Unit 3 Flow Measurement

Process Instrumentation I
Introduction to flow measurement
• Flow measurement is essential in many industries such as the oil,
power, chemical, food, water, and waste treatment industries.
• These industries require the determination of the quantity of a fluid,
either gas, liquid, or steam, that passes through a check point, either
a closed conduit or an open channel, in their daily processing or
operating.
• The quantity to be determined may be volume flow rate, mass flow
rate, flow velocity, or other quantities related to the previous three.
• The instrument to conduct flow measurement is called flowmeter.

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Introduction to flow measurement
Units of Flow
• The units used to describe the flow measured can be of several types
depending on how the specific process needs the information.
• Solids: Normally expressed in weight rate like Tones/hour, Kg/minute etc.
• Liquid: Expressed both in weight rate and in volume rate.
• Examples: Tones/hour, Kg/minute, liters/hour, liters/minute, m3/hour etc.
• Gases: Expressed in volume rate at NTP (Natural Temperature (20°C) and
Pressure (760 mm Hg)) or STP (Standard (0°C) Temperature and Pressure
(760 mm Hg)) like m3/hour, Nm3/hour etc. Steam. Expressed in weight rate
like Tones/hour, Kg/minutes etc.
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Flow measurement terminologies:

• Specific Gravity: The specific gravity is the ratio between the density
of an object, and a reference substance.
• Density: It is defined as mass per unit volume.
ρ=m/V
• Viscosity: Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow of liquid.
• Viscosity is often referred to as the thickness of a fluid. You can think of water
(low viscosity) and honey (high viscosity).
• Compressibility: Compressibility is a measure of the relative volume
change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure change.

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Flow measurement terminologies:
Mass Flow rate and Volumetric Flow rate
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑔 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ; 𝑞𝑚 = ( , , )
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑚3 𝑙 𝑚3
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ; 𝑞𝑣 = ( , , )
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 ℎ
Effect of pressure and temperature on flow measurement.
• Gases are compressible and change its volume when placed under
pressure, are heated or are cooled. In gas flow measurement, the density
of the gas changes as pressure and temperature change. This change in
density can affect the accuracy of the measured flow rate if it is
uncompensated.
• Liquids are incompressible and does not change its volume when placed
under pressure, but change its volume when liquids are heated or cooled
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Equation of Continuity
• The equation of continuity is often expressed as
𝑸 = 𝑨 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• ⇒ if A decreases then v increases
• ⇒ if A increases then v decreases

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Bernoulli’s theorem
• BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE: An increase in
the speed of fluid flow results in a
decrease in the pressure. (In an ideal
fluid.)
• If friction losses are neglected and no
energy is added to, or taken from a
piping system, the total head, H, which
is the sum of the elevation head (𝜌𝑔ℎ),
the pressure head (P) and the velocity
1
head 𝜌𝑣 2 will be constant for any
2
point of fluid streamline.
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Bernoulli’s theorem
• Consider conservation of energy
Work done = kinetic energy + potential energy
∆𝑊 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈
• Now from pressure P=F/A, we have F=PA
• Therefore W=PAd
• So, the positive work done on our system by the water near point 1 will be 𝑊1 =
𝑃1 𝐴1 𝑑1 And the work done by the water near point 2 will be 𝑊2 = 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑑2
• But the terms A1d1 and A2d2 have to be equal since they represent the volumes
of the fluid displaced near point 1 and point 2.
𝑉 = 𝐴1𝑑1 = 𝐴2𝑑2
• Therefore work done will be
𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝛥𝐾 + 𝛥𝑈

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Bernoulli’s theorem
1
• Now we'll substitute in the formulas for kinetic energy 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
and gravitational potential energy 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ to get,
1 1
𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = ( 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑔ℎ2 ) − ( 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚1 𝑔ℎ1 )
2
2 2
• In this equation P1 and P2 represent the pressures of the fluid in
volumes 1 and 2 respectively. The variables v1 and v2 represent the
speeds of the fluid in volumes 1 and 2 respectively. And h1 (or y1) and
h2 (or y2) represent the height of the fluid in volumes 1 and 2
respectively.

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Bernoulli’s theorem
• But as fluid is incompressible, we can write 1 2 1 2
𝑚𝑣2 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑚𝑣1 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
m1=m2=m. 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 2 +
2
− 2 −
𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
1 2
1
= 𝑚𝑣2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
2 2 𝑚
• Now from definition of density, 𝜌 = 𝑉
1 2 1 2
1 1 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑣1 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑉 = ( 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 ) − ( 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 ) 2 2
2 2

1 1 1 2 1 2
𝑚𝑣2
2
+ 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑣1
2
+ 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2 2 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 =
𝑉
• And there it is, finally. This is Bernoulli's equation!
1 1 2
𝑚𝑣 2
+ 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑚𝑣1 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
2 2 2 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = −
𝑉 𝑉

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Turbulent and Laminar Flow
• If the velocity of fluid inside the pipe is small, streamlines will be in straight parallel lines.
As the velocity of fluid inside the pipe gradually increase, streamlines will continue to be
straight and parallel with the pipe wall until velocity is reached when the streamlines will
waver and suddenly break into diffused patterns. The velocity at which this occurs is
called "critical velocity". At velocities higher than "critical", the streamlines are
dispersed at random throughout the pipe.
• The regime of flow when velocity is lower than "critical" is called laminar flow (or
viscous or streamline flow). At laminar regime of flow the velocity is highest on the pipe
axis, and on the wall the velocity is equal to zero.
• When the velocity is greater than "critical", the regime of flow is turbulent. In turbulent
regime of flow there is irregular random motion of fluid particles in directions transverse
to the direction on main flow. Velocity change in turbulent flow is more uniform than in
laminar.
• Transitional Flow is type of flow, in which both types of flow may be present at different
points along the pipe line or the flow may switch between the laminar and turbulence.

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Turbulent and Laminar Flow

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What is Reynolds’s number?
• Osborne Reynolds states that the nature of flow in pipe, is depending on
the pipe diameter, the density and viscosity of the flowing fluid and the
velocity of the flow.
• Reynold’s number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to determine the
type of flow pattern as laminar or turbulent while flowing through a pipe.
Reynold’s number is defined by the ratio of inertial forces to that of viscous
forces. It is given by the following relation
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷/𝜇
• where, Re is the Reynold’s number, ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the
velocity of flow, D is the pipe diameter, μ is the viscosity of the fluid
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What is Reynolds’s number?
If Reynold’s number calculated is
• high (greater than 4000), then the flow through the pipe is said to
be turbulent.
• low (less than 2000), the flow is said to be laminar.

