Anatomy- Derived from the Greek words e.g.

cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology

and reproductive physiology.
ANA- apart TOMY- To cut
Pathologic physiology - is the study of the effects of
HUMAN ANATOMY- study of the normal structures of diseases on organ or system functions.
the human body and their relationships with one another.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY- study of the different functions

of the normal structures of the human body and the
involved processes of how these body parts work.
HOMEOSTASIS

- Maintenance of the body’s internal environment

DIVISION OF HUMAN ANATOMY
- Negative feedback loop
A. Gross / Macroscopic anatomy
-stability, Balance, Equilibrium
- study of normal structures of the human big enough to
HOMEOSTASIS REGULATION
be studied by unaided eye.

1.Systemic Anatomy – study of structures of specific 1. Autoregulation – cells lack oxygen ,chemicals
body systems would be released to dilate blood vessels

2. Extrinsic regulation - during exercise

e.g. nervous and circulatory systems.
nervous system commands inc of heart rate so blood will
2. Regional Anatomy – study of structures by body circulate faster
regions.

e.g. head region, thoracic region.

ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESS
3. Surface anatomy – study of the landmarks on the
body surface of the different visceral organs.
1. Metabolism –all the chemical processes that
occur in the body.

B. Microscopic Anatomy 2. Responsiveness – the body’s ability to react to

changes in environment both internally or
- study of structures of the human body through use of externally.
microscope.
3. Movement – motion occurring inside the human
1. Cytology – chemical and microscopic study of cells body, either the whole body or individual cells or
2. Histology – study of normal tissues of the body even the organelles within these cells.

C.Embryology 4. Growth – an increase in body size that results

from an increase in the size or number of cells.
-study of development of the human body from
5. Differentiation – development of cells from an
fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine life. unspecialized to a specialized state.

D. Neuroanatomy 6. Reproduction – formation of new cells for

growth, repair or replacement or the production
-study of normal microscopic, gross features and of a new individual.
development of the nervous system
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF
THE BODY
DIVISION OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 1. Chemical level
Cell Physiology - the study of the functions of living cells 2. Cellular level
- the cornerstone of human physiology
3. Tissue level
Special Physiology - is the study of the functions of
specific organs 4. Organ level

e.g. cardiac physiology-is the study of the heart function 5. System level

Systemic Physiology - all aspects of the functions of

specific organ systems.
 BODY SYSTEMS

CELLS - Smallest units of life

- Perform all activities necessary to maintain life

e.g. metabolism, assimilation, digestion, excretion,

reproduction

TISSUE
Made up of different types of cells

• Epithelial - covers and protects

• Connective - binds and supports other tissues

• Muscle - movement

• Nervous - connects sensory structures to motor

structures

• Hemopoietic

ORGANS - Tissues with same function grouped

together.

Examples: liver, stomach

SYSTEM -A group of organs that perform a common

function.
 CAVITIES

BODY REGIONS Dorsal -cranial, spinal

1. Head Ventral- thoracic, abdominopelvic

2. Neck
3. Trunk
a) Thorax
b) Abdomen
c) Pelvic cavity
d) Perineum

4. Upper extremities
5. Lower extremities

THE ANATOMICAL POSITION

-standing (or lying supine) erect

-head and eyes directed forward.

- Upper limbs by the sides with palms facing forward.

-Lower limbs together with toes facing forward.

ANATOMICAL PLANES

1. Coronal / Frontal Plane

- Vertical planes
-running from side to side
-Divides the body or any of it’s part into anterior
and posterior portion

2. Sagittal Plane / Lateral Plane

-Vertical plane
-from front to back
- divides into right & left side

3. Horizontal / Transverse / axial

-horizontal planes
-divides the body into upper and lower parts

4. Median plane
-saggital plane through the midline of the body
-from front to the back dividing it into right and left
halves
 THE ANATOMICAL TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP

1. Superior / Cranial/Cephalic –towars the head

end of the body; Upper (the hand is part of the
superior extremity)

2. Inferior / Caudal – away from the head;

lower(foot is a part of lower extremity)

