divisible by 1, 2, 4, 71, 142,

and 284. Hence, the proper divisors of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, and

110 and the proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142. Observe that 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 +

10 + 11 + 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 + 110 = 284, and 1 + 2 + 4 + 71 + 142 = 220. Therefore,

(220,284) is an amicable pair. There were one pairs found to satisfy the

definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 300, see

Appendix C.

Table 4.4- The Next 270-287 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 27, 30,
270 450
45, 54, 90, 135
271 1 1
272 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 17, 34, 68, 136 286
273 1, 3, 7, 13, 21, 39, 91 175
274 1, 2, 137 140
275 1, 5, 11, 25, 55 97
276 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 23, 46, 69, 92, 138 396
277 1 1
278 1, 2, 139 142
279 1, 3, 9, 31, 93 137
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 14, 20, 28, 35,
280 440
40, 56, 70, 140
281 1 1
282 1, 2, 3, 6, 47, 94, 141 294
283 1 1
Amica Regular
284 1, 2, 4, 71, 142 220
ble Pair
285 1, 3, 5, 15, 19, 57, 95 195
286 1, 2, 11, 13, 22, 26, 143 218
287 1, 7, 41 49
 25

Table 4.4 presented above showed that there is one amicable

pair found from numbers 270 to 287. The number 284 is divisible by 1, 2, 4, 71,

142, and 284. The number 220 is divisible by 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110

and 220. Hence, the proper divisors of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, and 110

and the proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142. Observe that 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 +

11 + 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 + 110 = 284, and 1 + 2 + 4 + 71 + 142 = 220. Therefore,

(220,284) is an amicable pair. There were one pairs found to satisfy the

definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 300, see

Appendix C.

Table 4.5- The Next 301-325 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
301 1, 7, 43 51
302 1, 2, 151 154
303 1, 3, 101 105
304 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 19, 38, 76, 152 316
305 1, 5, 61 67
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 17, 18, 34, 51, 102,
306 396
153
307 1 1
1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 14, 22, 28, 44, 77,
308 364
154
309 1, 3, 103 107
310 1, 2, 5, 10, 31, 62, 155 266
311 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 13, 24, 26,
312 528
39, 52, 78, 104, 156
313 1 1
314 1, 2, 157 160
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 15, 21, 35, 45, 63,
315 309
105
316 1, 2, 4, 79, 158 244
317 1 1
 26

318 1, 2, 3, 6, 53, 106, 159 330

319 1, 11, 29 41
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 20, 32, 40,
320 442
64, 80, 160
321 1, 3, 107 111
322 1, 2, 7, 14, 23, 46, 161 254
323 1, 17, 19 37
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 36,
324 523
54, 81, 108, 162
325 1, 5, 13, 25, 65 109

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 301 to 325. There were no pairs found to satisfy

the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 500, see

Appendix D.

Table 4.6- The Next 501-525 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
501 1, 3, 167 171
502 1, 2, 251 254
503 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18,
504 21, 24, 28, 36, 42, 56, 63, 72, 1,056
84, 126, 168, 252
505 1, 5, 101 107
506 1, 2, 11, 22, 23, 46, 253 358
507 1, 3, 13, 39, 169 225
508 1, 2, 4, 127, 254 388
509 1 1
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 17, 30, 34,
510 786
51, 85, 102, 170, 255
511 1, 7, 73 81
512 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 511
513 1, 3, 9, 19, 27, 57, 171 287
 27

514 1, 2, 257 260

515 1, 5, 103 109
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 43, 86, 129,
516 716
172, 258
517 1, 11, 47 59
518 1, 2, 7, 14, 37, 74, 259 394
519 1, 3, 173 177
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 13, 20, 26, 40,
520 740
52, 65, 104, 130, 260
521 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 29, 58, 87, 174,
522 648
261
523 1 1
524 1, 2, 4, 131, 262 400
1, 3, 5, 7, 15, 21, 25, 35, 75,
525 467
105, 175

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 501 to 525. There were no pairs found to satisfy

the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 700, see

Appendix E.