• Numerically, these are acceptable values, but generally, laminar and

turbulent flows are classified according to a range. Laminar flow falls
below Reynold’s number of 1100 and turbulent falls in a range greater
than 2200. For transitional flow, Reynolds number falls between 2000
an 4000.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Orifice
Orifice plate
• Principle of Operation: The flow rate is proportional to the square root of pressure
difference produced by the restrictions in pipe. These restrictions may be Orifice plate,
Flow nozzle, Venturi tube, Pitot tube or Target.
• The basic equation are given as
𝟐𝒈𝒉 𝟐𝒈𝒉 𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑽=𝑲 𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨 𝑾 = 𝑲𝑨
𝝆 𝝆 𝝆
• Where, V= velocity of fluid, Q= volume flow rate, W= mass flow rate, A= cross section
area of pipe, h= differential head pressure across the restriction element, g= acceleration
due to gravity, ρ= density of flowing fluid,
𝐶
𝐾= 4
= a constant
1−𝛽
• Where C= discharge coefficient
𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
β= diameter ratio = =
𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Orifice
Orifice plate
• Types of Orifice Plates
• The simplest form of orifice plate consists of a thin metal sheet,
having in it a square edged or a sharp edged or round edged circular
hole. There are four types of orifice plates namely
• Concentric
• Eccentric
• Segmental type.
• Quadrant Edge Plate
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Differential Flow sensing elements: Concentric
Orifice

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Differential Flow sensing elements:
Concentric Orifice
• The simplest design of orifice plate is the concentric orifice. This type of orifice
plate is manufactured by machining a precise, straight hole in the middle of a thin
metal plate.
• Looking at a side view of a concentric orifice plate reveals sharp edges (90o
corners) at the hole. A text label printed on the “paddle” of any orifice plate
customarily identifies the upstream side of that plate, but in the case of the
square-edged orifice plate it does not matter.
• It is also made from other materials such as nickel, monel, phosphor bronze, etc.
to withstand the corrosive effect of the fluid.
• The plate thickness at the orifice edge should not exceed any of the following:
• D/50
• d/8
• (D-d)/8
• Where d = the pipe internal diameter, D = the orifice diameter or bore

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Differential Flow sensing elements:
Concentric Orifice
Application:
• Used primarily for clean homogeneous liquids, gases, non-viscous
fluids.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Eccentric
Orifice

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Eccentric
Orifice
• Here the hole is located off-center to allow the undesired portions of the
fluid to pass through the orifice rather than build up on the upstream face.
• For gas flows, the hole should be offset downward, so any liquid droplets
or solid particles may easily pass through. For liquid flows, the hole should
be offset upward to allow gas bubbles to pass through and offset
downward to allow heavy solids to pass through.
• An alternative to offsetting or re-shaping the bore hole of an orifice plate is
to simply drill a small hole near the edge of the plate, flush with the inside
diameter of the pipe, allowing undesired substances to pass through the
plate rather than collect on the upstream side.
• If such a hole is oriented upward to pass vapor bubbles, it is called a vent
hole. If the hole is oriented downward to pass liquid droplets or solids, it is
called a drain hole.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Eccentric
Orifice
Application:
• Used for measurement of flow for fluids containing solids and slurries.
• It is also used for vapors and gases where condensation is present.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Segmental
Orifice

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Segmental
Orifice
• The second off-center orifice plate type is called the segmental orifice
plate, where the hole is not circular but rather just a segment of a
concentric circle.
• As with the eccentric orifice plate design, the segmental hole should
be offset downward in gas flow applications and either upward or
downward in liquid flow applications depending on the type of
undesired material(s) in the flow stream.
• Application:
• This type is used primarily for slurries or extremely dirty gases where the flow
may contain impurities heavier than the fluid.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Quadrant
Edge Orifice

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Quadrant
Edge Orifice
• This orifice plates employ non-square-edged holes for the purpose of improving
performance at low Reynolds number values, where the effects of fluid viscosity
are more apparent.
• It employs rounded- or conical-entrance holes in an effort to minimize the effects
of fluid viscosity.
• Experiments have shown that decreased Reynolds number in a venturi-type flow
element causes an increase in differential pressure due to the effects of friction
against the entrance cone walls.
• By manufacturing an orifice plate in such a way that the hole exhibits “venturi-
like” properties (i.e. a dull edge where the fast-moving fluid stream has more
contact with the plate), these two effects tend to cancel each other, resulting in
an orifice plate that maintains consistent accuracy at lower flow rates and/or
higher viscosities than the simple square-edged orifice.
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Differential Flow sensing elements: Quadrant
Edge Orifice
Application:
• Used for high viscous fluids such as heavy crude, syrups and slurries.
It is always recommended for flow where Reynolds number is less
than 10,000.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Orifice
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
• Orifices are small plates and easy to • Requires homogeneous fluid.
install/remove. • Requires single phase liquid.
• Offer very little pressure drop. • Causes a pressure drop in fluid.
• Orifice meter can be easily maintained. • Their accuracy is affected by density,
• Measures a wide range of flow rates. pressure and viscosity fluid.
• They have a simple construction. • Fluid viscosity limits measuring range.
• They have easily fitted between flanges. • Requires straight pipe runs to ensure
• They are most suitable for most gases and accuracy is maintained.
liquids. • Pipe line must be fully especially for liquid
• They are inexpensive. flow measurement.
• Around 65% of pressure drop can be • They have low range ability.
recovered.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: flow
nozzle

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Differential Flow sensing elements: flow
nozzle
Construction and Working:
• The flow nozzles are used for flow measurements at high fluid velocities and are
more rugged and more resistant to erosion than the sharp edged orifice plate.
• Basically, there are two types of flow nozzles, the long-radius flow nozzles and the
I.S.A. (International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations) flow
nozzle.
• A flow nozzle consists of a convergent inlet whose shape is a quarter ellipse, and
a cylindrical throat, as shown in Fig. 8.4.
• Differential pressure measurement taps are normally located one pipe diameter
upstream and one-half diameter downstream from the inlet faces of the nozzle.
• For a given diameter and a given differential pressure, it allows measurement of
flow rates almost 65% more than that of the orifice plate.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: flow
nozzle
• Flow nozzles are manufactured commonly from materials such as
stainless steel or chrome-moly steel.
• They are made commercially in various configurations, viz. flange
type, holding ring type, weld-in type, and throat type.
• Flow nozzles should be used at Reynolds numbers of 50,000 or above.
• However, data is available for Reynolds number down to 6,000; so it is
possible to use nozzles with more viscous fluids.
• Flow nozzles have very high coefficients of discharge, typically 0.99 or
greater, and a wide range of beta ratios of 0.2 to 0.8.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: flow
nozzle
• Advantages:
• Its permanent pressure loss is lower than that for an orifice plate.
• It is available in numerous materials.
• It is useful for fluids containing solids that settle.
• It is widely accepted for high-pressure and temperature steam flow.
• Disadvantages:
• Its cost is higher than orifice plate.
• It is limited to moderate pipe sizes.
• It requires more maintenance (t is necessary to remove a section of pipe to
inspect or install it.).

