DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

JIGAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC, DUTSE
[National Diploma in Computer Engineering Technology]

CTE245 –
TELECOMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

Prepared By:
Muhammad Adamu
[CT. (TRCN)]
[email protected]

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 1

 LECTURE 1:
PRINCIPLES OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

TELECOMMUNICATIONS
The word ‘Telecommunication’ was derived from a Greek and Latin words; ‘tele’ and

‘communicare’ respectively. The ‘tele’ means ‘distance’, and ‘communicare’ means ‘to share’. I

Telecommunication literally means; ‘to share something at a distance’.

Telecommunications is simply a communication process conducted through electronic

equipment. It is concern with transmission of signals (electromagnetic waves) over physical

channel or medium (wired, wireless, waveguide).

The signals or electromagnetic waves carry ‘message or information’ from transmitter

(sender) to receiver.

Transmitter Receiver
(Message, Channel (Demodulation/Detection,
Encoding, (Wired, Wireless, Vacuum) Message, Decoding,
Modulation) Interpretation, Storage)

The physical channel of telecommunication consists wire, cable, cord, wireless (free-

space), vacuum, etc. And its technologies include; telephone system, radio broadcasting system,

television system, mobile (cellular) communications, satellite communications, optical

communications, radar system, microwave transmission, etc.

Television Radio Telephone Fiber Optics Cable

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 2

S

Satellite Wireless Headset Wireless Speaker Cellular Phone

TRANSDUCERS

Transducer is any electronic device that completely converts physical energy (signal) from

one form to another. Energies such as mechanical, acoustic (audio or sound), light (optical),

electrical, chemical, thermal, etc.

Transducer is not a ‘transformer’ but a ‘converter’, because it changes energy completely

from one to another. Examples: electrical to light, electrical to mechanical, mechanical to

electrical signal, mechanical to thermal energy, electrical to sound, sound signal to electrical, etc.

The process of conversion using a transducer is called ‘transduction’.

Transducer

Examples of Transducers:

 Microphone
 Speaker
 Buzzer
 Bulb
 LED (Light Emitting Diode)
 LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulating Emission of Radiation)
Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 3
 Antenna / Aerial
 Thermometer
 Piezoelectric
 Seismometer
 Carbon-dioxide Detector
 Oxygen Detector
etc.

Antenna Aerial Speaker Microphone

SOUND TRANSDUCERS
‘Sound Transducer’ converts sound energy to electrical signal, or electrical to sound

signal (energy).

Examples of Sound Transducers:

 Microphone
 Speaker
 Buzzer
etc.

Microphone Speaker

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 4

 Sound Transducers can be active or passive sound transducer.

 The Active Sound Transducers do not require external power source for their operations.

 Passive Sound Transducers require external power supply for their operations.

Sound Transducers can also be categorized into input or output sound transducer.

 Input Sound Transducer only takes input energy for conversion. It usually takes physical

energy and converts it into an electrical signal. Example is the Microphone.

 Output Sound Transducer gives out a converted energy. It usually converts electrical signal

into its proportional sound signal. Example is the Speaker.

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TRANSMITTER IN RADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEM

A transmitter is an electronic instrument that is used to transmit electromagnetic waves

(radio signals or radio waves) with help of an antenna over a distance within the range of

operational frequencies.

In radio broadcasting system, a transmitter spread message-carrying-signals on or above

the earth surface with the help of an antenna. There are transmitters that propagate signals

directly along the curvature or surface of the earth for direct reception. While other transducers

propagate signals to the atmosphere, and later transit them back to the earth’s surface for

reception.

Radio Transmitters

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 Radio Transmitter Studio (AM)

The studios in radio station;

Broadcast Studio Transmitter Antenna

Cabling EARTH
Studio

*Microphone * Transmitter *Radio Receivers

*Speaker *Waveguides *Aerial
*Power Lines

Components of Transmitter

Components of Radio Transmitter

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 Power Supply provide power for operation of the transmitter.
Microphone takes message (audio) signal to the modulator.
Oscillator generates carrier signal, which carries the message signal.
Modulator embed the message signal on the carrier signal.
Amplifier increases the power of the two signals (carrier & message).
Antenna spread / propagate the amplified modulated signal.

Antenna: Is a transducer that converts electrical signal into electromagnetic waves or

otherwise. It is usually used at the transmission station.

Aerial: Is an antenna; usually made from a wire. It also converts electromagnetic waves in

to electrical quantities or vice-versa. It is usually used at the for reception station.

Transmission (Tx) Reception (Rx)

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TRANSMISSION CHANNEL (MEDIUM)

The channel is a medium of signal propagating from transmitter (sender) to receiver. It is

either wired or wireless. Wired channel uses wire and cable, while wireless channel uses free-

space.

Channel (Medium)

Modes of Transmission:

1. Simplex : Allows transmission in one direction. Example; Radio, TV, etc.

2. Half-Duplex : Allows transmission and reception of message in both directions,

but not at the same time. Example; walkie-talkie.

3. Full-Duplex : Allows transmission and reception of message in both directions

at the same time. Example; mobile communications.

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Noise:
Noise is a problem that affect transmission of signal. It is an unwanted components
in a transmitted signal that tends to disturb transmission of signal.
Sources of noise include: interference of other signals, channels, structures,
communication infrastructure, conditions, etc.
Noise causes errors in reception, thereby degrading the performance and quality of a
received signal.

RADIO RECEIVER

Radio Receiver is an electronic device that detect an incoming weak and attenuated signal,

process and amplifies it, and then extract the message content of the signal. Radio-Receiver

converts the modulated signal (carrier and message signals) into usable message signal only. It

operate in the following ways:

 It uses an aerial to capture the available modulated signals of different radio stations.

 Process the signal in order to extract signal that are vibrating at a desired frequency.

 Extracts the message signal that was embedded to carrier frequency of the desired

frequency.

 Amplifies the message signal

 Plays it on speaker.

Radio Set
Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 10
SIMPLE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

(Modulation) (Processing/Transformation) (Detection/Demodulation)

Message Modulated Signal Reception

Encoding (Message + Carrier Signal) Detection of Message
Decoding of Message

Noise Interpretation

Error

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 11

 LECTURE 2:
SOUND TRANSDUCERS

1. MICROPHONE
Microphone (‘mic’) converts sound signal (energy) to electrical signal.

Microphone

Operation of Microphone:
Different microphones have different ways of conversion of energy, but they share some

common operational mode.

Cross-section of a ‘Mic’

 Sound waves created by voice, move toward to the microphone’s surface (diaphragm).

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 The diaphragm is a thin piece of material (plastic, aluminium). There is external and internal

diaphragm. The external diaphragm vibrates when it is hit by sound waves.

 An internal diaphragm and coil, move back and forth when the sound waves reach them.