Table 4.7- The Next 701-723 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
701 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 13, 18, 26, 27, 39,
702 978
54, 78, 117, 234, 351
703 1, 19, 37 57
1, 2, 4, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, 44, 64,
704 820
88, 176, 352
705 1, 3, 5, 15, 47, 141, 235 447
706 1, 2, 353 356
707 1, 7, 101 109
708 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 59, 118, 177, 972
 28

236, 354
709 1 1
710 1, 2, 5, 10, 71, 142, 355 586
711 1, 3, 9, 79, 237 329
712 1, 2, 4, 8, 89, 178, 356 638
713 1, 23, 31 55
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 17, 21, 34, 42,
714 1,014
51, 102, 119, 238, 357
715 1, 5, 11, 13, 55, 65, 143 293
716 1, 2, 4, 179, 358 544
717 1, 3, 239 243
718 1, 2, 359 362
719 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15,
16, 18, 20, 24, 30, 36, 40, 45,
720 1,698
48, 60, 72, 80, 90, 120, 144,
180, 240, 360
721 1, 7, 103 111
722 1, 2, 19, 38, 361 421
723 1, 3, 241 245

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 701 to 723. There were no pairs found to satisfy

the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 900, see

Appendix F.

Table 4.8- The Next 901-923 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
901 1, 17, 53 71
902 1, 2, 11, 22, 41, 82, 451 610
903 1, 3, 7, 21, 43, 129, 301 505
904 1, 2, 4, 8, 113, 226, 452 806
905 1, 5, 181 187
906 1, 2, 3, 6, 151, 302, 453 918
907 1 1
 29

908 1, 2, 4, 227, 454 688

909 1, 3, 9, 101, 303 417
1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 14, 26, 35, 65,
910 1,106
70, 91, 130, 182, 455
911 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 19, 24, 38,
912 48, 57, 76, 114, 152, 228, 304, 1,568
456
913 1, 11, 83 95
914 1, 2, 457 460
915 1, 3, 5, 15, 61, 183, 305 573
916 1, 2, 4, 229, 458 694
917 1, 7, 131 139
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 17, 18, 27, 34, 51,
918 1,242
54, 102, 153, 306, 459
919 1 1
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 23, 40, 46,
920 1,240
92, 115, 184, 230, 460
921 1, 3, 307 311
922 1, 2, 461 464
923 1, 13, 71 85

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 901 to 923. There were no pairs found to satisfy

the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to 1,100,

see Appendix G.

Table 4.9- The Next 1,176-1,189 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 21, 24,
1,176 28, 42, 49, 56, 84, 98, 147, 168, 2,244
196, 294, 392, 588
1,177 1, 11, 107 119
1,178 1, 2, 19, 31, 38, 62, 589 742
 30

1,1791, 3, 9, 131, 393 537

1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 59, 118, 236,
1,180 1,340
295, 590
1,181 1 1
1,182 1, 2, 3, 6, 197, 394, 591 1,194
1,183 1, 7, 13, 91, 169 281
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 37, 74, Amica Regular
1,184 1,210
148, 296, 592 ble Pair
1,185 1, 3, 5, 15, 79, 237, 395 735
1,186 1, 2, 593 596
1,187 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 18, 22,
1,188 27, 33, 36, 44, 54, 66, 99, 108, 2,172
132, 198, 297, 396, 594
1,189 1, 29, 41 71

Table 4.10 presented above showed that there is one amicable

pair found from numbers 1,176 to 1,189.The number 1,184 is divisible by

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 37, 74, 148, 296 and 592. The number 1,120 is divisible by

1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110, 121, 242 and 605. Hence, the proper divisors of

1,184 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 37, 74, 148, 296 and 592 and the proper divisors

of 1,120 are 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110, 121, 242 and 605. Observe that 1 +

2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 37 + 74 + 148 + 296 + 592 = 1,210, and 2 +

5 + 10 + 11 + 22 + 55 + 110 + 121 + 242 + 605= 1,184. Therefore, (1

184, 1 210) is an amicable pair. There were one pairs found to satisfy the

definition of amicable pair if the numbers from 1,101 are extended to

1,300, see Appendix H.