3. Anterior / Ventral - front

4. Posterior / Dorsal - back

5. Medial – towards the midline; inner 5th finger and

1st toe

6. Lateral – away from the midline; outer 1st finger

and 5th toe

7. Proximal – towards or nearest the trunk or the

point of origin of a part

8. Distal – away from the trunk

9. Superficial / External
SECTIONS OF THE BODY
10. Deep / Internal
Longitudinal section - vertical
11. Central
Section
12. Peripheral
Transverse sections -cross
13. Parietal
section
14. Visceral
Oblique sections: Cut the body not along any body
planes (slant)
 TYPES OF CELL

PROKARYOTIC – Do not contain nuclear membrane/

envelope

EUKARYOTIC-contains true nuclear

membrane/envelope

PROKARYOTIC vs. EUKARYOTIC CELL

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
ORGANISM Bacteria protest,fungi,plants
Animals
ORGANELLES few /none nucleus,
mitochondria,
endoplasmic
reticulum, etc
DNA Circular / in the Linear / circular
cytoplasm Bounded by a
membrane
RNA and RNA and protein RNA synthesized in
PROTEIN synthesize in the the nucleus / protein
same in the cytoplasm
compartment
CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis / meiosis

-The cell is the basic unit of biological organization

-Basic composition

• Protoplasm/cytoplasm
• cell membrane
TERMS OF MOVEMENT
• nucleus
1. Flexion – contraction; decreases the angle
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CELL
between two body parts
2. Extension -straightening; increases the angle 1. Irritability/excitability -nervous tissue
between two body parts 2. Conductivity- nervous tissue
3. Abduction -movement away from the midline 3. Contractility - muscle tissue
4. Adduction -towards the midline 4. Absorption & Secretion – Digestive Track
5. Circumduction – movement of a bvody region in 5. Excretion - excretory
a circular manner 6. Respiration- respiratory
6. Rotation – rotate along axis; can occur within the 7. Growth & Reproduction- different parts of the
vertebral column body
7. Inversion – sole facing medially 8. Organization
8. Eversion – sole facing laterally
9. Dorsiflextion – sole facing anteriorly PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
10. Plantarflextion – sole facing posteriorly
1. CELL MEMBRANE
11. Supination – radius return the bones to their
parallel position - trilaminar
12. Pronation – radius rotates over ulna - semipermeable
13. Protraction – Move forward
14. Retraction – move backward 2. CYTOPLASM
15. Elevation – closing of the mouth - colloidal
16. Depression – opening of the mouth - with organelles, inclusions, and cytoskeleton

Organelles - iving structure found in cytoplasm

Inclusion-temporary/non living structure

Cytoskeleton- support
 3. NUCLEUS • Movement of solute from an area of high solute
concentration to an area of low solute
- with DNA in the form of: concentration with a CARRIER
a. heterochromatin (inactive) OSMOSIS
b. euchromatin (active)
• Movement of solvent (WATER) from an area of
LOW solute concentration to an area of HIGH
solute concentration

FILTRATION

ACTIVE- Lesser concentration to greater concentration

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Movement of solute from an area of LOW solute

concentration to an area of HIGH solute
concentration

ISOTONIC- EQUAL

HYPERTONIC- SHRINKING

HYPOTONIC- Swelling eventually; Lysis=Bursting

The Cell Membrane

- Double phospholipid layer with embedded proteins

(TRILAMINAR)
- the one to give shape

-acts as receptor sites EXOCYTOSIS – releasing;exit; extrusion of substance

within the cell
-plasma membrane

Membrane transport – selectively permeable

membrane

• Osmosis
• protein channels
• active transport
• fluid mosaic model

TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS

CELL MEMBRANE

PASSIVE -greater concentration to lesser concentration

SIMPLE DIFFUSION

• Movement of solute from an area of high solute

concentration to an area of low solute ENDOCYTOSIS- entry of particlesn towards the cell
concentration
•Phagocytosis – cell eating
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
•pinocytosis – cell drinking
 Cytoplasm of the Cell 3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• System of membranes that makes up channels
- Mostly water with chemical compounds in solution or
• Connects with outer nuclear and cell membranes
colloid

• Solution: atoms or ions distributed in medium

 Polar compounds go into solution TYPES OF ER:
 Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal
suspension
 With organelles, inclusions, Cytoskeleton  Rough / Granular ER- for protein synthesis
attached ribosomeS
ORGANELLES (protein-EXTRACELLULAR USE)
 Smooth / Non-granular ER- fat transport and
Membrane bound organells - MEGLP
sex hormone synthesis,HCL synthesis, release
M – Mitochondria and recapture Ca+ in skeletal muslces.

