CHAPTER 3

INTERNAL FORCES/LOADINGS IN STATICALLY DETERMINATE

STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO MOVING LOADS
UNIT 1
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION OF INFLUENCE LINES FOR
STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES
Influence lines have important application for the design of structures that resist
large live loads. In this chapter we will discuss how to draw the influence line for a
statically determinate structure. The theory is applied to structures subjected to a
distributed load or a series of concentrated forces, and specific applications to floor
girders and bridge trusses are given.
I. Influence lines
1. Concepts
In the previous chapter we developed techniques for analyzing the forces in
structural members due to dead or fixed/non-moving loads. It was shown that the
shear and moment diagrams represent the most descriptive methods for displaying
the variation of these internal forces in a member. If a structure is subjected to a live
or moving load, however, the variation of the shear and bending moment in the
member is best described using the influence line. An influence line represents the
variation of either the reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at a specific point in a
member as a concentrated force moves over the member. Once this line is
constructed, one can tell at a glance where the moving load should be placed on the
structure so that it creates the greatest influence at the specified point. Furthermore,
the magnitude of the associated reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at the point
can then be calculated from the ordinates of the influence-line diagram (or influence
line). For these reasons, influence lines play an important part in the design of

66
bridges, industrial crane rails, conveyors, and other structures where loads move
across their span.
Although the procedure for constructing an influence line is rather basic, one should
clearly be aware of the difference between constructing an influence line and
constructing a shear or moment diagram. Influence lines represent the effect of a
moving load only at a specified point on a member, whereas shear and moment
diagrams represent the effect of fixed loads at all points along the axis of the
member.
2. Procedure for analysis
Either of the following two procedures can be used to construct the influence line at
a specific point/section K in a member for any function (reaction, shear, or moment).
For both of these procedures we will choose the moving force to have a
dimensionless magnitude of unity.
Tabulate Values
• Place a unit load at various locations, x, along the member, and at each location
use statics to determine the value of the function (reaction, shear, or moment) at the
specified point.
• If the influence line for a vertical force reaction at a point on a beam is to be
constructed, consider the reaction to be positive at the point when it acts upward on
the beam.
• If a shear or moment influence line is to be drawn for a point, take the shear or
moment at the point as positive according to the same sign convention used for
drawing shear and moment diagrams (Fig. 3.1).
• All statically determinate beams will have influence lines that consist of straight
line segments. After some practice one should be able to minimize computations and
locate the unit load only at points representing the end points of each line segment.
• To avoid errors, it is recommended that one first construct a table, listing “unit load
67
at x” versus the corresponding value of the function calculated at the specific point;
that is, “reaction R,” “shear V(Q),” or “moment M.” Once the load has been placed
at various points along the span of the member, the tabulated values can be plotted
and the influence-line segments constructed.
Influence-Line Equations
• The influence line can also be constructed by placing the unit load at a variable
position x on the member and then computing the value of R, V(Q), or M at the point
as a function of x. In this manner, the equations of the various line segments
composing the influence line can be determined and plotted.

Fig. 3.1
3. Application examples

68
a. Example 1
Construct the influence line for the vertical reaction at A of the beam in Fig. 3.2a.
Solution

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 3.2
When the unit load is placed a variable distance x from A, Fig. 3.2b, the reaction as
a function of x can be determined from
x
 M ( B )  0  A .10  1( 10  x )  0  A
y y  1
10
( 0  x  10 )

This line is plotted in Fig. 3.2c, and please yourselves draw the influence line for By.
b. Example 2
Construct the influence line for the vertical reaction at B of the beam in Fig. 3.3a.
Solution
Applying the moment equation about A, in Fig. 3.3b,
x
 M ( A )  0  B .5  1.x  0  B
y y  ( 0  x  10 )
5

69
The influence line is plotted in Fig. 3.3c, and please yourselves draw the influence
line for Ay.

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 3.3
c. Example 3
Construct the influence line for the shear at point C of the beam in Fig. 3.4a.
Solution
Here two equations have to be determined since there are two segments for the
influence line due to the discontinuity of shear at C, Fig. 3.4c. These equations are
plotted in Fig. 3.4b.