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Venturi
tube

• (a) long-form or classic venture tube

• (b) Eccentric form
• (c) rectangular form

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Venturi
tube
Construction:
• A venturi tube is used where permanent pressure loss is of prime importance,
and where maximum accuracy is desired in the measurement of high viscous
fluids.
• It consists of
• (i) a straight inlet section of the same diameter as the pipe in which the high pressure tap is
located,
• (ii) a converging conical inlet section in which the cross-section of the stream decreases and
the velocity head and decrease of pressure head,
• (iii) a cylindrical throat which provides for the low pressure tap location of the decreased
pressure in an area where flow velocity is neither increasing nor decreasing, and
• (iv) a diverging recovery cone in which velocity decreases and the decreased velocity head is
recovered as pressure head, as shown in Figure 1.
• The pressure taps are located one-quarter to one-half pipe diameter up-stream
of the inlet cone and at the middle of the throat section.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Venturi
tube
Working:
• The function of the different size cones is to produce differential pressure
inside the tube, which can be connected to the secondary pressure-
measuring device.
• This will measure the differential pressure produced by the tube. This
pressure difference can be calibrated in terms of flow rate.
• The venturi tube can be used to handle a fluid, which is handled by an
orifice plate, and fluids that contains some solids, because these venturi
tubes contain no sharp corners and do not project into the fluid stream.
• It can be also used to handle slurries and dirty liquids that build up around
other primary elements, if the pressure taps are protected from plugging.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Venturi
tube
Working:
• The venturi tubes are usually made of cast iron or steel, and are built
in several forms such as
• (i) long-form or classic venturi tube.
• (ii) short-form where the outlet cone is shortened,
• (iii) an eccentric form to minimize the built up of heavy material and a
• (iv) rectangular form used in air duct-work.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Venturi
tube
• Advantages:
• Less chances of getting clogged with sediments.
• co-efficient of discharge is high.
• Its behavior can be predicted perfectly.
• Can be installed vertically, horizontally and inclined.
• They are more accurate and can be used for a wide range of flows.
• Around 90% of pressure drop can be recovered.
• Disadvantages:
• They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be used.
• Higher initial cost, installation and maintenance.
• Require long laying length.
• Cannot be used in pipes below 7.5 cm diameter.
• Maintenance is not easy.
• Cannot be altered for measuring pressure beyond a maximum velocity.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Pitot tube

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Pitot tube
• Consider Fig. 1 which shows flow around a solid
body. When a solid body is held centrally and
stationary in a pipeline with a fluid streaming
down, due to the presence of the body, the fluid
while approaching the object starts losing its
velocity till directly in front of the body, where the
velocity is zero.
• This point is known as the stagnation point.
• As the kinetic head is lost by the fluid, it gains a
static head.
• By measuring the difference of pressure between
that at normal flow line and that at the stagnation
point, the velocity is found out.
• This principle is used in pitot tube sensors.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Pitot tube
Construction:
• The simplest Pitot tube consists of a tube with an impact opening of 3.125
mm to 6.35 mm diameter pointing towards the approaching fluid.
• This measures the stagnation pressure. An ordinary upstream tap can be
used for measuring the line pressure.
• A common industrial type of pitot tube consists of a cylindrical probe
inserted into the air stream, as shown in Fig. 2.
• Fluid flow velocity at the upstream face of the probe is reduced
substantially to zero.
• Velocity head is converted to impact pressure, which is sensed through a
small hole in the upstream face of the probe.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Pitot tube
Working:
• A corresponding small hole in the side of the probe senses static pressure.
• A pressure instrument measures the differential pressure, which is
proportional to the square of the stream velocity in the vicinity of the
impact pressure sensing hole.
• The total pressure developed at the point where the flow is stagnated is
assumed to occur at the tip of a pitot tube or at a specific point on a bluff
body immersed in the stream.
• The pitot tube causes practically no pressure loss in the flow stream. It is
normally installed through a nipple in the side of the pipe.
• It is frequently installed through an isolation valve, so that it can be moved
back and forth across the stream to establish the profile of flow velocity.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Pitot tube
• Advantages:
• No pressure loss.
• It is relatively simple.
• It is readily adapted for flow measurements made in very large pipes or ducts.
• Disadvantages:
• Poor accuracy.
• Not suitable for dirty or sticky fluids and fluids containing solid particles.
• Sensitive to upstream disturbances.
• Applications
• Pitot tube is employed in a variety of flow measurement applications like air speed in racing
cars and Air Force fighter jets. In industries, pitot tubes are invariably put into use for
measurement of
• Air flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks, and
• Liquid flow in pipes, weirs, and open channels

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Target
flow meter

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Target
flow meter
Construction:
• The target meter measures flow by measuring the force on a target (or
disc), centered in the pipe at right angles to the direction of fluid flow.
• The fluid flow develops a force on the target which is proportional to the
square of the flow.
• A target meter consists of a target (or disc) which is mounted on a force bar
(or beam) passing through a flexible seal, and is positioned in the centre of
and perpendicular to the flowing stream.
• The device may be installed directly in the flow line, thus eliminating the
need for pressure-tap connections.

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Differential Flow sensing elements: Target
flow meter
Working:
• The flowing fluid while passing through the pipe, develops a force on the
target which is proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow).
• The force bar transmits this force to a force transducer (either electronic or
pneumatic) to measure the force which is proportional to the square of the
flow.
• The relationship between the flow rate and force is expressed by the
equation
𝑄=𝐾 𝐹
• Where Q= flow rate, K= a known coefficient, F= force
• The target meters are available in sizes from 12.5 to 203 mm pipe diameter,
and an accuracy of about ±1/2% with proper calibration. The targets (or
discs) are available with diameters of 0.6 to 0.8 times pipe diameter.
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Differential Flow sensing elements: Target
flow meter
Working:
• Another variation of target meter is also available which is known as drag
body flow meter, as shown in Fig. 8.15. It also uses the same operating
principle where the force is given by the equation,
𝐹 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 𝜌 (𝑉 2 /2𝑔)
• where, F=force, Cd= drag coefficient, A= sensor area, ρ = fluid density, V2/2g=
velocity head
• This force is detected and transmitted by a strain gauge bridge circuitry,
into a voltage signal which is proportional to the square of the flow rate.
• The accuracy of this device ranges from ±1/2 to ±3% depending on the
calibration used.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 46
Differential Flow sensing elements: Target
flow meter
• Advantages:
• They are useful for difficult measurements such as slurries, polymer bearing and sediment-bearing
materials corrosive mixtures, etc.
• They provide good accuracy when calibrated for specific streams.
• Their repeatability is good.
• They are good for relatively high temperatures and pressures.
• Disadvantages:
• In-line mounting required in these flowmeters.
• They have a limited calibration data.
• In case of target flowmeters no-flow conditions must exist for zeroing
• Applications:
• Target meters are applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids, vapours and gases.
They are especially useful for measuring heavy viscous, dirty or corrosive fluids. The force-balance
type (i.e. target type) can handle pressures upto 1,500 psig and temperatures to 398 °C, and the
strain gauge type (i.e. drag body type) can handle pressures upto 5000 psig and temperature to
315 °C.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 47