E – Endoplasmic reticulum 4. GOLGI COMPLEX/ APPARATUS

(Dictyosomes)
G- Golgi Complex
• Collection of flat saclike cisternae
L- Lysosomes • Concentration and collection of cellular
compounds
P- Peroxisomes / micorbodies • Storage warehouses of the cell
• Carbohydrate synthesis site
“packaging”
Newly Discovered / Temporary to your cells
5. LYSOSOMES
MELANOSOMES
• Digestive enzyme packages
SECRETORY GRANULLES • With acid hydrolases
• Lack oxidases and catalases
• Functionplay role in cellular defense
Non- Membrane Bound Organelles • digest stored food
• maintenance and repair of organelles
RIBOSOMES • suicide agents for old or weak cells
a, primary lysosomes
b. secondary lysosomes
1. MITOCHONDRIA c. Residual Bodies
• MITOCHONDRIA – singular
6. PEROXISOMES / MICROBODIES
MITOCHONDRION- plural
• CONTAIN:
• Powerhouses of the cell
 CATALASE – converts H2O2 into H2O
• Cristae - inner folds wherecellular respiration
and O2
occurs
 OXIDASE
• Synthesize ATP Energy requirements of cell
determine cristae number Also accumulate 7. MELANOSOMES
(THE MORE CRISTAE YOU HAVE THE MORE 8. SECRETORY GRANULES
ENERGY IS BEING SYNTHESIZED BY
MITOCHONDRION)
• Ca+,synthesize nucleic acids and
proteins,oxidation of fatty acids.
• Billaminar (outer and inner layer) INCLUSIONS

1. GLYCOGEN
2. LIPID
2. RIBOSOMES 3. PIGMENTS
• Distributed throughout Cytoplasm
• Attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum a. Exogenous
• No membrane covering b. Endogenous
• Site of protein synthesis 1) lipofuscin
free ribosomes- protein for INTRACELLULAR 2) melanin
USE 3) hemoglobin
4) bilirubin
 4. CRYSTALS • 35-45% of length of interphase
a.Crystals of Reinke 4. G2 phase
• phase before onset of mitosis
b.Crystals of Charcot-Bottcher
• 10-20% of length of interphase
CYTOSKELETON
MITOSIS
1. MICROFILAMENTS (7 nm in dia.)
 Prophase
2. INTEMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10 nm in dia.)
 Metaphase
a. Keratin- epithelial cells
 Anaphase
b. Vimentin- mesenchymal cells
 Telophase
c. Desmin- muscle cells
d. Glial fibrillary protein- glial cells of nervous
system
e. Neurofilaments- neurons

Centrioles

- determine polarity of cell

 Centrosome - two centrioles at right angles to

each other (Composed of a set of triplets fibers)

-Form spindle fibers during cell division

-Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter cells

Cillia and flagella

-Hair like protrusion from cell membranae

-nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances

passage

• cilia – line respiratory tract ; move materials

across cell surface
• Flagellium-propels cell through a medium

The Nucleus

-Control center of the cell

-Nuclear membrane has pores to allow substances

passage

• Chromatin - genetic material inside nucleoplasm

• Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation

INTERPHASE
• 18-24 hours
• inactive / resting phase

FOUR PHASES OF INTERPHASE

1. . G1 (gap 1) phase
• (-) DNA synthesis
• (+) RNA and protein synthesis
• 30-50% of length of interphase KARYOTYPE
2. G0 phase
• 23 PAIRS
• cells pull out of the cycle
• 22 pairs: autosomes
3. S (synthesis) phase
• 1 pair: sex chromosome
• DNA synthesis/replication
 • XX : female layers of cells; not all apices of cells
• XY : male reach the surface (different heights of
columnar cells)
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis b.
MITOSIS 2. Stratified – more than one layer
a. Transitional (UROTHELIUM – found in
 Two daughter cells with exactly the same genetic urinary system) – several layer of cells
material where the shape changes according to
 Cellular division for growth, maintenance and functional status of the organ
repair
SHAPES OF THE CELLS
MEISOS
1. SQUAMOUS
 Four daughter cells with half the genetic material
 Cellular division for Reproduction 2. CUBOIDAL