70
 (a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 3.4
d. Example 4
Construct the influence line for the moment at point C of the beam in Fig. 3.5a.
Solution

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 3.5
71
The two line segments for the influence line can be determined using along with the
method of sections shown in Fig. 3.5c. These equations when plotted yield the
influence line shown in Fig. 3.5b.

UNIT 2
INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS
Since beams (or girders) often form the main load-carrying elements of a floor
system or bridge deck, it is important to be able to construct the influence lines for
the reactions, shear, or moment at any specified point in a beam.
Loadings: Once the influence line for a function (reaction, shear, or moment) has
been constructed, it will then be possible to position the live loads on the beam which
will produce the maximum value of the function. Two types of loadings will now be
considered.
Concentrated Force: Since the numerical values of a function for an influence line
are determined using a dimensionless unit load, then for any concentrated force F
acting on the beam at any position x, the value of the function can be found by
multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at the position x by the magnitude of
F. For example, consider the influence line for the reaction at A for the beam AB,

Fig. 3.6. If the unit load is at x  2 L , the reaction at A is Ay  2 as indicated from the
1 1

influence line. Hence, if the force F lb is at this same point, the reaction is Ay  2 .F
1

lb. Of course, this same value can also be determined by statics. Obviously, the
maximum influence caused by F occurs when it is placed on the beam at the same
location as the peak of the influence line - in this case at x  0, where the reaction

would be Ay  1.F lb.

72
 Fig. 3.6
Uniform Load: Consider a portion of a beam subjected to a uniform load w0 , Fig.

3.7. As shown, each dx segment of this load creates a concentrated force of dF  w0 dx

on the beam. If dF is located at x, where the beam’s influence-line ordinate for some
function (reaction, shear, moment) is y, then the value of the function is dF .y  w0 dx.y
. The effect of all the concentrated forces dF is determined by integrating over the

entire length of the beam, that is, 

w0 ydx  w0  ydx  ydx is equivalent
. Also, since to
the area under the influence line, then, in general, the value of a function caused by
a uniform distributed load is simply the area under the influence line for the function
multiplied by the intensity of the uniform load. For example, in the case of a

uniformly loaded beam shown in Fig. 3.8, the reaction Ay can be determined from

the influence line as Ay  area.w0  2 1.L.w0  2 w0 L . This value can of course also be
1 1

determined from statics.

73
 Fig. 3.7

Fig. 3.8
Examples:
Some application examples are presented as below.
Example 1
Construct the influence line for the shear at point C of the beam in Fig. 3.9a.
Solution
Based on the method of sections as shown in Fig. 3.9 c, we have:
VC   81 x;( 0  x  4m )
and VC  1  8 x;( 4m  x  12m ) . These equations are plotted in
1

Fig. 3.9b.

74
 (a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 3.9
Example 2
Construct the influence line for the moment at point C of the beam in Fig. 3.10a.
Solution
From Fig. 3.10c verify that
M C  21 x;( 0  x  4m )
and M C  4  2 x;( 4m  x  12 ) . These equations are plotted in
1

Fig. 3.10b.

(a) (b)

75
 (c)
Fig. 3.10
Example 3
Determine the maximum positive shear that can be developed at point C in the beam
shown in Fig. 3.11a due to a concentrated moving load of 4000 lb and a uniform
moving load of 2000 lb/ft (Fig. 3.11b).
Solution
The influence line for the shear at C has been established in Example 3 of Unit 1 and
is shown in Fig. 3.11c.
Concentrated Force: The maximum positive shear at C will occur when the 4000-

lb force is located at x  2.5 ft , since this is the positive peak of the influence line.
The ordinate of this peak is+0.75; so that VC  0.75( 4000lb )  3000lb .
Uniform Load: The uniform moving load creates the maximum positive influence

for VC when the load acts on the beam between x  2.5 ft and x  10 ft , since within

this region the influence line has a positive area. The magnitude of VC due to this

loading is VC  2 ( 10 ft  2.5 ft )( 0.75 )( 2000lb / ft )  5625lb .