 A permanent magnet produces a magnetic field that cuts through the coil. As the coil moves

back and forth through the magnetic field, an electric current flows through it.

 The electric current flows out from the microphone to amplifier or sound device.

Categorizations of Microphones:

Microphone are categorize as follows;

1. Based on Conversion Technology:

- dynamic microphone

- capacitor microphone

- ribbon microphone

- crystal microphone

etc.

2. Based on Designated Application:

- detecting frequency response

- impedance

etc.

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Types of Microphones:

(a) Carbon Microphone: It was the first type of microphone to be developed and was usually

for usage in telephone systems.

Carbon ‘Mic’
Carbon microphone uses granules of carbon placed between its inner and outer

diaphragm.

Advantages of Carbon Microphone:

* strong construction
* cheap
* high output

Disadvantages of Carbon Microphone:

 Requirement for external power
 poor linearity and frequency response
 high noise level

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(b) Capacitor Microphone (Condenser Microphone): Capacitor Microphone has capacitor

with two metal plates, which are; external diaphragm and internal diaphragm. Sound

waves change the distance between the two plates. When this occurs, the output voltage

also changes and goes out as the output.

Capacitor Microphone

Advantages of Capacitor Microphone:

 good linearity
 high quality signal
 high sensitivity

Disadvantages of Capacitor Microphone:

 external power
 less robust
 flash-over at high humidity.
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(c) Crystal Microphone: Crystal microphone uses a thin strip of piezoelectric material

attached to its diaphragm. It uses the piezoelectric effect in its operation. That is why,

mechanical stress place upon the diaphragm or crystal, generates voltage.

Crystal Mic

Crystal-type Mic

Diaphragm-type Mic

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(d) Dynamic Microphone: The diaphragm has an inductive coil that is placed within the

magnetic field. As the diaphragm moves, so; the coil. The voltage produce by the coil

depends on the ‘move’.

Dynamic Microphone

Advantages of Dynamic Microphone include: durability, high-volume sound, and high

sound pressure.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Microphone include: require external power, and also require

high pressure.

(e) Ribbon Microphone: Ribbon is an old ‘mic’, which was once very useful in radio

industry. It has a light metal ribbon which allows it to pick up velocity of air and air

displacement. It is used for high sensitive frequencies. It is reliable for multi-instrument

recording of low level noise.

Ribbon Microphone
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2. SPEAKER (Loudspeaker)

Speakers include the loudspeaker, buzzer, earphone, etc., that produce an output sound

signal equivalent to an input electrical signal in relation to the original input signal of a

microphone.

Speakers

Types of Speakers:

 Moving Coil Loudspeaker / Dynamic Loudspeaker

 Moving Iron Loudspeaker

 Piezoelectric Loudspeaker

 Electrostatic Loudspeaker

etc.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 18

Moving Coil Loudspeaker (Dynamic Loudspeaker)

‘MCL’ is the most widely known loudspeaker. It is use in many electronic devices such as

radio, and in public address situation such as in classroom, church, mosque, etc.

Moving Coil Loudspeaker (MCL)

MCL uses the principle of magnetic effect generated by a flowing current as the basis of its

operation.

MCL MCL

When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic field appears around it. When the wire is

wound into a coil, the effect is increased. If the coil is placed into a steady magnetic field created

by a fixed magnet, then the two magnetic fields will interact (opposite poles attract and like

poles repel).

This means that the current flowing in the coil can cause the coil to be attracted or repelled

from the fixed magnetic field. The degree of the force is proportional to the current flowing.

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 LECTURE 3:
RADIO FREQUENCIES

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of frequencies with their

corresponding applications. The electromagnetic spectrum of an object is the characteristic

distribution of electromagnetic radiation from that particular object. The electromagnetic

spectrum extends from below the frequencies of radio broadcasting systems through gamma

radiation, thereby; covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a number of

millimeters.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 Electromagnetic energy at a particular wavelength (λ) has an associated frequency (f)

and photon energy (E). Thus, it can be expressed equally in terms of the following

quantities:

f=c/λ E=hf or E=hc/λ

Where;
λ: wavelength m
f: frequency Hertz
E: energy J
c: speed of light  3.00 x 108 m/s
h: Planck's constant  6.62 × 10−34 J·s or m2kg/s

RADIO WAVES (Radio Frequencies)

Radio waves are utilized by antennas of appropriate size with wavelengths ranging

from hundreds of meters to millimeters. They are used to transmit data via modulation.

Devices such as television, mobile phones, amateur radio, etc., use radio waves in their

applications. Radio waves carry information by varying a combination of amplitude,

frequency and phase of a wave within a frequency band.

The use of the radio spectrum is regulated by many governments through frequency

allocation. When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor,

travels along it, and induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting

the electrons of the conducting material.

The skin effect is observed in the radiation of an antenna.

EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up,

thus causing thermal effects and sometimes burns; this is exploited in microwave ovens.

Radio waves are ranged between 3 kHz to 300 GHz. They have much

longer wavelength than visible light, and this is why it is extensively for communications.
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CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO WAVES

Frequency Range Wavelength Applications

(Distance)

Extremely Low < 3 kHz > 100000 m Navigational

Frequency Communication
(ELF)
Very Low Frequency 3 kHz - 30 kHz 1000 m - 100000 m Navigational
(VLF) Communication
Low Frequency 30 kHz - 300 kHz 100 m - 1000 m Radio Broadcast
(LF)

Medium Frequency 300 kHz - 3 MHz 10 m - 100 m Radio Broadcast

(MF)

High Frequency 3 MHz - 30 MHz 1 m - 10 m - Radio Broadcast

(HF) - Aviation
Very High Frequency 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 cm - 100 cm - Radio Broadcast
(VHF) - TV
- Mobile
- Wireless
- Satellite
- Bluetooth
- Cooking
Ultra High Frequency 300 MHz - 3 GHz 1 cm - 10 cm - Radio Broadcast
(UHF) - TV
- Radar System
- Mobile
Super High Frequency 3 GHz - 30 GHz 1 mm – 10 mm - Astronomy
(SHF) - Radar System
- Mobile
Extremely High 30 GHz - 300 GHz < 1 mm - Astronomy
Frequency (EHF) - Radar System
- Mobile
Classification of Radio Frequencies

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Microwaves

The ultra-high frequency (UHF), super high frequency (SHF), and extremely high

frequency (EHF); belong to microwave frequencies. They are typically short-distance;

enough to employ tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. Microwave energy is

produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes such as Gunn and

IMPATT devices. Microwave frequencies are ranged between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300

GHz on the electromagnetic spectrum.

Microwaves contain insufficient energy to directly chemically change substances by

ionization (non-ionizing radiation). Due to this fact, it has not yet conclusively been shown

that microwave frequencies have biological effects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO WAVES

 Low power of operation.