3. COLUMNAR

SPECIFIC SUBTYPES:
TISSUES
• ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELL LAYER +
SHAPE OP THE CELL AND ITS SPECIAL
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES FEATURE LIKE PRESENCE/ABSENCE OF CILIA
OR KERATIN
1. LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM - protection 1. SIMPLE
2. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM – Secretion A. Simple squamous
• Blood vessels- single layer of flat cell for easier
functions of epithelial tissues: diffusion of substances
• Lungs(alveoli)- have only single layer of cells so
1. Protection
that oxygen and carbondioxide can easily pass
2. Secretion through
B. Simple cuboidal and C. Simple
EPITHELIAL TISSUE Columnar
 One of the fundamental types of tissue of the • Secretion (secretory) or absorption
body C. columnar

1) non-ciliated
LINING / SURFACE EPITHELIUM 2) ciliated
COMPOSITION:

• Epithelial Cells 2. STRATIFIED

• Extra Intercellular Substance A. Stratified Squamous
CHARACTERISTICS • If it needs to be moist in the mouth or vocal
activity you have stratified squamous non -
• Contiguous cells -closely packed together keratinized
• Basal lamina • In the skin where it is dry there is a presence of
• Avascular keratin so you have stratified keratinized
• Sheet or layers B. Stratified cuboidal
• Sweat glands and sebaceous gland were you
SUBTYPE OF LINING/SURFACE EPITHELIUM have a secretory function
TISSUE

• Based on the number of :

layers of cells:

1. Simple – single layer of cells

a. Pseudostratifed – single layer of
columnar shaped cells with nucleus at
variable location of the cell giving it false
stratification or appearance of several
 C. Stratified Columnar
• Lining cells of the ducts of salivary and mammary
gland

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
D. Pseudostratified Columnar
• lining of the respiratory tract • ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELLS

1. UNICELLLULAR – 1 cell

2. MULTICELLULAR – more than 1 cells

• ACCORDING TO PRESENCE /ABSENCE OF

DUCTS

1. EXOCRINE - with ducts salivary glands

2. ENDOCRINE - ductless glands

• ACCORDING TO NATURE OF SECRETION

1. MUCUS -Secretes a thick and viscid product
;goblet cells
3. TRANSITIONAL 2. SEROUS -secretes a thin and watery product
• There is a change in the shape of the cells ;parotid gland
depending on the functional status; the organ is 3. MUCO-SEROUS / MIXED - mixed secretion
relaxed not stretch(thick cells); organ is stretch
;submandibular gland ; sublingual gland
(flatten cells)
4. CYTOGENIC - glands that produce cells
;testis ;ovaries
• ACCORDING TO FATE OF SECRETING
CELLS

1. MEROCRINE -no destruction of the secretory

cells ; sweat gland

2. APOCRINE - partial destruction of secretory

cells ;mammary gland

3. HOLOCRINE - total destruction of secretory

cells ; sebaceous gland

• ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY

1. TUBULAR- elongated

a. SIMPLE

1) simple tubular

2) simple coiled tubular

3) simple branched tubular

b. COMPOUND
 1) compound tubular Bone - compact, spongy

2. ALVEOLAR - Expanded Cartilage - hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

a. simple alveolar Adipose - brown, white, Reticular

b. compound alveolar CLASSIFICATION OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE

3. TUBULO-ALVEOLAR – Combination of the TISSUE
two 1. Collagenous

A. LOOSE COLLAGENOUS OR LOOSE AREOLAR

- consists of collagen and elastic fiber

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE - most common cells found are fibroblast

• Supports and binds - Fibroblasts- are responsible for the

• large amounts of extracellular materials that production of the fibers of the matrix.
separate cells from one another