1

Total Maximum Shear at C: VC  3000lb  5625lb  8625lb .

max

Notice that once the positions of the loads have been established using the influence
max
line, Fig. 3.11, this value of VC can also be determined using statics and the method
of sections. Show that this is the case.

76
 (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.11
Example 4
The frame structure shown in Fig. 3.12 is used to support a hoist for transferring
loads for storage at points underneath it. It is anticipated that the load on the dolly is
3 kN and the beam CB has a mass of 24 kg/m. Assume the dolly has negligible size
and can travel the entire length of the beam. Also, assume A is a pin and B is a roller.
Determine the maximum vertical support reactions at A and B and the maximum
moment in the beam at D.

Fig. 3.12
Solution
Maximum Reaction at A: We first draw the influence line for Ay, Fig. 3.13a.
Specifically, when a unit load is at A, the reaction at A is 1 as shown. The ordinate
at C, is 1.33. Here the maximum value for Ay occurs when the dolly is at C. Since
the dead load (beam weight) must be placed over the entire length of the beam, we

77
have: Aymax  3000( 1.33 )  24( 9.81) 21 ( 4 )( 1.33 )  4630N  4.63kN
Maximum Reaction at B: The influence line (or beam) takes the shape shown in
Fig. 3.13b. The values at C and B are determined by statics. Here the dolly must be
at B. Thus: Bymax  3000( 1)  24( 9.81) 21 ( 3 )( 1)  24( 9.81)  21 ( 1)( 0.333 )  3310N  3.31kN
Maximum Moment at D: The influence line has the shape shown in Fig. 3.13c. The
values at C and D are determined from statics. Here:
M Dmax  3000( 0.75 )  24( 9.81) 21 ( 1)( 0.5 )  24( 9.81)  21 ( 3 )( 0.75 )  2460Nm  2.46kNm

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 3.13

78
UNIT 3
QUALITATIVE INFLUENCE LINES
In 1886, Heinrich Müller-Breslau developed a technique for rapidly constructing the
shape of an influence line. Referred to as the Müller Breslau principle, it states that
the influence line for a function (reaction, shear, or moment) is to the same scale as
the deflected shape of the beam when the beam is acted upon by the function. In
order to draw the deflected shape properly, the capacity of the beam to resist the
applied function must be removed so the beam can deflect when the function is
applied. For example, consider the beam in Fig. 3.14a. If the shape of the influence
line for the vertical reaction at A is to be determined, the pin is first replaced by a
roller guide as shown in Fig. 3.14b. A roller guide is necessary since the beam must
still resist a horizontal force at A but no vertical force. When the positive (upward)
force Ay is then applied at A, the beam deflects to the dashed position, which
represents the general shape of the influence line for Fig. 3.14c. (Numerical values
for this specific case have been calculated in Example 1, Unit 1.) If the shape of the
influence line for the shear at C is to be determined, Fig. 3.15a, the connection at C
may be symbolized by a roller guide as shown in Fig. 3.15b. This device will resist
a moment and axial force but no shear. Applying a positive shear force VC to the
beam at C and allowing the beam to deflect to the dashed position, we find the
influence-line shape as shown in Fig. 3.15c. Finally, if the shape of the influence
line for the moment at C, Fig. 3.16a, is to be determined, an internal hinge or pin is
placed at C, since this connection resists axial and shear forces but cannot resist a
moment, Fig. 3.16b. Applying positive moments MC to the beam, the beam then
deflects to the dashed position, which is the shape of the influence line, Fig. 3.16c.

79
 (a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 3.14
The proof of the Müller-Breslau principle can be established using the principle of
virtual work. Recall that work is the product of either a linear displacement and
force in the direction of the displacement or a rotational displacement and moment
in the direction of the displacement. If a rigid body (beam) is in equilibrium, the sum
of all the forces and moments on it must be equal to zero. Consequently, if the body
is given an imaginary or virtual displacement, the work done by all these forces and
couple moments must also be equal to zero. Consider, for example, the simply
supported beam shown in Fig. 3.17a, which is subjected to a unit load placed at an
arbitrary point along its length. If the beam is given a virtual (or imaginary)
displacement  y at the support A, Fig. 3.17b, then only the support reaction Ay and

80
the unit load do virtual work. Specifically, Ay does positive work Ay  y and the unit

load does negative work, 1 y . (The support at B does not move and therefore the
'

force at B does no work.) Since the beam is in equilibrium and therefore does not

actually move, the virtual work sums to zero, i.e., Ay y  1 y'  0 .

Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.16

Fig. 3.17

81
If  y is set equal to 1, then Ay   y . In other words, the value of Ay represents the
'

ordinate of the influence line at the position of the unit load. Since this value is
equivalent to the displacement  y at the position of the unit load, it shows that the
'

shape of the influence line for the reaction at A has been established. This proves the
Müller-Breslau principle for reactions.
In the same manner, if the beam is sectioned at C, and the beam undergoes a virtual
displacement  y at this point, Fig. 3.17c, then only the internal shear at C and the

unit load do work. Thus, the virtual work equation is VC y  1 y  0 .

'

Again, if  y  1 , then VC   y and the shape of the influence line for the shear at C
'

has been established.

Lastly, assume a hinge or pin is introduced into the beam at point C, Fig. 3.17. If a
virtual rotation is introduced at the pin, virtual work will be done only by the internal

moment and the unit load. So M C  1 y  0 , then set   1 , it is seen that M C   y
' '

which indicates that the deflected beam has the same shape as the influence line for
the internal moment at point C (see Fig. 3.16).
Obviously, the Müller-Breslau principle provides a quick method for establishing
the shape of the influence line. Once this is known, the ordinates at the peaks can be
determined by using the basic method discussed in Unit 1. Also, by simply knowing
the general shape of the influence line, it is possible to locate the live load on the
beam and then determine the maximum value of the function by using statics.
Example 1 presented as below illustrates this technique.
Example 1
Determine the maximum positive moment that can be developed at point D in the
beam shown in Fig. 3.18a due to a concentrated moving load of 4000 lb, a uniform
moving load of 300 lb/ft, and a beam weight of 200 lb/ft.

82
Solution
A hinge is placed at D and positive moments MD are applied to the beam. The
deflected shape and corresponding influence line are shown in Fig. 3.18b.
Immediately one recognizes that the concentrated moving load of 4000 lb creates a
maximum positive moment at D when it is placed at D, i.e., the peak of the influence
line. Also, the uniform moving load of 300 lb/ft must extend from C to E in order to
cover the region where the area of the influence line is positive. Finally, the uniform
weight of 200 lb/ft acts over the entire length of the beam. The loading is shown on
the beam in Fig. 3.18c. Knowing the position of the loads, we can now determine
the maximum moment at D using statics. In Fig. 3.18d the reactions on BE have been
computed. Sectioning the beam at D and using segment DE, Fig. 3.18e, we have:
 M( D )  0;M D  5000( 5 )  4750( 10 )  22500lb. ft  22.5k. ft

This problem can also be worked by using numerical values for the influence line as
in Unit 1. Actually, by inspection of Fig. 3.18b, only the peak value h at D must be
determined. This requires placing a unit load on the beam at D in Fig. 3.18a and then
solving for the internal moment in the beam at D. Show that the value obtained is
h  3.33 . By proportional triangles h / ( 10  5 )  3.33 / ( 15  10 ) , or h'  3.33 . Hence,
'

with the loading on the beam as in Fig. 3.18c, using the areas and peak values of the
influence line, Fig. 3.18b, we have:
M D  500[ 21 ( 25  10 )( 3.33 )]  4000( 3.33 )  200[ 21 ( 10 )( 3.33 )]  22500lb. ft  22.5k. ft

83
Fig. 3.18
84
UNIT 4
INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSSSES
Trusses are often used as primary load-carrying elements for bridges. Hence, for
design it is important to be able to construct the influence lines for each of its
members. As shown in Fig. 3.19, the loading on the bridge deck is transmitted to
stringers, which in turn transmit the loading to floor beams and then to the joints
along the bottom cord of the truss. Since the truss members are affected only by the
joint loading, we can therefore obtain the ordinate values of the influence line for a
member by loading each joint along the deck with a unit load and then use the
method of joints or the method of sections to calculate the force in the member. The
data can be arranged in tabular form, listing “unit load at joint” versus “force in
member.” As a convention, if the member force is tensile it is considered a positive
value; if it is compressive it is negative. The influence line for the member is
constructed by plotting the data and drawing straight lines between the points.