 Good operating range for data transmission.

 High data rate.

 Ability to penetrate structures (such as buildings, subways, hills, mountains, etc.)

 Transmission can either be with or without line of sight.

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 LECTURE 4:
MODULATION AND DETECTION (DEMODULATION)

MODULATION

A typical signal representation of its waveform consists of; amplitude, frequency,

wavelength, elevation, crest, trough, phase and time.

Waveform Representation of Signal

 Amplitude : magnitude of a signal in oscillation

 Frequency : circles or oscillations achieved per second (in Hertz (Hz))
 Crest : maximum upward displacement of a signal
 Trough : minimum downward displacement of a signal
 Wavelength : distance of a signal. It is the distance between two nearest
crests or troughs.
 Elevation : difference between neighbouring crest and trough
 Time (x) : continuous time-domain of a travelling signal/wave

Modulation

It is a process of embedding message signal on a carrier signal in order to produce a new

signal, called ‘modulated signal’. The modulated signal is the transmitted signal to receivers.

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 Mathematically, it is simply; signal multiplication between message signal and the carrier

signal. After the embedment, the modulated signal obtained takes the shape of the message

signal.

The modulated signal is mathematically expressed as follows:

Carrier Signal: c(t) = Ac sin (2 π fc t + φ)

Message Signal: m(t) = Am sin (2 π fm t + φ)

Modulated Signal: s(t) = [c (t) * m (t)] + Noise

s(t) = As sin (2 π fs t + φ) + Noise

Where:
c(t): carrier signal m(t): message signal s(t): modulated signa

Ac : amplitude of the carrier Am : amplitude of the message As : modulated-amplitude

fc : frequency of the carrier fm: frequency of message fs : modulated-frequency

φ: phase shift (phase angle) φ: phase shift φ: phase shift

Benefits of Modulation

1) Increases the frequency of signal.

2) Allows efficient multiplexing and multiple access.

3) Adjusts bandwidth or throughput.

4) Improves quality of transmission and reception.

5) Adjusts antenna capability.

6) Allows transmission over long distance.

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DETECTION / DEMODULATION

Detection is process of recovering the message signal from modulated signal.

Detection extracts the ‘message signal’ from the modulated signal. This means,
separating the message signal from the carrier signal.

Modulated Signal Detection / Demodulation Message Signal

(Message + Carrier) (Extracting the message signal only) (Message signal only)

Detection

If the modulated wave is directly fed to the operating device, the device would

not be able to respond to such a high frequency. So, there is need to separate the

higher carrier frequency. Addition of noise through a transmission channel to

modulated wave which should be rejected/adjusted.

Detection Process

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ANALOGUE MODULATION PROCESSES
The modulation of signal can be done by either analogue or digital modulation process.

Digital modulation processes include; Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift

Keying (FSK), Pulse Modulation (PM), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), Binary Phase Shift Keying

(BPSK), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), etc.

Analogue modulation processes include; Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency

Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM), etc.

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In this process, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated in proportion to the

message signal, while the frequency and phase remain constant during transmission.

It is simply means that; amplitude of carrier signal varies with the amplitude of the

message signal.

Varying Constant Constant

Modulated Signal; s(t) = A sin (2π f t + φ) + Noise

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

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2. Frequency Modulation (FM)

In FM process, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated in frequency of the message

signal, while amplitude and phase remain constant.

FM transmitter and receiver have very complex circuitry, as variation of modulating signal

has to be converted and detected from corresponding variation in frequencies.

Constant Varying Constant

s(t) = A sin (2π[fc + (f / fm) fm ]t + φ )

Fequency-deviation or Swing : f : (fc - f) or (fc + f)

Modulation-index   = f / fs

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 28
‘AM’ & ‘FM’ Waveform Representation

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 LECTURE 5:
(Continuation of Modulation and Detection)
BANDWIDTH OF ‘AM’ AND ‘FM’

WHY ‘FM’ HAS A WIDER BANDWIDTH THAN ‘AM’

Bandwidth is the quantity of data that can be transmitted at a time. It is the ‘frequency’ of

transmission. The frequency is the number of cycles or oscillations of an analogue in a second. It

expressed in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz).

Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 In AM, frequency of the carrier remains the same during modulation, but in FM, frequency

of the carrier increases and decreases during modulation at different times; thereby occupying

more bandwidth.

Radio broadcasting systems use ‘AM’ operated radio stations are range between 535 KHz

to 1600 KHz or 1705 KHz. And ‘FM’ stations range between 88 MHz to 108 MHz.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ‘AM’

# Advantages of AM Disadvantages of AM
1 AM is cheaper than FM AM has difficulty in maintenance
2 AM requires lower bandwidth than FM AM has poor sound quality
3 Easy detection, because of simple receiver Filtering and smoothing of AM signal is
poor

4 AM can transmits signal over long distance High interference from other sources
5 Simple transmitter and receiver AM creates clash of stations
6 Carries more radio stations

Advantages and Disadvantages of FM

# Advantages of FM Disadvantages of FM
FM signal has better sound quality than AM FM can only be transmitted over short
distances
1
FM signal is a secured FM signal can be blocked by structures
such as mountains, rocks, buildings,
2
hills, bridges, etc.
Lower interference from other ground sources. Transmitter and receiver of FM are more
complex than that of AM.
3
4 Complex transmitter and receiver Atmospheric interference

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MODULATION PARAMETERS

The modulated signal is a mixed signal of the carrier signal and message (information)

signal.

For AM modulated signal: s(t) = As Sin(2πf t + φ)

For FM modulated signal: s(t) = As Sin(2π [fc + (f / fm) fm ] t + φ)

Where:
Frequency Deviation : f fcforfc f)
Modulation Index  :  = f / fs
Modulated Frequency : fs

BANDWIDTH OF AM AND FM

For AM; BW = 2 fs

For FM; BW = 2 ( + 1) fs

EXAMPLES

(1) Determine the maximum frequency-deviation of an FM radio system that usually transmits

75 MHz with a maximum modulating-index of 7.

Solution:

fs = 75 MHz = 75 × 106 Hz
  
f = ?

f× fs

f = 7 × 75 x 106

f  =___________Hz
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(2) A system uses a maximum modulating-index of 8; modulating with 74 MHz of frequency.
Calculate its swing.
Solution:
     
fs = 74 MHz = 74 × 106 Hz
Swing (Deviation-Frequency) = ?