Components of Extracellular Matrix

B. DENSE REGULAR COLLAGENOUS
1. Protein fiber
a. Collagen - Same direction of collagen fibers
b. Reticular
- ex. Tendon
C. Elastic
2. Ground Substance
-is the shapeless background
against which cells and collagen C. DENSE IRREGULAR COLLAGENOUS
fibers are seen in the light
- Different direction of collagen fibers
microscope. An important
component is proteoglycans made - ex. Dermis (skin)
up of protein and polysaccharide
3. Fluid

CONNECTIVE TISSUE 2.Elastic

• Found between other tissues • Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after
being stretched
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Enclosing and separating tissues CLASSIFICATION OF EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE

2. Connecting tissues to one another TISSUE
3. Supporting and moving
4. Storing energy • MESENCHYMAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE
5. Cushioning and insulating - Source of all adult connective tissue
6. Transporting
– Derived from mesoderm
7. Protecting
– Delicate collagen fibers embedded in
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
semifluid matrix
Subtypes:
• Mucus
Fibrous/Connective Tissue Proper - found only in the umbilical cord. Wharton’s
jelly.
Collagenous- LCT, DRCT, DICT

Elastic
MUSCLE TISSUE
Embryonic
• main characteristic is its ability to contract or
Mesenchymal shorten
Mucous TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
Specialized • SKELETAL
 • CARDIAC 9. Storage of Vitamin D precursor (active vitamin D
• SMOOTH when exposed to sun light)

10. Contains cutaneous receptors that serve as

sensors for touch, pressure, temperature and
pain.

2 PRINCIPLE LAYER

IV. NERVOUS TISSUE

• forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves

• contains very important cells which are
neurons and neuroglia

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

composed of:

1. SKIN EPIDERMIS
• Heaviest, largest single organ • Superficial protective layer of the skin
2.SKIN APPENDAGES: • Composed of Stratified Squamous Keratinized
Epithelium that varies in thickness
A.sweat gland
• All but the deepest layers of epidermis are
B. sebaceous gland
composed of dead cells
C. hairs
• Composed of 4-5 layers, depending on its
D. nails location within the body

SKIN • Palms and soles have five layers because these

areas are exposed to most friction
- also called integument
- simply means covering 1. STRATUM BASALE
Composed of single layer of cells in contact with
FUNCTIONS: the dermis
1. Keeps water and other precious molecules in the 4 types of cells:
body A) keratinocytes
- produce keratin which toughens &
2. Keeps water out waterproofs skin
B) melanocytes
3. Protects the body from external agent - synthesize the pigment melanin providing a
4. Insulates and cushions deeper body organs protective barrier to UV radiation in sunlight

5. Protects body from mechanical, chemical, 2. STRATUM SPINOSUM

thermal damage and also bacteria - cuboidal or slightly flattened cells
-Contains several layers of cells
6. Regulates heat loss from body surface -Spiny appearance due to changed shape of
7. Acts as mini-excretory system, urea, salt, water keratinocytes
are lost when we sweat -With limited mitosis
-This layer plus stratum basale are collectively
8. Manufactures several proteins important to called Stratum Germinativum
immunity
 3. STATUM GRANULOSUM -Oxygenated blood flowing through the
- Consists of only 3-4 flattened rows dermis gives the skin its pinkish tones
of cells
- Cells here appear granular due to the presence SURFACE PATTERN
of keratohyaline granules 1. CONGENITAL PATTERNS

4. STRATUM LUCIDUM (Clear Layer) - fingerprints or friction ridges

-Nuclei,organelles,and cell membranes are no
- present on palms and soles
longer visible so this layer appears clear
-Exists only in the lips and the thickened skin of - formed by the pull of elastic fibers within the dermis
soles & palms
-Contains a transluscent substance called eleidin - function to prevent slippage when grasping objects