Table 4.10- The Next 1,201-1,217 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remar Type

 31

ks
1,201 1 1
1,202 1, 2, 601 604
1,203 1, 3, 401 405
1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 43, 86, 172,
1,204 1,260
301, 602
1,205 1, 5, 241 247
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 67, 134, 201,
1,206 1,446
402, 603
1,207 1, 17, 71 89
1,208 1, 2, 4, 8, 151, 302, 604 1,072
1,209 1, 3, 13, 31, 39, 93, 403 583
1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110, Amica Regular
1,210 1,184
121, 242, 605 ble Pair
1,211 1, 7, 173 181
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 101, 202, 303,
1,212 1,644
404, 606
1,213 1 1
1,214 1, 2, 607 610
1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 27, 45, 81, 135,
1,215 969
243, 405
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 19, 32, 38, 64, 76,
1,216 1,324
152, 304, 608
1,217 1 1

Table 4.11 presented above showed that there is one amicable

pair found from numbers 1,201 to 1,217. The number 1,120 is divisible by 1,

2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110, 121, 242 and 605. The number 1,184 is divisible

by 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 37, 74, 148, 296 and 592. Hence, the proper divisors of

1,184 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 37, 74, 148, 296 and 592 and the proper divisors

of 1,120 are 1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110, 121, 242 and 605. Observe that 1 +

2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 37 + 74 + 148 + 296 + 592 = 1,210, and 2 +

5 + 10 + 11 + 22 + 55 + 110 + 121 + 242 + 605= 1,184. Therefore, (1

 32

184, 1 210) is an amicable pair. There were one pairs found to satisfy the

definition of amicable pair if the numbers from 1,101 are extended to

1,300, see Appendix H.

Table 4.11-The Next 1,301-1,325 Numbers

Remar
N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)
ks Type
1,301 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 31, 42, 62,
1,302 1,770
93, 186, 217, 434, 651
1,303 1 1
1,304 1, 2, 4, 8, 163, 326, 652 1,156
1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 29, 45, 87, 145,
1,305 1,035
261, 435
1,306 1, 2, 653 656
1,307 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 109, 218, 327,
1,308 1,772
436, 654
1,309 1, 7, 11, 17, 77, 119, 187 419
1,310 1, 2, 5, 10, 131, 262, 655 1,066
1,311 1, 3, 19, 23, 57, 69, 437 609
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 41, 82, 164,
1,312 1,334
328, 656
1,313 1, 13, 101 115
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 73, 146, 219,
1,314 1,572
438, 657
1,315 1, 5, 263 269
1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 47, 94, 188,
1,316 1,372
329, 658
1,317 1, 3, 439 443
1,318 1, 2, 659 662
1,319 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15,
20, 22, 24, 30, 33, 40, 44, 55, 60,
1,320 3,000
66, 88, 110, 120, 132, 165, 220,
264, 330, 440, 660
1,321 1 1
1,322 1, 2, 661 664
 33

1, 3, 7, 9, 21, 27, 49, 63, 147,

1,323 957
189, 441
1,324 1, 2, 4, 331, 662 1,000
1,325 1, 5, 25, 53, 265 349

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 1,301 to 1,325. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

1500, see Appendix I.

Table 4.12- The Next 1,501-1,525 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

1,501 1, 19, 79 99
1,502 1, 2, 751 754
1,503 1, 3, 9, 167, 501 681
1,504 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 47, 94, 188, 376, 752 1,520
1,505 1, 5, 7, 35, 43, 215, 301 607
1,506 1, 2, 3, 6, 251, 502, 753 1,518
1,507 1, 11, 137 149
1,508 1, 2, 4, 13, 26, 29, 52, 58, 116, 377, 754 1,432
1,509 1, 3, 503 507
1,510 1, 2, 5, 10, 151, 302, 755 1,226
1,511 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, 21, 24,
1,512 27, 28, 36, 42, 54, 56, 63, 72, 84, 108, 3,288
126, 168, 189, 216, 252, 378, 504, 756
1,513 1, 17, 89 107
1,514 1, 2, 757 760
1,515 1, 3, 5, 15, 101, 303, 505 933
1,516 1, 2, 4, 379, 758 1,144
1,517 1, 37, 41 79
1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 22, 23, 33, 46, 66, 69, 138,
1,518 1,938
253, 506, 759
1,519 1, 7, 31, 49, 217 305
 34

1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 19, 20, 38, 40, 76,

1,520 2,200
80, 95, 152, 190, 304, 380, 760
1,521 1, 3, 9, 13, 39, 117, 169, 507 858
1,522 1, 2, 761 764
1,523 1 1
1,524 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 127, 254, 381, 508, 762 2,060
1,525 1, 5, 25, 61, 305 397

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 1,501 to 1,525. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

1700, see Appendix J.