Swing:  f× fs
f = 8 × 74 × 106
f = ___________Hz

(3) JIGPOLY – 88.8 FM is transmitting with maximum deviation frequency of ±9 MHz of

modulating-frequency. Calculate its modulation-index.
Solution:
fs = 88.8 MHz = 88.8 × 106 Hz
f = fs ± 9 MHz = 88.8 MHz + 9MHz = ___________ Hz
  
f / fs



(4) The carrier frequency of Sunrise-FM is 80 MHz and its maximum deviation frequency is
±12 MHz. Determine the range of the deviation.
Solution:
fc = 80 MHz = 80 × 106 Hz
f = ±12 MHz = 12 × 106 Hz

Range of Frequency Deviation: ffcf or fcf

Lower range Upper range

Lower range: fcf MHz – 12 MHz = _________ MHz = _________ Hz

Upper range: ffc MHz + 12 MHz = _________ MHz = _________ Hz

Range of Frequency Deviation:f__________MHz or __________MHz

Lower range Upper range

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(5) An FM broadcasting station has a maximum frequency deviation range of ±18 MHz and a
maximum modulation frequency of 72 MHz. What is the bandwidth of the signal? Find out
the carrier frequency.
Solution:
f = ±18 MHz = ±18 × 103 Hz
fs = 72 MHz = 72 × 106 Hz
BW =?
fc =?

Bandwidth (FM); BW = 2 ( + 1) fs (f / fs)

BW = ________ Hz

Frequency deviation; f = ±18 MHz

From the Bandwidth (-18 × 106 Hz or +18 × 106 Hz):

fc = ____________ Hz

(6) An AM radio system has maximum modulating frequency of 888 KHz. Find out the total

bandwidth of the system.

Solution:

fs = 888 KHz = 888 × 103 Hz

BW = ?

For AM, total bandwidth:

BWAM = 2 × fs

BWAM = 2 × 888 × 103

BWAM = _________ Hz

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 34

 LECTURE 6:
(Continuation of Modulation & Detection)
DETECTION (DEMODULATION)

Detection is process of recovering the message signal from modulated signal.

Detection extracts the ‘message signal’ from the modulated signal. Detection
separates the message signal from the carrier signal.

Modulated Signal Detection / Demodulation Message Signal

(Message + Carrier) (Extracting the message signal only) (Message signal only)

Detection

For a good detector, the following requirements are considered:

(i) Detector must be sensitive to modulation process.

(ii) Detector must be non-linear.

(iii) Detector must have filtering and smoothing capability.

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ANALOGUE DEMODULATION (DETECTION) PROCESSES

1. Amplitude Detection (AD)

(a) Envelope Detector (Rectifier Envelope Detector): This detector; detects envelope of

an amplitude modulated signal.

The detector rectifies the waveform by taking only half of the waveform, the positive or

negative waveform.

Envelope Detection

Diode : enhances one half of the received signal over the other.
Low Pass Filter : removes high frequency elements, after demodulation.

Envelope Detector has a relative cost and it is convenience, it has been widely used for
many years in transistor radios.

Transistor Radios

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 (b) Diode Detector: Modulated signals are detected by means of a diode rectifier. The

diode is use to reproduce the original modulating frequencies.

Electronic Circuit of a Diode Detector

(c) Synchronous Detector: A mixer mixes a generated frequency from a local oscillator

signal with incoming signal. The local oscillator provides exactly the same frequency

as the carrier signal of the received modulated signal, thereby cancelling each other,

and original extract the message signal.

Synchronous Detection

Synchronous AM demodulator has some advantages in terms of performance as it:

reduced effects of selective fading, reduce levels of distortion, signal level.

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2. Frequency Detection (FD)

To detect an FM signal, both the transmitter and receiver are complex. It is necessary for

the receiver to convert the frequency variations into voltage variations as regards to the response

that is as linear as possible over the required bandwidth.

Frequency Detection Response’s Curve

[a] Slope FM Detector: Slope detector relies on the selectivity of the receiver itself for the

demodulation. It is used especially when a receiver does not have FM capability. It uses

the selectivity of the radio or the slope of a tuned circuit. It consists of a tuned circuit

where the centre frequency is tuned to a frequency slightly offset from the carrier of the

signal. Variations of the amplitude and frequency incoming signal appear at the output can

be removed by placing a limiter before the detector.

Slope FM Detector

The amplitude signal is applied to a simple diode detector circuit (D1). It provides the
rectification, while capacitor (C3) removes any unwanted high frequency components, and
resistance (R1) provides a load.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 38

 # Advantages of Slope FM Detector Disadvantages of Slope FM Detector
1 It can provide both FM and AM Requires signal to be centered on the
detection. response of a filter.
2 Enables FM to be detected without any It is not linear as the output is dependent
additional circuitry. upon the curve of a filter.
3 High level of noise and other interference
are experienced, because both the
frequency and amplitude are detected.

[b] Ratio FM Detector: Ratio FM Detector is widely used for detecting radio signals that

are typically of discrete components; such as integrated circuits. It provides good level

performance and noise immunity; with limited number of components. It focuses on

sensitive frequency phase shift network with a transformer and diodes.

# Advantages of Ratio FM Detector Disadvantages of Ratio FM Detector

1 Simple to construct using discrete High cost
components
2 Good level of performance It can only be used in circuits of discrete
components
3 Wider bandwidth High distortion
Immunity to amplitude noise
Reasonable linearity
Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 39
 LECTURE 7:
RADIO-RECEIVER

RADIO RECEIVER

Radio Receiver is an electronic device that receives modulated signal. A receiver is

inclusive inside the radio set

Radio-Receiver Radio-Set

Characteristics of a Radio Receiver:

 Radio-Receiver must be able to capture radio broadcasting frequencies.

 Radio-Receiver must be able to process radio broadcasting frequencies.

 Radio-Receiver must be able to tune to a desire frequency.

 Radio Receiver must be able to amplify the desire frequency.

 Radio-Receiver must be compatible with and detect radio frequencies using suitable detector.

Components of Radio-Receiver:

Block Diagram of a Radio-Receiver

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 40

 Aerial /Antenna : captures and converts modulated signal into electrical signal.

 RF Amplifier : amplifies the captured modulated signal (carrier + message).

 Tuner : select a desire frequency from the mix of frequencies.

 Detector : extract message signal from the modulated signal.

 Amplifier : amplifies the message signal that comes out of the detector.

 Speaker : converts the message signal to sound.

Components of a Radio Receiver

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 41

TYPES OF RADIO-RECEIVERS

[1] Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver (Straight Receiver):

TRF Receiver was widely used in the early radio technology. It provide sufficient gain and

selectivity for receiving broadcasting radio stations. However its tuning is little; as each

stage need to be adjusted separately.

The tuning is provided by the radio frequency stages, through a tuned-coil or capacitor

combination, and then the signal is presented to a simple crystal or diode detector where

the amplitude of the information signal is recovered. This is then passed straight to the

speaker.

The components of TRF Receiver include:

o Aerial
o RF Amplifier & Tuning
o Detector
o Audio Amplifier
o Speaker.