Variable area meter: Rotameter

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 48

Variable area meter: Rotameter
Principle:
• When fluid or gas flows through a taper tube containing a float, a pressure difference is created between
upper and lower side of the float. The float moves upwards by a force obtained by multiplying the pressure
differential by the maximum cross sectional area of the float.
• Due to taper tube, as the float moves upwards, the fluid passing area increases because of which the
differential pressure decreases. Upward movement of float stops when the differential pressure dynamically
balances the dead load.
• Tapering of metering tube is so designed that the vertical movement of the float becomes linearly
proportional to the rate of flow and the scale is provided to read the position of the float, thus it gives flow
rate indication.
• Based on Bernoulli's theorem, the principle mentioned above can be theoretically expressed as follows.
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 gh
• Where: Q = volumetric flow rate, e.g., gallons per minute
• k = a constant
• A = annular area between the float and the tube wall
• g = force of gravity
• h = pressure drop (head) across the float

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 49

Variable area meter: Rotameter
Construction:
• A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float'.
• Float is made of anodized aluminum or a ceramic and it moves freely inside the
glass tube.
• Floats will be pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down by gravity.
• The drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow speed
squared only.
• A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area increases flow speed and drag
force, so the float will be pushed upwards.
• However, as the inside of the rotameter is cone shaped (widens), the area around
the float through which the medium flows increases, the flow speed and drag
force decrease until there is mechanical equilibrium with the float's weight.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 50

Variable area meter: Rotameter
Working:
• The position of float inside the glass tube is measured using appropriate scale or tube itself have scale
printed on it. This height of the float can be calibrated in terms of the flow rate.
• Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common.
• The float may be diagonally grooved and partially colored so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This
shows if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is free.
• Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest part of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for
a cylinder. Some manufacturers use a different standard.
• The "float" must not float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise it will float to
the top even if there is no flow.
• The mechanical nature of the measuring principle provides a flow measurement device that does not
require any electrical power.
• If the tube is made of metal, the float position is transferred to an external indicator via a magnetic coupling.
This capability has considerably expanded the range of applications for the variable area flowmeter, since
the measurement can observed remotely from the process or used for automatic control.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 51

Variable area meter: Rotameter
• Advantages:
• Low cost
• Simplicity
• Low pressure drop
• Quite wide rangeability
• Linear output
• Disadvantages:
• Vertical mounting position
• Constant pressure drop
• Affected by density, temperature and viscosity changes
• Solids damage metering edge, otherwise slight contamination allowed
• Affected by pulsation and vibration
• Expensive when exotic materials are required

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 52

Magnetic flow meters

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 53

Magnetic flow meters
Principle:
• The operation of a magnetic flowmeter or mag meter is based upon Faraday's Law, which states
that the voltage induced across any conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic
field is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.
• Faraday's Formula
E =C x V x B x L
where: E = The voltage generated in a conductor, C= Constant,
V = The velocity of the conductor, B = The magnetic field strength
L = The length of the conductor
• To apply this principle to flow measurement with a magnetic flowmeter, it is necessary first to
state that the fluid being measured must be electrically conductive.
• As applied to the design of magnetic flowmeters, Faraday's Law indicates that signal voltage (E) is
dependent on the average liquid velocity (V) the magnetic field strength (B) and the length of the
conductor (L) (which in this instance is the distance between the electrodes).

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 54

Magnetic flow meters
Construction:
• The magnetic flowmeter consists of an electrically insulated or non conducting pipe such
as fiber glass.
• A pair of electrodes mounted opposite to each other and flush with the inside walls of its
pipe
• Magnetic coil mounted around the pipe so that a magnetic field is generated in a plane
mutually perpendicular to the axis of the flowmeter body and to the plane of electrodes.
• If a metal pipe is used, an electrically insulating liner is provided to the inside of the pipe.
A cut way view of the magnetic flow meter is shown in Fig. 1.
• Flowing liquid acts as the conductor, the length L is the distance between the electrodes
and equals to the pipe diameter.
• The magnetic coils may energized either by AC or DC voltage, but the recent
development is the pulse DC-type in which the magnetic coils are periodically energized.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 55

Magnetic flow meters
Working:
• As conductive fluid passes through the electrodes and magnetic field,
voltage is generated at tip of electrodes.
• Magnetic meters are available in sizes from 2.54 to 2540 mm in diameter,
with an accuracy range ±1/2 to ±2%. The rangeability of such meters may
be 30:1, however, normally accepted range is about 20:1. The
measurement of these meters are independent of viscosity, density,
temperature and pressure.
• In a new design of magnetic flowmeter, it can be inserted into the line
through couplings. It consists of electrodes mounted on each side of the
probe and magnetic coils which are also integral to the probe. The probe
can be mounted on pipes of any size, and can easily be mounted for open
channel flow.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 56

Magnetic flow meters
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
• They consist of no moving parts; hence there • It is relatively expensive.
are no restrictions to the flow.
• It works only with fluids which are adequate
• They are competent enough to measure electrical conductors.
intricate and corrosive liquids and slurries. • It is relatively heavy, especially in larger sizes.
• Moreover, they are capable of measuring • It must be full at all times.
forward as well as reverse flow with the same
accuracy. • It must be explosion proof when installed in
• Initial designs of electromagnetic flowmeters hazardous electrical areas.
involved high power consumption and zero
meter settings (i.e. no flow to initially set the
meter to zero). However, advanced designs
have eradicated all these problems. New
Pulse-type excitation techniques have
reduced power consumption to a great
extent. Zero meter settings are also no longer
mandatory

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 57

Ultrasonic flow meters

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 58

Ultrasonic flow meters
• The term ‘ultrasonic’ refers to the signals (usually are short bursts of
sine waves) whose frequency is above the range audible to human
hearing which is 20 to 20000 Hz.
Principle
• The ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle that the velocity
of sound in a fluid in motion is the resultant of the velocity of sound
in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity of the fluid itself.
• Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters
• Transit time flow meters
• Doppler Flow meter.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 59
Ultrasonic flow meters
Transit Time Flow Meters
• As the name implies these devices measure flow by measuring the time taken by an ultrasonic energy pulse to traverse a pipe section, both with
and against the flow of the liquid within the pipe. Fig. 1 shows a transit time flow meter.
• The time (tAB) for the ultrasonic energy to go from transducer A to transducer B is given by the expression:
tAB = L/(C + V. cos θ)
• The time (tBA) to go from B to A is given by
tBA = L/(C – V.cos θ)
where C is the speed of sound in the fluid, L is the acoustic path length in the fluid, θ is the angle of the path with respect to the pipe axis.
• By combining and simplifying, it can be shown that for V << C :
∆t = tBA – tAB = 2.L.V. cos θ/C
• It can be shown that :
V = C.∆t/2 L cos θ
• Since the cross sectional area of the pipe section or ‘spool pipe’ is known, the product of area and velocity will yield the volumetric flow rate.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 60