Table 4.13- The Next 1,701-1,723 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

1,701 1, 3, 7, 9, 21, 27, 63, 81, 189, 243, 567 1,211
1,702 1, 2, 23, 37, 46, 74, 851 1,034
1,703 1, 13, 131 145
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 71, 142, 213, 284,
1,704 2,616
426, 568, 852
1,705 1, 5, 11, 31, 55, 155, 341 599
1,706 1, 2, 853 856
1,707 1, 3, 569 573
1,708 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 61, 122, 244, 427, 854 1,764
1,709 1 1
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 19, 30, 38, 45,
1,710 57, 90, 95, 114, 171, 190, 285, 342, 570, 2,970
855
1,711 1, 29, 59 89
1,712 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 107, 214, 428, 856 1,636
1,713 1, 3, 571 575
1,714 1, 2, 857 860
1,715 1, 5, 7, 35, 49, 245, 343 685
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 22, 26, 33, 39, 44,
1,716 52, 66, 78, 132, 143, 156, 286, 429, 572, 2,988
858
 35

1,717 1, 17, 101 119

1,718 1, 2, 859 862
1,719 1, 3, 9, 191, 573 777
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40, 43, 86, 172, 215,
1,720 2,240
344, 430, 860
1,721 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 41, 42, 82, 123, 246,
1,722 2,310
287, 574, 861
1,723 1 1

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 1,701 to 1,723. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

1900, see Appendix K.

Table 4.14- The Next 1,901-1,924 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

1,901 1 1
1,902 1, 2, 3, 6, 317, 634, 951 1,914
1,903 1, 11, 173 185
1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 17, 28, 34, 56, 68,
1,904 2560
112, 119, 136, 238, 272, 476, 952
1,905 1, 3, 5, 15, 127, 381, 635 1,167
1,906 1, 2, 953 956
1,907 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36, 53, 106, 159,
1,908 3,006
212, 318, 477, 636, 954
1,909 1, 23, 83 107
1,910 1, 2, 5, 10, 191, 382, 955 1,546
1,911 1, 3, 7, 13, 21, 39, 49, 91, 147, 273, 637 1,281
1,912 1, 2, 4, 8, 239, 478, 956 1,688
1,913 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 22, 29, 33, 58, 66, 87, 174,
1,914 2,406
319, 638, 957
1,915 1, 5, 383 389
 36

1,916 1, 2, 4, 479, 958 1,444

1,917 1, 3, 9, 27, 71, 213, 639 963
1,918 1, 2, 7, 14, 137, 274, 959 1,394
1,919 1, 19, 101 121
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 24,
1,920 30, 32, 40, 48, 60, 64, 80, 96, 120, 128, 4,200
160, 192, 240, 320, 384, 480, 640, 960
1,921 1, 17, 113 131
1,922 1, 2, 31, 62, 961 1,057
1,923 1, 3, 641 645
1,924 1, 2, 4, 13, 26, 37, 52, 74, 148, 481, 962 1,800

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 1,901 to 1,924. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

2000, see Appendix L.

Table 4.15- The Next 2,001-2,022 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

2,001 1, 3, 23, 29, 69, 87, 667 879
1, 2, 7, 11, 13, 14, 22, 26, 77, 91, 143,
2,002 2,030
154, 182, 286, 1001
2,003 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 167, 334, 501, 668,
2,004 2,700
1002
2,005 1, 5, 401 407
2,006 1, 2, 17, 34, 59, 118, 1003 1,234
2,007 1, 3, 9, 223, 669 905
2,008 1, 2, 4, 8, 251, 502, 1004 1,772
2,009 1, 7, 41, 49, 287 385
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30, 67, 134, 201,
2,010 2,886
335, 402, 670, 1005
2,011 1 1
2,012 1, 2, 4, 503, 1006 1,516
2,013 1, 3, 11, 33, 61, 183, 671 963
 37

2,014 1, 2, 19, 38, 53, 106, 1007 1,226

2,015 1, 5, 13, 31, 65, 155, 403 673
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 18, 21,
24, 28, 32, 36, 42, 48, 56, 63, 72, 84, 96,
2,016 4,536
112, 126, 144, 168, 224, 252, 288, 336,
504, 672, 1008
2,017 1 1
2,018 1, 2, 1009 1,012
2,019 1, 3, 673 677
1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 101, 202, 404, 505,
2,020 2,264
1010
2,021 1, 43, 47 91
2,022 1, 2, 3, 6, 337, 674, 1011 2,034

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 2,001 to 2,022. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

2200, see Appendix M.