TRF Receiver

* Tuning Circuit : tune frequency at several stages, each proving gain and
selectivity.
* Detector : enables the message signal from the modulated signal to be
extracted.
* Audio Amplifier : provides audio amplification of the message signal.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 42

[2] Superheterodyne Receiver (Superhet):

Modern radios use ‘Superhet’ receivers. This receiver has more than one frequency

conversion process, and additional circuitry to provide the required levels of performance.

Superhet uses the idea of mixing incoming signal with a locally generated signal, and

convert the signals to new frequency called intermediate frequency (IF).

‘Superhet’ Receiver

As the signals enter the receiver from an aerial. It removes the image signal and also

reduces the general level of unwanted signals on other frequencies that are not required.

The signals are then applied to a mixer along with the local oscillator; where the wanted

signal is converted down to intermediate frequency. Significant levels of amplification are

applied and the signals are filtered. Filtering selects signals on one channel against those

on the next.

The advantage of the IF filtering as opposed to RF filtering is that the filter can be

designed for a fixed frequency which allows better tuning. After filtering, then is the

demodulator. It is also possible to switch different detectors in accordance with the mode

being received. The audio amplifier then amplifies the message signal.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 43

 LECTURE 8:
INTERFERENCES IN SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER AND
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL

CHOICE OF INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF):

Superheterodyne Receiver works on the principle of heterodyning which means ‘mixing’.

It mixes the frequency of received signal with frequency of the signal generated by a local

oscillator inside the receiver. The output of mixer provides a lower fixed frequency, called

‘intermediate frequency (IF)’.

It is called ‘Superheterodyne Receiver’ as the frequency generated by the local oscillator is

more than the frequency of the received signal.

The ‘Local Oscillator’ generates a signal with a fixed frequency and the output is then fed

to the mixer. For AM receiver, the local oscillator should select a frequency about 455 KHz

above the incoming signal frequency. While for FM receiver, the local oscillator should select a

frequency about 10.7 MHz, above the incoming signal frequency (modulated).

A mixer simply mixes the frequency of the signal generated by the local oscillator and the

incoming frequency.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 44

 Mathematically;

Where:

fi: intermediate frequency (IF)

fo: local oscillator frequency of the receiver

f c: carrier frequency of the modulated signal

Graphically;

Benefits of Intermediate Frequency (IF):

 IF produces lower frequency for easy signal processing.

 Lower frequency filters are easier to design and use in the process.

 Lower frequency components such as transistors, provide higher gain.

 IF improves frequency selectivity, in order to tune different frequencies.

 IF is possible with ‘Superheterodyne’, as it uses cheap components of lower frequencies.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 45

ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE IN A ‘SUPERHET’ RECEIVER
In practice, radio stations operate in the same radio environment do collide with each

other. A station at frequency of 820 KHz may clash with neighbouring station operating at 830

KHz.

Adjacent Interference is an interference caused by interfering of extra power by adjacent or

neighbouring channels.

Adajacent Interference

Caueses of Adajacent Interference:

1. Inadequate filtering and smoothing.

2. Improper tuning or poor frequency control.

Adjacent Interference causes overlapping of channels or stations, which degrade the

quality of received message, and wastes communication resources.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 46

IMAGE INTERFERENCE (IM) IN ‘SUPERHET’ RECEIVER

‘IM’ occurs in a superheterodyne receiver when a station broadcasting on the image freque

ncy is received along with the desired station.

In ‘Superhet Receiver’, an image frequency is an undesired input frequency equal to the

station frequency plus (or minus) twice the intermediate frequency. The image frequency results

in two stations being received at the same time, thus producing interference.

For example;

 Incoming signal is mixed with the local oscillator to give the IF.

 Let A be a received signal of 100 MHz, and the local oscillator signal is set at 110 MHz.

The IF is the difference of the two signals; which is 10 MHz.

 Another signal ‘B’ of 120 MHz will also produce ‘IF’ of 10 MHz, when the local oscillator

signal remains at 110 MHz.

 Both signals will be received. The signal ‘B’ is the ‘image’ of the signal ‘A’.

Careful tuning in the front end can be applied to eliminate ‘mage signal’.

Tuning (Frequency Selection)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 47

SUPPRESSING THE IMAGE AND ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFENCES

SUPPRESSING IMAGE INTERFERENCE

To mitigate the effect of image interference; Image-Reject Filters or Band-pass Filter

(BPF) can be placed before the mixer, such that the image spectrum is suppressed before the

mixer shifts it to the intermediate frequency.

Placement of Image-Reject Filter (Band-pass Filter (BPF))

SUPPRESSING ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

Mitigation of adjacent interference can be achieve through the following:

 Modulation process of low out-of-band radiation.

 ‘Band-pass Filter (BPF) ‘at the front end of receiver.

 Careful tuning or frequency selection.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 48

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL (AGC)
AGC was implemented in radio broadcasting technology as a result of fading of the

transmitted signal; which requires continuing adjustments in the receiver’s gain. It is employed

where the amplitude of an incoming signal varies over a wide dynamic range.

AGC is a closed-loop feedback regulating amplitude of a signal at its output with respect

to the variation of the amplitude of the signal at the input. It maintains a constant signal level at

the output, regardless of the signals variations at the input of the system. AGC circuit can be

found in any device or system where wide amplitude variations in the output signal which could

lead to loss of information or low performance of the system.

Without AGC, the sound emitted from receiver would vary from weak to strong signal. In

a typical receiver, AGC feedback control signal is usually taken from the detector stage and

applied to control the gain of the IF or RF amplifier stages. Apart from maintaining output, ACG

prevents overload on strong signals in FM receiver.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 49

 LECTURE 9:
BLACK & WHITE TELEVISION TRANSMISSION

B&W TV is the earliest television set, which works in such a way that; images are

combine in black and white continuous spectrum, thereby producing a range of grey images.

Its screen is coated with white phosphorous glass, and electron beam pastes image on it by

moving the electron beam across the phosphor.

B&W TV

ELEMENTS OF TELEVISION BROADCASTING SYSTEM

 Image (Picture) : This is ‘visual signal’. It is the programme that does not include
sound. It can be; film, news, etc., usually recorded using camera or
scanner.
 Sound : This is an ‘audio signal’ of image (mono or stereo type).
 Transmitter : Spread the audio-visual and carrier signals (modulated signal) via
antenna.
 Receiver : Receive the modulated signal and extract the useful audio-visual
signal.
 Sound Device : Speaker (built into the TV set or as external attachment).

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 50

TYPES OF TV BROADCASTING STATIONS

(1) Cable TV:

It is a pay-per-service TV station. It transmits signal from transmitting station to

individual receivers.

Examples include: GoTV, Telecom Satellite TV (TStv), Startimes, etc.

Cable TV

(2) Broadcast TV:

Transmit signals along the earth’s surface from ground-based antenna for receivers to

pick the signals.