Fig. 3.19

85
The following examples illustrate the method of construction.
Example 1
Draw the influence line for the force in member GB of the bridge truss shown in Fig.
3.20a.
Solution

Fig. 3.20
Tabulate Values. Here each successive joint at the bottom cord is loaded with a unit
load and the force in member GB is calculated using the method of sections, Fig.
3.20b. For example, placing the unit load at x = 6 m (joint B), the support reaction at
E is calculated first, Fig. 3.20a, then passing a section through HG, GB, BC and
isolating the right segment, the force in GB is determined, Fig. 3.20c. In the same
manner, determine the other values listed in the table.
Influence Line. Plotting the tabular data and connecting the points yields the
influence line for member GB, Fig. 3.20d. Since the influence line extends over the
entire span of the truss, member GB is referred to as a primary member. This means
86
GB is subjected to a force regardless of where the bridge deck (roadway) is loaded,
except, of course, at x = 8 m. The point of zero force, is determined by similar
triangles between x = 6 m and x = 12 m, that is, (0.354 + 0.707)/(12 – 6)= 0.354/x’,
x’ = 2 m, so x = 6 + 2 = 8 m.
Example 2
Draw the influence line for the force in member CG of the bridge truss shown in Fig.
3.21a.

Fig. 3.21
Solution
Tabulate Values: A table of unit-load position at the joints of the bottom cord versus
the force in member CG is shown in Fig. 3.21b. These values are easily obtained by
isolating joint C, Fig. 3.21c. Here it is seen that CG is a zero-force member unless
the unit load is applied at joint C, in which case FCG  1( T ).

87
Influence Line: Plotting the tabular data and connecting the points yields the
influence line for member CG as shown in Fig. 3.21d. In particular, notice that when
the unit load is at x = 9 m, the force in member CG is FCG  0.5. This situation requires
the unit load to be placed on the bridge deck between the joints. The transference of
this load from the deck to the truss is shown in Fig. 3.21e. From this one can see that

indeed FCG  0.5 by analyzing the equilibrium of joint C, Fig. 3.21f. Since the
influence line for CG does not extend over the entire span of the truss, Fig. 3.21d,
member CG is referred to as a secondary member.
Example 3
In order to determine the maximum force in each member of the Warren truss, shown
in the photo (Fig. 3.22), we must first draw the influence lines for each of its
members. If we consider a similar truss as shown in Fig. 3.23a, determine the largest
force that can be developed in member BC due to a moving force of 25 k and a
moving distributed load of 0.6 k/ft. The loading is applied at the top cord.

Fig. 3.22
Solution
Tabulate Values: A table of unit-load position x at the joints along the top cord
versus the force in member BC is shown in Fig. 3.23b. The method of sections can
be used for the calculations. For example, when the unit load is at joint I (x = 20 ft),

88
Fig. 3.23a, the reaction Ey is determined first (Ey = 0.25). Then the truss is sectioned
through BC, IC, and HI, and the right segment is isolated, Fig. 3.23c. One obtains
FBC by summing moments about point I, to eliminate FHI and FIC. In a similar manner
determine the other values in Fig. 3.23b.

(a) (b)

(d) (c)
Fig. 3.23
Influence Line: A plot of the tabular values yields the influence line, Fig. 3.23d. By
inspection, BC is a primary member. Why?
 M( I )  0; F BC ( 15 )  0.25( 60 )  0  FBC  1.00(T )
.
Concentrated Live Force: The largest force in member BC occurs when the moving

force of 25 k is placed at x = 20 ft. Thus, FBC  ( 1.00 )( 25 )  25.0k.

Distributed Live Load: The uniform live load must be placed over the entire deck
of the truss to create the largest tensile force in BC. Thus,
FBC  [ 21 ( 80 )( 1.00 )]0.6  24.0k.

Total Maximum Force: FBC  25.0k  24.0k  49.0k.

max

89