Table 4.16- The Next 2,201-2,220 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

2,201 1, 31, 71 103
2,202 1, 2, 3, 6, 367, 734, 1101 2,214
2,203 1 1
1, 2, 4, 19, 29, 38, 58, 76, 116, 551,
2,204 1,996
1102
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 15, 21, 35, 45, 49, 63, 105,
2,205 2,241
147, 245, 315, 441, 735
2,206 1, 2, 1103 1,106
2,207 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 23, 24, 32, 46, 48,
2,208 69, 92, 96, 138, 184, 276, 368, 552, 736, 3,840
1104
2,209 1, 47 48
1, 2, 5, 10, 13, 17, 26, 34, 65, 85, 130,
2,210 2,326
170, 221, 442, 1105
 38

2,211 1, 3, 11, 33, 67, 201, 737 1,053

1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 79, 158, 316, 553,
2,212 2,268
1106
2,213 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27, 41, 54, 82, 123, 246,
2,214 2,826
369, 738, 1107
2,215 1, 5, 443 449
2,216 1, 2, 4, 8, 277, 554, 1108 1,954
2,217 1, 3, 739 743
2,218 1, 2, 1109 1,112
2,219 1, 7, 317 325
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 37, 60,
2,220 74, 111, 148, 185, 222, 370, 444, 555, 4,164
740, 1110

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 2,201 to 2,220. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

2400, see Appendix N.

Table 4.17- The Next 2,401-2,423 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

2,401 1, 7, 49, 343 400
2,402 1, 2, 1201 1,204
2,403 1, 3, 9, 27, 89, 267, 801 1,197
2,404 1, 2, 4, 601, 1202 1,810
2,405 1, 5, 13, 37, 65, 185, 481 787
2,406 1, 2, 3, 6, 401, 802, 1203 2,418
2,407 1, 29, 83 113
1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 28, 43, 56, 86, 172, 301,
2,408 2,872
344, 602, 1204
2,409 1, 3, 11, 33, 73, 219, 803 1,143
2,410 1, 2, 5, 10, 241, 482, 1205 1,946
2,411 1 1
 39

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36, 67, 134, 201,

2,412 3,776
268, 402, 603, 804, 1206
2,413 1, 19, 127 147
2,414 1, 2, 17, 34, 71, 142, 1207 1,474
1, 3, 5, 7, 15, 21, 23, 35, 69, 105, 115,
2,415 2,193
161, 345, 483, 805
2,416 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 151, 302, 604, 1208 2,296
2,417 1 1
1, 2, 3, 6, 13, 26, 31, 39, 62, 78, 93, 186,
2,418 2,958
403, 806, 1209
2,419 1, 41, 59 101
1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110,
2,420 3,166
121, 220, 242, 484, 605, 1210
2,421 1, 3, 9, 269, 807 1,089
2,422 1, 2, 7, 14, 173, 346, 1211 1,754
2,423 1 1

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 2,401 to 2,423. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

2600, see Appendix O.

Table 4.18- The Next 2,608-2,620 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

2,608 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 163, 326, 652, 1304 2,476
2,609 1 1
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 29, 30, 45, 58,
2,610 87, 90, 145, 174, 261, 290, 435, 522, 4,410
870, 1305
2,611 1, 7, 373 381
2,612 1, 2, 4, 653, 1306 1,966
2,613 1, 3, 13, 39, 67, 201, 871 1,195
2,614 1, 2, 1307 1,310
2,615 1, 5, 523 529
 40

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 109, 218, 327,

2,616 3,984
436, 654, 872, 1308
2,617 1 1
1, 2, 7, 11, 14, 17, 22, 34, 77, 119, 154,
2,618 2,566
187, 238, 374, 1309
2,619 1, 3, 9, 27, 97, 291, 873 1,301
1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 131, 262, 524, 655, Amicabl Regular
2,620 2,924
1310 e Pair