Examples include: Jigawa Television (JTV), Nigerian Television Authority (NTA),

Abubakar Rimi Television (ARTV), etc.

Broadcast TV

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 51

(3) Satellite TV:

A digital TV signal that is broadcasting from satellite orbiting round the earth. Some

services of satellite TVs are free, while payment is required for others such as; sport,

drama-series, documentaries, etc.

Examples include: Arewa24, Rahama TV, Channels TV, TV360, AIT, Arise TV, etc.

Satellite TV

(4) Web TV (Internet TV):

It consists of internet-based platforms such as sites, blogs, or pages, etc., that run TV

services. It delivers pay-per-service contents, through subscription of internet ‘data’

service. Examples include: Facebook-Reels, YouTube, Northflix, Arewa24-On-

Demand, Instagram-TV (IGTV), Netflix, WhatsApp-Status, Blogs, TikTok, etc.

YouTube Facebook-Watch Instagram TV (IGTV)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 52

TV CHANNEL ALLOCATION

TV channels are allocated on very high frequencies (VHF) and ultra-high frequencies

(UHF) signals. The VHF and UHF have long range transmission capability, and can

penetrate structures such as walls, mountains, bridges, etc. The channels are designated in

the following bands.

 Band III – Channels 2-6 54 - 82 MHz

 Band IV – Channels 7 - 13 174 - 210 MHz
 Band V – Channels 14 - 69 470 - 800 MHz

The lower visual sideband extends only 0.25 MHz below its carrier with the

remainder filtered out. The upper sideband is transmitted in full. The audio carrier is

4.5 MHz above the picture carrier with FM sidebands as created by its ±25 KHz

deviation.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 53

TV TRANSMITTER

The maximum modulating rate for the video signal is 4 MHz. Because it is amplitude-

modulated onto a carrier, a bandwidth of 8 MHz is implied. However, the US-FCC allows

6-MHz bandwidth per TV station, and it include the FM audio signal.

TV Transmitter

TV BROADCATING SYSTEM

Tx Rx
TV System (Transmitter & Receiver)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 54

 LECTURE 10:
AERIAL AS A RADIATOR

AERIAL

Aerial is a structure usually made up of a rod or wire; used in electromagnetic waves

transmission or reception. It consists of an array of conducting elements; which are electrically

connected to a receiver or transmitter.

Electronic Symbol of an Aerial

Aerials

Aerial is an antenna that works as a transducer which transmits or receives radio signals.

The wave propagates from transmitter through space and move through a metal conductor,

which is used as receiver. A radio transmitter supplies an electric current to the antenna's

terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio

waves).

Aerials attached with Radio-Set, and TV set

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 55
WAVES RADIATION OF AN AERIAL

Radiation is the emission of energy which causes ionization. It is an energy travelling

through space.

In transmission, the oscillating current applied to the antenna by a transmitter creates an

oscillating electric field and magnetic field around the elements. These fields radiate energy

away from the antenna into space. During reception, the oscillating fields of an incoming radio

wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, creating oscillating currents in the

aerial.

Radiation (Transmitting)

Radiation (Reception)

An aerial can be designed to receive radio waves in horizontal or vertical direction or in a

particular direction.
Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 56
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF A ‘DIPOLE AERIAL’

Dipole Aerial is a straight aerial that has a wired electrical conductor. It is a simple

antenna for radiating radio frequency (RF). It is bilaterally symmetrical; hence, it is a balanced

antenna. It measures half-wavelength of an ‘end terminal’ from the center of feed line of the

radiating radio frequency.

Dipole Aerial

The current of the radio frequency of a dipole is maximum at the center, and minimum

towards the ends of conducting elements. While, the voltage is maximum at the ends of

conducting elements, and minimum at the center.

Current and Voltage Distribution of a Dipole Aerial

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 57

Example:
A half-wavelength dipole is made of copper (σ = 7.3 ×108 S/m) wire. Calculate the length
of the aerial, if its operating frequency is 98 MHz, the radius of the wire is 6×10-4 m.
Solution
σ = 7.3 ×108 L= λ/2=? fo = 98 MHz = 98x106 Hz r = 6×10-4 m

From; λ = c/f
Length (half-wavelength); L = λ /2 = .....................m

RESISTANCE AND IMPEDANCE OF AN AERIAL

RESISTANCE OF AN AERIAL

Resistance of an aerial comprises of ‘radiation resistance (Rr), and loss resistance (Lr).

Radiation Resistance (Rr)

Radiation Resistance (Rr) is caused by the radiation of radio waves of an aerial which

cause it to heat up and converted to heat radiation. The radiation resistance is converted

to radio waves (electrical resistance). ‘Rr’ is determined by the position, shape and size of

an aerial.

Loss Resistance (Lr)

Loss Resistance (Lr) is determined by the material of which the aerial is made from, and

the distance and alignment with other conductors at the nearby.

Therefore, both Rr and Lr make the resistance (R) of the aerial, and is depend on its
power distribution.
R = Rr + Lr
R = 2π ⁄ | I |2 (Ω)
R : aerial resistance (radiation and loss resistances)
I : conducting current
Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 58
Example:
A resonant half-wavelength dipole has an aerial resistance of 82 Ω. If its operating
frequency is 104 MHz, the radius of the wire is 3×10-3 m. Calculate the conducting current of
the feeder.
Solution:

Rr = 82 Ω fo = 104 MHz = 104x106 Hz r = 3×10-3 m I=?

R = 2π ⁄ | I |2
I = √ (A)

AERIAL IMPEDANCE (Z)

The ‘Impedance (Z)’ of an aerial works; because there is frequency dependent flow of

current. It is the effective resistance (reactance) of an electric component to alternating current.

Like the resistance, it is also measured in (Ω), and it includes; resistance (R), inductive

reactance (XL) or capacitive reactance (XC).

Impedance is represented in the real and imaginary domain.

Z = R+ jX (Ω)

Where;

R : is the aerial resistance

X : is a reactance; of capacitor (XC) or inductor (XL)

Aerial impedance (Z) is obtained through;

Z = R + jX

= (Rr + Lr) + jX

= [Rr + Lr] + [ jXc + jXL ]

Where;
Rr : radiation resistance
Lr : loss resistance
X : reactance of the capacitance and inductance (XC and XL)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 59

ISOTROPIC RADIATOR

Isotropic Radiator is an ideal antenna that radiates its power uniformly in all directions. It

has the same intensity regardless of the direction of measurement.

Isotropic Radiator

The ‘Sun’ is as a typical isotropic radiator, because it radiates energy in all directions; the

energy measured at any fixed distance and from any angle will be approximately the same.