Ultrasonic flow meters
Doppler Flow Meters
• This type of flow meter is based on Doppler principle.
• The transmitter of a Doppler flow meter projects an ultrasonic beam at a frequency of
about 0.5 MHz into the flowing stream and deflects the reflected frequency.
• The difference between transmitted and reflected velocities is called the ‘beat
frequency’ and is related to the velocity of the reflecting surfaces (solid particles and gas
bubbles) in the process stream.
Principle of Operation
• As shown in Fig.3, an ultrasonic wave is projected at an angle through the pipe wall into
the liquid by a transmitting crystal in a transducer mounted outside the pipe.
• Part of the energy is reflected by bubbles or particles in the liquid and is returned
through the pipe wall to a receiving crystal.
• If the reflectors are travelling at the fluid velocity, the frequency of the reflected wave is
shifted according to the Doppler principle, in proportion to the flow velocity.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 61

Ultrasonic flow meters
• Combining Snell’s law and Doppler equation, the flow velocity can be
determined as follows if V << C.
V = ∆f.Ct/(2.fo.cos θ) = ∆f.K
where ∆f = Difference between transmitted and received frequency,
fo= frequency of transmission, Ct = Velocity of sound in the transducer.
θ = angle of the transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis,
• As shown in equation, velocity is a linear function of ∆f. Since the inside
diameter (ID) of the pipe is known, volumetric flow rate can be measured
as a function of V and square of ID

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 62

Ultrasonic flow meters
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
• Ultrasonic meters are made up of no moving parts. • Still problematic for liquid and gas measurements
• They experience no pressure loss. • Sound beam must traverse a representative cross
section, therefore flow profile dependent. Long
• They endow with maintenance-free operation. It is inlet and outlet sections required
a key advantage as compared to conventional
mechanical meters such as positive displacement • Errors due to deposits
meters, turbines etc.
• Transit time meters require clean liquids
• Furthermore, Ultrasonic flowmeters are
consistently more accurate and reliable than a lot • Doppler meters only for slight contamination or
of other metering systems. few gas bubbles
• With the emergence of 3-beam ultrasonic, all other • Doppler meters affected by sound velocity changes
flowmeters like mass, vortex, positive due to temperature, density and concentration
displacement and turbine flowmeters which are • Unsuitable for heavily contaminated liquids
used to measure non-conductive fluids, have been
successfully replaced by ultrasonic meters. • Gas bubbles cause errors

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 63

Ultrasonic flow meters
Applications
• Ultrasonic flowmeters are perfect for wastewater applications or any
other dirty liquid which is conductive or water based.
• Ultrasonic flowmeters normally does not work with distilled water or
drinking water. Aerations would be needed in the clean liquid
applications.
• Ultrasonic flowmeters are also best suited for applications where low
pressure drop, chemical compatibility, and low maintenance are
involved

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 64

Turbine flow meter.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 65

Turbine flow meter.
Principle:
• The turbine flowmeter is used for the measurement of liquid, gas and
very low flow rates. It works on the basic principle of turbine.
Construction:
• It consists of a multi-bladed rotor (turbine wheel) which is mounted
at right angles to the axis of the flowing liquid, as shown in Fig. 1.
• The rotor is supported by ball or sleeve bearings on a shaft which is
retained in the flowmeter housing by a shaft-support section. The
rotor is free to rotate about its axis.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 66

Turbine flow meter.
• Working:
• The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades (rotor), imparting a force
to the blade surface which causes the rotation of the rotor.
• The speed of rotor is directly proportional to the fluid velocity, and hence
to volumetric flow rate when it is at a steady rotational speed.
• The speed of rotation is monitored in most of the meters by a magnetic
pickup coil, which is fitted to the outside of the meter housing.
• The magnetic-pickup coil consists of a permanent magnet with coil
windings which is mounted in close proximity to the rotor but internal to
the fluid channel.
• As each rotor blade passes the magnetic-pickup coil, it generate a voltage
pulse which is a measure of the flow rate, and the total number of pulses
give a measure of the total flow.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 67
Turbine flow meter.
• The electrical voltage pulses can be totalled; subtracted and
manipulated by digital techniques so that a zero error characteristic
of digital handling is provided from the pulse generator to the final
read out.
• The K factor (i e, the number of pulses generated per gallon of flow) is
given as
𝑇𝑘 𝑓
𝐾=
𝑄
• where, K = pulses per volume unit, Tk =a time constant in min, Q =a
volumetric flow rate in gpm and f= frequency in Hz
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 68
Turbine flow meter.
Advantages:
• No external power supply for Rotating vane and Woltman meters
• Turbine flowmeters suitable for cryogenic liquids
• Turbine flowmeters usable at extreme temperatures and pressures
Disadvantages:
• Limited choice of materials
• Only for low viscosities
• Moving parts, wear
• Sensitive to contamination
• Axial flow totalizers are flow profile sensitive
• Inlet and outlet sections required (not for rotating vane meters)
• Affected by overloading and quick changes at high differential pressure, danger of over speeding
• Vibration sensitive

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 69

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 70

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)
Principle:
• It works on the principle of thermal conductivity.
Construction:
• Thermal flowmeters are very popular for the measurement of
unsteady flow of gases, and can be used to measure flow rate in
terms of mass, which is a very desirable feature, especially on gas
service. There are two types of thermal flowmeters:
1. Heat Transfer Flowmeters
2. Hot-Wire Flow meters

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 71

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)
Heat Transfer Flowmeters
• This type of flowmeter measures the rise in the temperature of the fluid
after a known amount of heat has been added to it. Its theory is based
upon the specific heat equation which is given as,
𝑄 = 𝑊𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Where Q= heat transfer,
W= mass flow rate of fluid
Cp= Specific heat of the fluid
T1 = initial temperature of fluid after heat has been transferred
T2 = final temperature of fluid after heating the fluid.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 72