Table 4.19 presented above showed that there is one amicable

pair found from numbers 2,601 to 2,620.The number 2,620 is divisible by

1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 131, 262, 524, 655 and 1310 The number 2,924 is divisible by 1, 2, 4,

17, 34, 43, 68, 86, 172, 731 and 1462. Hence, the proper divisors of 2,620 are 1, 2,

4, 5, 10, 20, 131, 262, 524, 655 and 1310 and the proper divisors of 2,924 are 1, 2, 4, 17,

34, 43, 68, 86, 172, 731 and 1462. Observe that 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 20 + 131 + 262 +

524 + 655 + 1310= 2,924, and 1 + 2 + 4 + 17 + 34 + 43 + 68 + 86 + 172 + 731 + 1462

=2,620. Therefore, (2,620, 2,924) is an amicable pair. There were one pairs found

to satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers from 2,601 are

extended to 3000, see Appendices P, Q and R.

Table 4.19- The Next 2,701-2,723 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

2,701 1, 37, 73 111
2,702 1, 2, 7, 14, 193, 386, 1351 1,954
2,703 1, 3, 17, 51, 53, 159, 901 1,185
1, 2, 4, 8, 13, 16, 26, 52, 104, 169, 208,
2,704 2,969
338, 676, 1352
2,705 1, 5, 541 547
 41

1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 22, 33, 41, 66, 82, 123, 246,

2,706 3,342
451, 902, 1353
2,707 1 1
2,708 1, 2, 4, 677, 1354 2,038
2,709 1, 3, 7, 9, 21, 43, 63, 129, 301, 387, 903 1,867
2,710 1, 2, 5, 10, 271, 542, 1355 2,186
2,711 1 1
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 113, 226, 339, 452,
2,712 4,128
678, 904, 1356
2,713 1 1
2,714 1, 2, 23, 46, 59, 118, 1357 1,606
2,715 1, 3, 5, 15, 181, 543, 905 1,653
2,716 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 97, 194, 388, 679, 1358 2,772
2,717 1, 11, 13, 19, 143, 209, 247 643
2,718 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 151, 302, 453, 906, 1359 3,210
2,719 1 1
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 17, 20, 32, 34, 40, 68,
2,720 80, 85, 136, 160, 170, 272, 340, 544, 680, 4,084
1360
2,721 1, 3, 907 911
2,722 1, 2, 1361 1,364
2,723 1, 7, 389 397

The table presented above showed that there is no amicable pair

found from numbers 2,701 to 2,723. There were no pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers are extended to

2900, see Appendix Q.

 42

Table 4.20- The Next 2,905-2,924 Numbers

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N) Remarks Type

2,905 1, 5, 7, 35, 83, 415, 581 1,127
1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 26, 28, 32, 52,
2,912 56, 91, 104, 112, 182, 208, 224, 364, 4,144
416, 728, 1456
2,913 1, 3, 971 975
2,914 1, 2, 31, 47, 62, 94, 1457 1,694
2,915 1, 5, 11, 53, 55, 265, 583 973
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 36, 54, 81,
2,916 4,735
108, 162, 243, 324, 486, 729, 972, 1458
2,917 1 1
2,918 1, 2, 1459 1,462
2,919 1, 3, 7, 21, 139, 417, 973 1,561
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40, 73, 146, 292,
2,920 3,740
365, 584, 730, 1460
2,921 1, 23, 127 151
2,922 1, 2, 3, 6, 487, 974, 1461 2,934
2,923 1, 37, 79 117
1, 2, 4, 17, 34, 43, 68, 86, 172, 731, Regular
2,924 2,620 Amicable
1462 Pair

Table 4.21 presented above showed that there is one amicable

pair found from numbers 2,905 to 2,924. The number 2,924 is divisible by 1,

2, 4, 17, 34, 43, 68, 86, 172, 731 and 1462.The number 2,620 is divisible by 1, 2, 4, 5,

10, 20, 131, 262, 524, 655 and 1310 Hence, the proper divisors of 2,620 are 1, 2, 4, 5,

10, 20, 131, 262, 524, 655 and 1310 and the proper divisors of 2,924 are 1, 2, 4, 17, 34,

43, 68, 86, 172, 731 and 1462. Observe that 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 20 + 131 + 262 + 524 +

655 + 1310= 2,924, and 1 + 2 + 4 + 17 + 34 + 43 + 68 + 86 + 172 + 731 + 1462 =2,620.