There is no actual physical isotropic antenna. It is mostly used as a reference for

the antenna gain. The improvement of radiation pattern of an antenna is always assessed using

the isotropic radiation as a reference, because it has a unity gain as 0 dB gain or zero loss.

Characteristics of Isotropic Radiator:

- Unity gain (100%)

- Zero loss

- Distribute energy equally; in all directions

Isotropic radiation

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 60

TYPES OF ANTENNAS

Different types of antennas include:

(1) Omni-directional Antenna: Radiates energy in all directions, but not equally.

Example:
Bow-Tie Antenna (Butterfly):

It is an omni-directional antenna which has a low frequency response and act as a high-

pass filter.

Bow Tie Aerial

(2) Directional Antenna: Antenna that radiates energy in a highly directional pattern.

Example:
Yogi Aerial (Yagi-Uda):

It is a highly directional aerial which supports frequencies from 800 MHz to 5.8 GHz. It is

made up of a single dipole, a reflector and multiple elements.

Yagi-Uda Aerial
It is used for point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communications. It is also; used as a

bridge antenna to connect clients to an access point.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 61

(3) Sectorized Antenna: This antenna has a sectoral pattern of radiation. Its beam-width is

either between 600, 1800, or 1200. It is used purposely for cellular communications.

Sectorized Antenna

(4) Dish Antenna (Parabolic Antenna): This type of antenna has high degree of directivity. It

focus RF energy into a beam. The ‘feeding-point’ of the antenna is either by half-wave dipole or

horn antenna. It is used for long distance communications such as ‘satellite communication’.

Dish (Parabolic) Antenna

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 62

(5) Rhombic Aerial: This is the earliest aerial used for wireless communications. It is used for

point to point links during World War II. Rhombic Aerial has equilateral parallelogram shaped

antenna, with two opposite acute angles. It works under the principle of travelling wave

radiator.

Rhombic Aerial is usually arranged in the form of a rhombus shape and suspended

horizontally above the earth’s surface. Its operational frequency is 3 MHz to 300 MHz.

Rhombic Aerial Rhombic aerial’s terminating resistance (R)

The radiation pattern of rhombic antenna can be uni-directional, and bi-directional by

removing the resistance.

Rhombic antenna can be used in HF communications, long distance sky wave

propagation and point-to-point communications.

Rhombic aerial design parameters (height, leg length, angle between legs) determine its
gain for a specific frequency.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 63

 LECTURE 11:
(CONTINUATION OF AERIAL AS A RADIATOR)
DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN OF AN AERIAL

Practical aerial does not radiate equally in all directions. It is design to radiate more in

some directions than others. For the gain of an aerial to be effective, its directivity need to be in

a specified position.

DIRECTIVITY

Is the ability of an aerial to focus radio waves in a particular direction. To determine the

directivity, a reference antenna is used to compare the performance of aerial.

Directivity of an Antenna

GAIN

Is the ability of an aerial to concentrate radio waves in a particular direction. It is

expressed in decibel (dB) or a relative to an isotropic radiation (dBi).

Gain and Directivity of an Aerial / Antenna

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 64
 Antenna with referencing ‘GAIN’

Practically, gain represents an amplitude change applied to a signal or the deviation

from maximum amplification power.

BEAM-WIDTH OF AN AERIAL

Beam-with
Beam-width is a measure of the directivity of an aerial. It is the separation angle of the

half power points.

In the radiation pattern of an antenna, the main lobe is the main beam of the antenna

where maximum and constant energy radiated by the antenna/aerial flows. The main lobe and a

number of minor lobes are very useful to define the beam-width of an RF antenna.

There are two main considerations of the beam-width.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 65

1. Half-Power Beam-Width (HPBW)

HPBW is the area where most of the power is radiated, which is the considered as the

peak power. It is the angle in which relative power is more than 50% of the peak power.

2. First Null Beam-Width (FNBW)

FNBW is the angular span between the first pattern nulls adjacent to the main lobe. It is

the angular separation away from the main beam, which is drawn between the null points of

radiation pattern, on its major lobe.

HPBW and FNBW

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PLANE PATTERNS OF AERIAL

E-plane from ‘Electric field’ and H-plane from ‘Magnetic Field’ are the reference planes

for linearly polarized aerial. E-plane and H-plane are at the right angle apart.

Position of E-plane, H-plane, and direction of radiation (r)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 66
 E-plane has the maximum radiation from the antenna. It contains the xz, and yz planes

with direction of radiation (r) along -y axis, and -x axis respectively.

H-plane contains maximum radiation from the antenna usually in broadside. It has the xy

plane with direction of radiation (r) along -z axis.

xz - plane xy - plane yz - plane

The electric field plane determines the polarization of the radio wave. For a vertically

polarized antenna, the E-plane coincides with the elevation plane. And for a horizontally

polarized antenna, the H-plane coincides with the horizontal plane.

E-plane and H-plane (radiation pattern)

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 67

 LECTURE 12:
WAVES PROPAGATION PATTERNS
WAVES PROPAGATION

‘Wave Propagation’ describes how wave travels through a vacuum or medium. Wave

moves in form of vibrations; having electrical and magnetic components; in superimposed

oscillations of ‘Electric Field’ and ‘Magnetic Field’.

Electromagnetic waves transport energy through medium at an approximate speed of

light (3 x 108 m/s). Different materials cause different amount of delay due to multi-path of

the propagation pattern, while the wave is travelling through the wireless space.

Electric & Magnetic Field of Electromagnetic Wave

The direction of oscillation is relative to propagation. As in the case of Longitudinal

Wave Travelling, Transverse Wave Travelling, and Standing Wave Travelling.

1. Longitudinal Wave Travelling:

Oscillation occurs in the same direction with wave propagation. Example include;
sound waves.

Longitudinal Wave Travelling

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 68

2. Transverse Wave Travelling:
Oscillation occurs in perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Examples include;

water waves, light waves, electromagnetic waves, etc.

Transverse Wave Travelling

3. Standing Wave Travelling:

Occurs when two or more different waves having the same either of their

amplitudes, frequencies, or phase-differences; that are moving in opposite or similar

directions.

Standing Wave Travelling

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 69

WAVE PROPAGATION PATTERNS

There are four basic patterns in which modulated waves travel from transmitting

antenna to receiving antenna.

1. Ground Waves Propagation

In this pattern, waves travel along the surface or curvature of the earth. The waves

propagate on or near the earth’s surface. It happens on the low and medium frequency

portion of the spectrum. Example of such propagation pattern happens in ‘AM’

broadcasting system.

Ground Waves Propagation

Line of Sight (LoS) is required and can help to achieve efficient wave propagation.

Interaction with the obstacles along the ground can degrade quality of the propagation, as a

result of several propagation impairments (such as; reflection, refraction, diffraction, and

scattering of the waves).