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
• A schematic diagram of a heat transfer flowmeter is shown in Fig. 8.16 (a), which consists of an
electric immersion heater for the heating of flowing fluid.
• Two thermocouples (or resistance thermometers) TI and T2 are placed at each side of the heater
as in Fig. 8.16(a).
• The thermocouple TI measures the temperature of fluid before it is heated, while the
thermocouple T2 measures the temperature so after.
• The power supply to the heater equals the heat transferred to the fluid, i e. Q, and is measured by
a wattmeter. Thus by measuring the values of Q, TI and T2 the flow rate W of liquid is determined
from the above equation.
• This type of flowmeter has disadvantages in that the temperature sensor and the heater are
directly placed into the fluid stream, and thus, they are easily damaged by corrosion and erosion.
• Furthermore, large input power is required to measure high flow rates. These disadvantages are
overcome by mounting the heater, and upstream and downstream temperature sensors (TI and
T2) on the outside of the piping. But it results in non-linear response.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 73

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)
Hot-Wire Flow meters
• This type of flowmeter measures the effect of the flowing fluid on a hot body.
• A hot-wire flowmeter consists of two thermocouples, A and B, connected in series to form a
thermopile.
• A third thermocouple C is placed in the output circuit of the thermopile, as shown in Fig. 8.16(b).
The thermopile is heated by passing an alternating current to it.
• The alternating current does not pass through the third thermocouple and it is therefore not
electrically heated.
• The whole assembly is placed into the fluid (usually gas) stream whose flow rate is to be
determined. The fluid (gas) cools the heated thermopile by convection, and since the input power
to the thermopile is held constant, the thermopile attains an equilibrium temperature and
produces an emf that is a function of the temperature of the gas, velocity of the gas, and its
density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity.
• The third thermocouple (unheated) attains the ambient temperature of the gas, generating an
emf that is proportional to the gas temperature and which cancels the effect of the ambient gas
temperature on the output signal of the heated thermopile.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 74

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)
• The output voltage signal of this type of instrument is given by the
equation.
𝐶
•𝐸= 1/2
2 𝜋𝐾𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝑑𝑉 +𝐾
• Where E= voltage generated, C= instrument constant, K= thermal
conductivity of fluid, Cp= specific heat of fluid, d= diameter of heated
thermocouple wire, V=velocity of fluid and 𝜌 = density of the flowing
fluid
• It can be designed to work with pressure upto 1200 psig (8.3 MPa).

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 75

Thermal flow meter (Mass Flow Meter)
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
• Thermal flow meters have no moving parts, • Gas mass meter use is limited to clean, non
which reduces maintenance and permits the abrasive fluids
use in demanding application areas, including
saturated gas. • Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to
measurement inaccuracy
• Gas mass meters calculate mass flow rather • Thermal properties must be known: variation
than volumetric flow and do not require from calibrated values can cause inaccuracies
temperature or pressure correction, which
means there is no additional expense for the • Relatively high initial cost
purchase and installation of additional
equipment.
• Thermal flowmeters provide excellent
accuracy and repeatability over a wide range
of flow rates.
• Thermal mass flow meters can measure flow
in large pipes.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 76

Vortex flow meter

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 77

Vortex flow meter
• Currently, there are three types of vortex flowmeters commercially
available.
1. Swirlmeters
2. Vortex shedding meter
3. Fluidic meter

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 78

Vortex flow meter
Swirlmeters:
Principle:
• They operates on the principle of vortex precession
Construction:
• It is a digital volumetric device which has no moving parts. It gives an output in the form of pulses
whose frequency is proportional to fluid flow rate.
• Figure 1 shows the construction of a swirlmeter. It consists of a fixed set of swirl blades, usually
made of stainless steel, which introduce a spinning or swirling motion to the fluid at the inlet.
• At the downstream of the swirl blades, there is a venturi-like contraction and expansion of the
flow passage.
• A temperature sensor (e.g. thermistor) is placed at the downstream to the blades which is heated
by a constant electric current.
• At the exit of the meter, deswirl blades are fixed to straighten out the flow leaving the meter, as
shown in figure. Its purpose is to isolate the meter from downstream piping effects.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 79

Vortex flow meter
Working:
• As the fluid passes through the fixed set of swirl blades at the inlet, a swirling (or
spinning) motion is imparted to it.
• In the area where expansion occurs, the swirling flow precedes or oscillates at a
frequency proportional to the fluid.
• This procession of the fluid causes variations in temperature and resistance of the
thermistor (sensor).
• The amount of heat extracted from the thermistor is dependent upon the fluid velocity.
• Consequently, each high velocity vortex passed the thermistor, changes the resistance
and, since a constant current is applied, the resistance changes is converted into voltage
pulses which are amplified, filtered and transformed into constant amplitude high level
pulses of square waveform.
• The frequency of the pulses are measured by an electronic counter which gives the flow
rate of fluid.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 80

Vortex flow meter
Vorter Shedding Flowmeters:
Principle:
• The operation of the vortex shedding flowmeter is based on the
phenomenon known as vortex shedding which occurs when a gas or
liquid flows around a non-stream lined (or blunt) object known as
sluff body.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 81

Vortex flow meter
• Construction:
• When a fluid flows past an obstacle, boundary layers of slow moving fluid
are formed along the outer surfaces of the obstacle and the flow is unable
to follow contours of the obstacle on its downstream side.
• Thus the flow layers are separated from the surface of the object, and a
low pressure area is formed behind the object which causes the separated
layers to get detached from the main stream of the fluid and roll
themselves into eddies or vortices in the low pressure area, as shown Fig.
11.18.
• Each eddy on vortex first grows and gets detached or shed from alternate
sides of the object. The frequency at which the vortices are formed is
directly proportional to the fluid velocity
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 82
Vortex flow meter
Working:
• As a vortex is shed from one side of the bluff body the fluid velocity on that
side increases and the pressure decreases, and at the same time the
velocity of the opposite side decreases and pressure increases, thus
causing a net pressure change across the body.
• As the next vortex is shed from the opposite side of the bluff body, the
entire effect is reversed. Therefore, the pressure of velocity and
distribution in and around the bluff body changes at the same frequency as
the vortex shedding frequency.
• A flow sensitive detector senses the changes in pressure of velocity, which
can be either a heated thermistor or a spherical magnetic shuttle.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 83

Vortex flow meter
Advantages:
• No moving parts
• Rugged construction
• Suitable for liquids, gases and steam
• Easily sterilized
• Unaffected by pressure, temperature and density changes
• Linear relationship between flow rate and measured value
Disadvantages:
• Inlet and outlet sections required
• Minimum Reynolds number required