Therefore, (2,620, 2,924) is an amicable pair. There were one pairs found to

satisfy the definition of amicable pair if the numbers from 2,601 are

extended to 3000, see Appendices P, Q and R.

 43

The summation of the proper divisors of some of the

numbers from 2000-3000 is beyond the scope and limitation. The

researcher, therefore, checked those numbers if the sum of their

proper divisors is equal to the corresponding numbers. An extension of

the exhaustive search for amicable pairs might allow more satisfactory

to be obtained. The table presented below showed 169 numbers that

must be checked in order to complete the study. To see the full

content of the table, see Appendix S

Table 4.21

N Proper Divisors of N σ(N)

3,006 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 167, 334, 501, 1002, 1503 3,546
3,009 1, 3, 17, 51, 59, 177, 1003 1,311
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 18, 21, 24, 27, 28, 36, 42, 48,
3,024 54, 56, 63, 72, 84, 108, 112, 126, 144, 168, 189, 216, 252, 336, 6,896
378, 432, 504, 756, 1008, 1512
3,030 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30, 101, 202, 303, 505, 606, 1010, 1515 4,314
3,032 1, 2, 4, 8, 379, 758, 1516 2,668
3,038 1, 2, 7, 14, 31, 49, 62, 98, 217, 434, 1519 2,434
1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 19, 20, 32, 38, 40, 76, 80, 95, 152, 160,
3,040 190, 304, 380, 608, 760, 1520 4,520
3,048 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 127, 254, 381, 508, 762, 1016, 1524 4,632
3,052 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28, 109, 218, 436, 763, 1526 3,108
3,054 1, 2, 3, 6, 509, 1018, 1527 3,066
3,056 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 191, 382, 764, 1528 2,896
3,058 1, 2, 11, 22, 139, 278, 1529 1,982
3,084 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 257, 514, 771, 1028, 1542 4,140
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 43, 72, 86, 129, 172, 258, 344,
3,096 387, 516, 774, 1032, 1548 5,484
1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 31, 50, 62, 100, 124, 155, 310, 620, 775,
3,100 1550 3,844
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 14, 21, 28, 37, 42, 74, 84, 111, 148, 222,
3,108 259, 444, 518, 777, 1036, 1554 5,404
 44

3,116 1, 2, 4, 19, 38, 41, 76, 82, 164, 779, 1558 2,764
3,128 1, 2, 4, 8, 17, 23, 34, 46, 68, 92, 136, 184, 391, 782, 1564 3,352
3,138 1, 2, 3, 6, 523, 1046, 1569 3,150
 41

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the summary, with emphasis on the findings of the

investigation just completed. Generalizations in the form of conclusions are made; and

the recommendations for the solution of problems discovered in the study are addressed

to those concerned.

SUMMARY

The study entitled “Amicable Pair: An Investigation” aimed to show the amicable

pairs that can be found from numbers one to three thousand. This investigation intended

to answer the following questions:

1. What are the proper divisors of the amicable pairs found from

numbers 1 to 3000?

2. What are the amicable pairs that can be found from numbers

1 to 3000?

3. Identify the type of the amicable pair found from 1 to 3000.

The researcher was able to enumerate the proper divisors of each numbers and

identify how many amicable pairs are foundfrom 1 to 3000. After identifying the pair, the

researcher was able to identify its type if it is regular pair or exotic. The methods of

finding amicable pairs arelargely those of trial. The researcher ensured that the data

gathered was totally exact. The researcher found out that there were threeamicable
 42

pairsfrom 1 to3000. The researcher also found out that all amicable pairs found were

regular pairs.

CONCLUSIONS

From the findings and results of the study, the researcher concluded that there are

only three amicable pairs that can be found from 1 to 3000 and they are all regular pairs.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The researcher recommended these topics because the researcher knew that these

topics can be significant to others and also in the field of Mathematics. It could contribute

to the world of the special numbers.

1. Investigate about Amicable Numbers and on how to generate new amicable

numbers from existing amicable pairs.

2. Investigate Abundant Number in relation to Amicable Pair.

3. Explore more about the different classes of Amicable Pairs.