Ground Waves Propagation

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 70

2. Sky Waves Propagation

Waves emitted by transmitting antenna are sent to a specific layer of the atmosphere;

called, the ‘ionosphere’, and then reflected back to a receiving antenna on the surface of the

earth.

Sky Waves Propagation

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 71

 Ionosphere

This is the most important region of the earth’s atmosphere for long distance, point-to-

point communications.

Because the existence of the ionosphere is directly related to radiation emitted from the

sun, the movement of the earth about the sun or changes in the sun’s activity will result in

variations in the ionosphere.

Ionosphere is a layer of the earth's atmosphere; that is ionized by solar radiation, and

hence, conducts atmospheric electricity resulting in ionization of free electrons.

Ionosphere

Regions in the Ionosphere

Ionosphere is divided into regions according to degree of ionization and density of

electrons of the solar radiation.

They are D, E, and F layers.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 72

 D- layer:

It is the lowest layer which exists during the day. It absorbs energetic radiation and

high frequency radio waves. It weakens, and then gradually disappears at night.

E-layer:

After sunset, it usually starts to weaken and at night. The E-layer absorbs soft rays.

D and E:

Regions reflect AM radio waves back to the earth. This is why AM radio signals from

distant stations can easily be picked up at night.

F-layer:

The layer has the highest concentration of charged particles. It has two parts; the

lower F1 layer, and the higher F2, more electrons are densely populated on F2 layer.

‘FM’ and Satellite-TV signals with shorter lengths are reflected by the F region of the

ionosphere.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 73

3. Space Waves Propagation

In this pattern of propagation, the waves are propagated to the space from ground

transmitter of an Earth’s station, and then travel back to ground receiving antenna on the

Earth’s surface.

Space Waves Propagation is used for satellite communications, as in radio, TV, etc.

Space Waves Propagation

Tx Rx

4. Tropospheric Propagation

Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It has a steady decrease in

temperature and pressure as it goes up to the next layer, and this cause variations in

humidity and uneven heating of the earth's surface. Air is in constant motion which causes

turbulences for flying aircraft. The layer has profound effect on propagation of radio waves.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 74

 Military Communications using Tropo-scatter

Tropo-scatter

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 75

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES PROPAGATION

The characteristics are impairments associated with waves propagation. They include:

(1) Refraction: It is the bending of wave in an ionized layers of different propagation medium.

Refraction

(2) Density: Density describes the concentration of the charge particles. High particles is more

effective; in communications.

Density

(3) Frequency: Lower frequencies cause rapid refraction of waves.

(4) Angle of Incidence and Critical Angle: When a radio wave encounters a layer of the

ionosphere, that wave is returned to earth at the same angle (roughly) as its angle of incidence.

Critical Angle

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 76

(5) Skip Distance & Zone: Describes a region or an area that misses transmitted wave.

Skip Distance & Zone

(6) Reflection: Reflection occurs when radio waves ‘bounced back’ when hitting a flat or

smooth surface. The waves are neither penetrated nor absorbed. They are of two types; the earth

reflection and ionospheric reflection.

Reflection of Waves

(7) Seasonal Variations: The revolution of the Earth which has a relative position of the sun’s

movement from a hemisphere to another, changes in seasons.

(8) Fading: Is the disappearance of signal. It causes variations in signal strength by randomly.

Changing the polarization of the waves. It also results from absorption of the RF energy.

(9) Irregular Variations: Irregular variations are just that, unpredictable changes in the

ionosphere that can drastically affect our ability to communicate.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 77

(10) Diffraction: Diffraction occurs when radio waves turn around shape of an obstacle, bend
around the obstacle, or penetrate through the obstacle.

Diffraction of Wave

(11) Sunspot: Sunspot occurs as a result of appearance and disappearance of dark, irregularly

shaped areas on the surface of the sun. It is caused from violent eruptions on the sun and is

characterized by having strong magnetic fields. It result in variations of ionization level. It

happens in two cycles; every 27 days and every 11 years.

(12) Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances: These disturbances usually occur without warning,

and last for some minutes to several hours. On occurrence; communications got totally blanked

out. Occurrence of such disturbances is caused by a bright solar eruption producing an intense

burst of ultraviolet rays that is not absorbed by either F1, F2, or E layers. Instead, it causes the D-

layer ionization density to greatly increase. As a result, certain frequencies will be unable to

penetrate the D-layer, because they are completely absorbed.

(13) Weather: Weather elements such as wind, air, temperature, humidity, etc.; can combine; to

either extend or attenuate propagation of waves.

(14) Fog: Fog is caused by thick cloud of tiny water droplets. Fog causes attenuation of signals.

The attenuation is determined by the quantity of the droplets.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 78

 (15) Rain: Rain drops attenuate signals by absorption.

Effect of Raindrop

(16) Snow: Snow comprises ice crystals that are suspended in the atmosphere within the cloud,

and sometimes may fall on the Earth’s surface. Snow causes scattering and absorption of signals.

(17) Hail: Hail is the pellets of frozen rain which usually fall in showers from cloud. Hailstones

cause attenuation of radio waves by scattering.

(18) Temperature Inversion: When layers of warm air is formed above the layers of cold air,

‘temperature inversion’ develops. It causes ducts by sandwiching cool air either between the

surface of the Earth and the layer of warm air. If radio wave enters the duct at a very low angle

of incidence, VHF and UHF transmissions may be propagated far beyond normal line-of-sight

distances. Sudden change in densities when radio waves enter the warm air above the duct, can

cause the waves to be refracted back toward Earth.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 79

 Temperature Inversion

(19) Scattering: Random movement of signals which can be constructive or destructive.

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 80

 LECTURE 14:
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON AERIAL

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON AERIAL DIMENSION AND SIZE

For devices such as cell phones, telephones, radio, TV, computers, transmitters, etc., there

is need to look for considerable dimensions of a matching antenna. The dimension depend on

operating frequencies.

An aerial need to be properly matched to operating frequency (fo) of a device. In

consideration of dimension, usually; the lower the wavelength, the higher the frequency, and

the longer the antenna that need to be matched, and vice-versa.

For achieving greater range of communications, you can raise the height of the antenna

or increase the power, or possibly both.

Aerials

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 81

FACTORS GUIDING THE CHOICE OF AN ANTENNA / AERIAL

Things to be considered when choosing an antenna; are classified in to; electrical and

mechanical factors:

Electrical Factors:

Frequency of Operation, Power of Operation, Gain, Polarization, Radiation Pattern, Side-lobes

Levels, Feed-point Impedance, Signal-To-Noise Ratio, etc.

Mechanical Factors:

Weather (wind, corrosion, temperature, etc.), Soil Conditions, Antenna Height, Number of

Receivers, Installation Procedure, Fault Detection and Correction, Maintenance, et

Muhammad Adamu [CT. (TRCN)] 82

THANK YOU

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