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 84

Mass flow meter
• Mass meters measure the mass flow rate directly.
• Thermal Flowmeter
• The thermal mass flowmeter operates independent of density, pressure, and viscosity. Thermal meters use a heated sensing
element isolated from the fluid flow path where the flow stream conducts heat from the sensing element. The conducted heat is
directly proportional to the mass flow rate and the temperature difference is calculated to mass flow.
• The accuracy of the thermal mass flow device depends on the calibrations reliability of the actual process and variations in the
temperature, pressure, flow rate, heat capacity and viscosity of the fluid.
• Coriolis Flowmeter
• Direct mass measurement sets Coriolis flowmeters apart from other technologies. Mass measurement is not sensitive to changes
in pressure, temperature, viscosity and density. With the ability to measure liquids, slurries and gases, Coriolis flowmeters are
universal meters.
• Coriolis Mass Flowmeter uses the Coriolis effect to measure the amount of mass moving through the element. The fluid to be
measured runs through a U-shaped tube that is caused to vibrate in an angular harmonic oscillation. Due to the Coriolis forces, the
tubes will deform and an additional vibration component will be added to the oscillation. This additional component causes a
phase shift on some places of the tubes which can be measured with sensors.
• The Coriolis flow meters are in general very accurate, better than +/-0,1% with an turndown rate more than 100:1. The Coriolis
meter can also be used to measure the fluids density.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 85

Mass flow meter
Advantages of Mass Flow Measurement
• Thermal flow meters have no moving parts, which reduces maintenance
and permits the use in demanding application areas, including saturated
gas.
• Gas mass meters calculate mass flow rather than volumetric flow and do
not require temperature or pressure correction, which means there is no
additional expense for the purchase and installation of additional
equipment.
• Thermal flowmeters provide excellent accuracy and repeatability over a
wide range of flow rates.
• Thermal mass flow meters can measure flow in large pipes.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 86

Positive displacement meters:
• Positive displacement type flow meters are generally used for accurate
measurement of steady flow. These flow meters are working under the
following principle.
Principle:
• Positive displacement meters split the flow of liquids into separate
known volumes based on the physical dimensions of the meter, and
count them or totalize them.
• They are mechanical meters in that one or more moving parts, located in
the flow stream, physically separate the fluid into increments.
• The general accuracy of these meters is dependent upon minimizing
clearances between the moving and stationary parts and maximizing the
length of the flowing path. For this reason, accuracy tends to increase as
size increases.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 87

Positive displacement meters:
Reciprocating Piston Meter (Piston cylinder type)
• Construction and Working:
• The reciprocating piston meter is the oldest of the positive displacement meters. It is widely used
in petroleum industry.
• It consists of a cast iron cylinder fitted with a piston, as shown in Fig. 11.24. Two slide valves are
attached at the inlet and outlet ports.
• The fluid to be measured enters through the inlet forcing the piston to the left until the cylinder is
full and piston is in its extreme left position.
• At this point, an external leakage causes both slide valves to move and thus the liquid enters the
left cylinder forcing the piston to its extreme right position.
• When the cylinder becomes full, the slide valves again move and the cycle is repeated. The
external arm of the slide valve drives a counter which provides a total of the fluid quantity that
has passed through the meter.
• Instead of one piston, a number of pistons operating on a center crank are generally incorporated
with this type of meter The accuracy of these meters are from +0.2 to +0.3%.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 88

Positive displacement meters:

Piston Check valve

Single-acting

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 89

Positive-Displacement Pumps:
Piston pump:
Reciprocating Pumps

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 90

Positive displacement meters:
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
• Its accuracy is high. • Their cost is relatively high.
• Construction materials are not • They are subject to leakage.
limited in reciprocating piston • Problems are created by dirty
meters. fluids.
• Suitable for measuring media with • It requires high maintenance cost.
high viscosity
• Operates in both flow directions • Volume totalizer
(forward and reverse) • For liquids only
• No flow profile effects, thus no • High pressure drop
inlet and outlet sections required • Moving parts, wear
• No external power supply

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 91

Positive displacement meters:
Nutating disc
• Construction:
• Nutating disc meter is used extensively for residential water service
measurement, but can be used in many industrial applications.
• It consists of a radially allotted disc mounted on a ball bearing, as shown in
Fig. 11.21.
• An axial pin is attached with the ball which moves in a circular motion and
drives a cam that is connected to a gear train and a totalizing register.
• The disc is fitted into the metering chamber which divides it into four
volumes, two above the disc on the inlet side and two below the disc on
the outlet side.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 92

Positive displacement meters:
Nutating disc
• As the liquid flows through the meter, pressure drops from inlet to
outlet causes a wobbling or nutating motion to the disc, and for each
nutation of the disc a specific volume of liquid equal to the metering
chamber minus the volume of the disc assembly, passes through the
meter.
• The movements of the disc is transmitted by the gear train to the
totalizing register.
• This type of flowmeter has an accuracy of +1 to +2%. It is built for
small pipe sizes, and its maximum capacity is about 1500 gpm.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 93
Positive displacement meters:
Advantages:
• Its cost is relatively low
• It is applicable to automatic liquid batching system.
• It can make use of moderate pressure loss.
• It is available in several materials of construction.
Disadvantages:
• Clean fluids only should be measured.
• It is limited as to pipe size and capacity
• It has fair accuracy

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 94

Positive displacement meters:
Rotating vane.
• Construction and Working:
• The rotating vane meter is most widely used in the petroleum industry and
is used for such services as gasoline and crude oil metering.
• It consists of a cylindrical rotor that revolves on ball bearings around a
central shaft and stationary cam, as shown in Fig. 11.23.
• As liquid flows against an extended blade, the resulting rotation of the
rotor and the action of the cam cause the blades to act as cam followers,
creating measuring chambers that accurately measure fluid through-put.
• Capillary action of the metered fluid effectively seals the blades to form the
measuring cavities.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 95

Positive displacement meters:
Rotating vane.
• These types of meters are quite accurate and are available in sizes up to
400 mm.
• It has a normal accuracy of +0.1%, an accuracy of +0.05% has been
achieved in the larger meters.
• These meters are built from a variety of materials of construction, and can
be used for fairly high temperature and pressure services whose upper
limits are approximately 177 °C and 1000 psig (6.9 MPa) respectively.
• These meters can be used to measure the flow ranges from a few gallons
per minute of low viscosity clean liquids to 17,500 gallons per minute
(66.5) litres/minute).

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 96

Positive displacement meters:
Rotating vane.
Advantages:
• It allows low pressure loss.
• It is applicable to a wide variety of gas and liquid fluids including viscous
materials.
• It has relatively high temperature and pressure ratings.
• It is available in numerous construction materials.
• It has a good accuracy.
Disadvantages:
• It tends to be bulky and heavy in larger sizes.
• Its cost is relatively high.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 97
Positive displacement meters:

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 Vane pump

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Positive-Displacement Pumps:
Rotary Pumps: Vane gear

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Positive-Displacement Pumps:
Rotary Pumps: Vane gear

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 101

Flow Switch Types
• Flow switches are categorized either by the flowing media or by the
measurement type. This means that the types can be combined, such as
volumetric liquid flow switch.
• Gas flow switches are for media such as air and steam. They are commonly
used in HVAC applications.
• Liquid flow switches are for media including water, lubricants, chemicals,
and slurries. They are used in a wide variety of industry applications.
• Volumetric flow switches are used to measure the flow of liquids or gases.
This measurement is done based on volume per unit time (i.e. cubic feet
per minute).
• Velocity flow switches are used to measure the flow rate of moving media.
This measurement is done in terms of velocity (i.e. feet per minute).