2.ACQUIRED LINES
5. STRATUM CORNEUM
Deep Flexion Creases - found on the palms
- 25-30 layers of flattened, scale like anucleated
Shallow Flexion Lines - seen on knuckles and
cells, which arecontinuously shed as flake-like
surface of other joints
residues of cells
Furrows in the forehead and face (wrinkles) -
- This surface layer is cornified and is the real
acquired from continual contraction of facial muscles,
protective layer of the skin
such as from smiling or squinting in bright light or against
- Cornification is brought on by keratinization and
the wind; facial lines become more strongly delineated as
the hardening , flattening process that takes
one ages
place as the cells die and are pushed to the
surface 3. LANGER LINES
- Friction at the surface of skin stimulates - Lines of tension in the skin produced by the orientation
additional mitotic activity of stratum basale, of collagen and elastic fibers in nonrandom pattern or
resulting in the formation of a callus for additional arrangement
protection -Surgical incision should be made parallel to Langer lines
to promote better wound healing.
COLORATION OF SKIN
- caused by expression of a combination of 3 pigments
(melanin, carotene, hemoglbin)

1. MELANIN
- Brown-black pigment produced by the
melanocytes of stratum basale
-Guards skin against damaging effect of UV
rays of sunlight
-Gradual exposure to sunlight promotes
increased production of melanin; hence
tanning of skin
-In albino, there is a normal number of
melanocytes but lacks enzyme tyrosinase,
that converts the amino acid tyrosine to
melanin
-“freckles”- caused by aggregated patch of
melanin
-“vitiligo”- lack of melanocytes in localized
areas of the skin causing distinct white spots

2. CAROTENE
- a yellowish pigment found in epidermal
cells & fatty parts of dermis

- abundant in skin of Asians

- together with melanin, accounts for the

yellowish-tan color of Asians

3. HEMOGLOBIN
-Not a pigment of the skin, rather it is the
oxygen-binding pigment found in RBc
 2. SWEAT GLANDS

DERMIS - also called sudoriferous glands

- widely distributed in the skin; numerous in palms, soles,
- Deeper and thicker than the epidermis axillary and pubic regions
- A strong and stretchy envelope that helps to hold the - secretion evaporates and cools in the body
body together TYPES:
- Blood vessels within the dermis nourish the living 1. Merocrine Sweat Glands
portion of the epidermis
- more numerous and found all over the body especially
- With numerous collagenous, elastic and reticular fibers in forehead, back, palms and soles
that give support to the skin - Secretion reaches skin surface via a duct that opens
- Highly vascular and glandular directly on surface of skin through sweat pores
- Secretion is mostly water with few salts
- Contains many nerve endings and hair follicles
2. Apocrine Sweat Glands
LAYERS OF DERMIS
- much larger, localized gland found in axillary and pubic
regions where they secrete into hair follicles
1. PAPILLARY LAYER - Not functional until puberty
- Secretion is thick and rich in organic substances which
- in contact with epidermis
is odorless when released but quickly broken down by
- Accounts for about 1/5 of the entire dermis
bacteria into substances responsible for body odor.
- With numerous projections called Dermal Papillae, that
extend from the upper portion of the dermis into the 3. MAMMARY GLAND
epidermis
- Dermal papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish - Found within the breasts
nutrients to the epidermis - Specialized sudoriferous or sweat gland that secrete
-Some papillae house pain receptors (free nerve endings) milk during lactation
and touch receptors (meissner’s corpuscles) - Under the stimulus of pituitary gland
- Dermal papillae form the base for the friction ridges on
the fingers and toes
4. HAIR
2.RETICULAR LAYER
- Characteristic of all mammals, but its distribution,
-Deepest skin layer function, density and texture varies across mammalian
- Contains blood vessels, sweat & oil glands, and deep species
pressure receptors (Pacinian Corpuscles) - Humans are relatively hairless, with only the scalp, face,
- Many phagocytes are found here; they engulf bacteria pubis & axilla being densely haired
that have managed to get through the epidermis - Men with more obvious hair because of the male
hormone
- Certain regions of body are hairless like the palms,
CUTANEOUS GLANDS soles, lips, nipples, penis,labia minore
- Lifespan 3-4 mos for eyelashes, 3-4 yrs-scalp
1. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS PARTS OF HAIR:
1. Shaft – the visible but dead portion of hair projecting
- found all over the skin, except on palms and soles
above surface of the skin
- ducts usually empty into a hair follicle but some open
2. Root – enclosed in the follicle
directly onto skin surface
3. Hair bulb matrix- the growth zone;
- secretion is called sebum, a mixture of oily substance
contains melanocytes that give color to hair
and fragmented cells that keep skin soft and moist and
prevents hair from becoming brittle
- if the drainage pathway for sebaceous glands becomes 3 LAYERS OF HAIR IN CROSS SECTION
blocked for some reason, the glands may become 1. Medulla – inner part
infected, resulting in acne 2. Cortex – thick middle part
- sebum also contains chemicals that kill bacteria 3. Cuticle – covers cortex and forms toughened outer
- become very active when sex hormones are produced portion
in increased amounts during adolescence, thus skin is
oilier during this period of life
3 DISTINCT KIND OF HAIR IN HUMANS
1. LANUGO

- fine, silky fetal hair that appears during the last

trimester of development
- Usually not evident on a baby at birth unless it has been
born prematurely

2. ANGORA

- grows continuously in length, as on scalp and on face of

males

3. DEFINITIVE

- grows to a certain length and then ceases to grow

- most dominant type of hair (eyelashes, eyebrow,pubic,
and axillary hair)
- A sebaceous gland and an arrector pili muscle are
attached to the hair follicle
- When the muscle involuntarily contracts due to thermal
SKELETAL SYSTEM
or psychological stimuli, the hair follicle is pulled into an
upright position, causing the hair to”stand on its end” and FUNCTION OF BONES
producing goosebumps 1. SUPPORT
2. PROTECT
4. NAILS
3. MUSCLE ATTACHMENT
- Found on distal dorsum of each fingers and toes 4. HEMOPOIESIS – red bone marrow
-Forms from a hardened, transparent, stratum corneum 5. STORAGE OF MINERALS (Phosphorus, Calcium)
of epidermis

Consists of:
HISTOLOGY OF BONES
• Nail Body - visible attached portion
COMPONENTS;
• Nail Root- part of the nail covered by 1. BONE CELLS
skin OSTEOBLASTS – embryonic bone cells & active in
• Nail Bed- where nail root and nail body bone formation
are attached OSTEOCYTES – mature osteoblasts
• Free edge- the distal exposed border OSTEOCLASTS – bone reabsorption/resorption and
attached to undersurface of remodeling.
hyponychium
• Hyponychium - beneath the free edge
• Eponychium ( Cuticle) - covers the nail 2. MATRIX
root COLLAGENOUS FIBERS – give resilience to bones
- frequently splits causing a hangnail CALCIFIED GROUND SUBSTANCES -give
• Nail Matrix - proximal part of the nail bed hardness to bones, Calcium Phosphate, Calcium
- growth area of the nail Carbonate
•
Lunula -whitish crescent (half moon) MAINTAINING THE BONE
shaped area at the proximal aspect of
nail • Endocrine system control
-Fingernails grow at approximately 1 mm • Parathormone – calcium release
per week -hypocalcemia – pth release – ca++ release from
- Growth of toenails is slower bone --- increased blood ca++
- nails are transparent and nearly -osteoclast
colorless but they look pink because of • Calcitonin – calcium storage
the rich blood supply in the underlying -hypercalcemia –calcitonin release--- ca++
dermis deposition into the bones---decreased blood
ca++
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES H- shape union of:FRONTAL, PAREITAL,
SPHENOID, TEMPORAL

According to structure

• Compact/Dense – outer part of long bones

-osteon- functional unit/haversian system
Spongy/Cancellous --in between the flat bones
of skull and the inner part of the long bones.

According to shapes

• Long bone -humerus, tibia, fibula, femur etc.

• Short bone- Tarsal bones, cuboid
• Flat bone – bones of the skull, frontal
• Irregular- facial bone and vertebra
• Sesamoid- develops within a tendon

According to development

• Endochondral/Cartilaginous – formed via

endochondral/intracartilaginous ossification
Cartilage ---Ca++---- Bone
• Intramembranous -formed via intramembranous
ossification
Membrane ---Ca++--- bone
Clavicle – 1st bone to start developing (5th week
intrauterine)

According to location
*related to the middle meningeal artery common
• Axial -80 bones-skull, cause of EPIDURAL HEMORRHAGE
ossicles,hyoid,sternum,vertebrae
• Appendicular- 126 bones CRANIAL BONES
• cranial – 8 Suture
Calvarium- Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, CORONAL
Sphenoid, Occipital SAGITTAL
LAMBOIDAL

CRANIAL BONES
CALVARIUM
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Sphenoid
• occipital

Fontanelles – Anterior & Posterior Fontanelle

PTERION Sunken Fontanelle – Dehydration
 Bulging Fontanelle – Meningitis

FACIAL BONE HYOID

-only bone in the body that is not attached in a muscle

Facial bones– 14

PAIRED maxilla, palatine, zygomatic, nasal,

lacrimal, and inferior nasal conchae bones STERNUM
UNPAIRED vomer, mandible
Parts;

- Manubrium

- Body
-Xiphoid Process

Landmarks:

Jugular/Supraternal Notch- T2-T3, Angel of

Louis/Manubrio-sternal Joint – T4-T5, Xiphisternal Joint –
T9

OSSICLES

- three bones in either middle ear that are among the

smallest bones in the human body. They serve to
transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth
(cochlea).

Malleus (Hammer)
Incus(Anvil) RIBS
Stapes (stirrup)
Types according to attachment
1-7 true ribs (vertebra-sternal) (directly attached to the
sternum) 8-10 false ribs (vertebra-chondral) (attached
to cartilage of 7 and not directly attached to sternum) 11-
12 floating ribs (vertebral) (there is no attachment.
Attached only to vertebrae)
 atypical-T1,T2,T11,T12

• Lumbar – kidney shaped body

- short wide straight spine
-mamillary process
Types according to morphology
1. Typical – 3rd-9th • Sacral -sacrum-posterior wall of pelvic cavity
- 2 costal facets on head, 1 costal facet on tubercle • Coccygeal- coccyx
rounded upper border, sharp inferior border
2. Atypical – 1st,2nd,10th-12th

Vertebra

• Cervical
typical
- C3-C6
-Quadrangular Body
-Transverse Foramen
-Bifid Spine
-Triangular vertebral foramen

Atypical
– C1(Atlas)(-)body & spine
-C2(Axis)(+)dens/odontoid process
-C7(Vertebra Prominens)bifid spine

• Appendicular – 126 bones

A. Pectoral Girdle (shoulder girdle)

• Thoracic
-heart shaped body
-costal facets on body and transverse processes
-long pointe spine obliquely going down
typical-T3-T10
 Radius (thumb)(lateral)

Ulna(smaller&longer) (pinky)(medial)- forearm

Clavicle collar bone

Scapula -shoulder blade
B. Upper Extremities
Humerus - arm

Carpals(wrist bone)/Metacarpals/Phalanges
 C. Pelvic Girdle (Coxae) Tibia (medial leg bone) & Fibula (lateral leg bone)

D. Lower Extremities
Femur- Thigh bone – Longest bone

Tarsals/Metatarsal/Phalanges

Patella – kneecap (sesamoid bone)

Talus- also known as astragalus

Calcaneus – heel bone

JOINTS /ARTICULAR SYSTEM

According to mobility

• Synarthrosis -immovable bones

• Amphiarthrosis- slightly immovable
Diarthrosis- freely movable joints
According to intervening structure

• Fibrous – immovable (suture, gomphosis,

schindylesis, syndesmosis)
• Cartilaginous- slightly movable (symphysis,
synchondrosis)

Synovial
-with a fibrous capsule around a synovial cavity between
the articulating bones.

• Spheroid (cotyloid/ball & socket)- hip & shoulder

joint
• Ginglymus/Hinge joint – elbow, ankle, & knee
joint
•
• Trochoid/Pivot joint – atlantoaxial & superior
radio-ulnar joint
• condyloid joint – metacarphophalangeal joint
• Ellipsoid Joint – radiocarpal joint *some books
condyloid & ellipsoid are considered the same
type of joint.
• Sellar/Saddle- between the trapezium & the
metacarpal of the thumb
• Plane Joint – between 2 carpal bones