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 102

Flow switches
• Flow switches are used to determine if the flow rate is above or below a certain
flow rate. This value (the set point) can be fixed or adjustable.
• When the set point is reached, the response can be the actuation of an electric
circuit.
• When the flow switch is actuated, it will stay in that condition until the flow rate
moves back from the set point by some amount.
• The operating principle is based on a free floating magnetic piston which
responds only to the motion of fluids within the line, not to static or system
pressures.
• In the presence of fluid flow, controlled movement of the piston actuates an
external sealed reed switch.
• This switch can be used to actuate audible or visual alarms, as well as relays, or
other controls. The piston’s movement by the fluid flow can be seen in the
animation.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 103
Flow switches

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 104

Flow transmitters (Pneumatic and Electronic).
Pneumatic Differential FLOW transmitter
• It works on the principle of force balance by measuring differential
pressure generated by orifice and converts differential pressure into flow.
• In the case of pressure instruments, pressure is easily converted into force
by acting on the surface area of a sensing element such as a diaphragm or
a bellows.
• A balancing force may be generated to exactly cancel the process
pressure’s force, making a force-balance pressure instrument.
• Like the laboratory balance scale, an industrial instrument built on the
principle of balancing a sensed quantity with an adjustable quantity will be
inherently linear, which is a tremendous advantage for measurement
purposes.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 105

Flow transmitters

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 106

Flow transmitters (Pneumatic and Electronic).
• Here, we see a diagram of a force-balance pneumatic pressure transmitter,
balancing a sensed differential pressure with an adjustable air pressure which
becomes a pneumatic output signal:
• Force-Balance Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter balancing a sensed differential
pressure transmitter with an adjustable air pressure which becomes a pneumatic
output signal.
• Differential pressure is sensed by a liquid-filled diaphragm “capsule,” which
transmits force to a “force bar.” If the force bar moves out of position due to this
applied force, a highly sensitive “baffle” and “nozzle” mechanism senses it and
causes a pneumatic amplifier (called a “relay”) to send a different amount of air
pressure to a bellows unit.
• The bellows presses against the “range bar” which pivots to counter-act the initial
motion of the force bar. When the system returns to equilibrium, the air pressure
inside the bellows will be a direct, linear representation of the process fluid
pressure applied to the diaphragm capsule.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 107
Flow transmitters
Electronic Differential Flow transmitter.
• It works on the principle of force balance by measuring differential pressure
generated by orifice and converts differential pressure into flow.
• With minor modifications to the design of this pressure transmitter, we may
convert it from pneumatic to electronic force-balancing:
• Differential pressure is sensed by the same type of liquid-filled diaphragm
capsule, which transmits force to the force bar.
• If the force bar moves out of position due to this applied force, a highly sensitive
electromagnetic sensor detects it and causes an electronic amplifier to send a
different amount of electric current to a force coil.
• The force coil presses against the range bar which pivots to counteract the initial
motion of the force bar. When the system returns to equilibrium, the mill ampere
current through the force coil will be a direct, linear representation of the process
fluid pressure applied to the diaphragm capsule.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 108
Flow transmitters
Electronic Differential Flow transmitter.
• Based on the input pressure, diaphragm of the capsule deflects. This deflection is converted into an electrical signal. This is
normally done by the sensors. The commonly used sensors are (a) Strain Gauge (b) Differential Capacitance (c) Vibrating wire. The
sensor output is proportional to the applied pressure.
• The electrical signal generated at the lower chamber by the sensor is in the range of milli-volt only. This signal is to be amplified to
0-5V or 0-10V range or is to be converted to 4-20mA for onward transmission to a remote instrument. This upper housing is the
Transmitter portion of the DP Transmitter which houses the Electronic Unit.
• Strain Gauge Type Capacitance type:

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 109

State need of square root extractor in flow
measurement.
• In a differential pressure flow meter (orifice + DP Cell), pressure is measured before the
orifice and after it.
• This pressure difference is used to measure the flow of the liquid in the pipe. If the
pressure difference is more, the flow is more and vice a versa.
• The problem with this method is that the pressure difference is not proportional to the
flow so if the velocity (flow) of the liquid increases, the pressure increases but at a
different rate.
𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨
𝝆
• Normally, output of the flow transmitter will be in square root scale, where the control
valve operate into a linear scale.
• In order to change the square root output into a linear scale we introduce square root
extractor which will give the linear output to operate the final control element.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 110

State need of square root extractor in flow
measurement.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 111

Considerations When Selecting a Flow Meter
1. Purpose & Application of the Flow Meter
• What exactly do you want the flow meter to accomplish? What are the requirements of the job at
hand? What is the application type?
• In addition to these questions, it's also important to consider the category of flow measurement
(liquids & gases), as that will help to define the type of sensor best suited in your respective
environment. Similarly, identifying the place, or environment, where the flow meter will be used
can help identify the size and range of the flow meter that will be necessary to achieve required
accuracy.
2. Flow Profile of the Flow Meter
• What are the flow rates and characteristics of the liquids or gases for your application? Have you
identified minimum and maximum flow rates for your application? What do you know about the
performance qualities of the specific flow meter?
• Profile of the flow determines the momentum and other behaviors of fluid. Newtonian or non-
Newtonian fluids have different viscosity, flow rate, pressure and velocity that will contribute to
flowrates. It is important to be aware of these attributes to select the correct flow meter
according to your specific requirements.

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Considerations When Selecting a Flow Meter
3. Flow Meter Performance & Capabilities
• What size flow meter will be sufficient for your needs? Does the flow meter material or construction have
any impact on the fluids of gases that you are moving? What about the pressure and temperature of the
fluids and gas - how will that affect the performance of the flow meter or accuracy of measurement?
• Behavior of the flow meter is prominently defined by the Reynolds number. It is a dimensionless quantity
which defines the relationship between momentum and velocity of fluid that can determine whether the
flow or stream is laminar or turbulent. This flow meter attribute, along with the flow meter chemical
compatibility (material), fluid pressure and temperature will help identify the performance capabilities and
accuracy of the flow meter for the specific liquid or gas application.
4. External Factors
• What real life conditions may contribute to equipment downtime? Are their local environment or
government regulations that might affect your operations? What about vendor selection?
• There are a host of environmental conditions and factors beyond your control that may affect everything
from flow meter selection to operations. In addition, factors tied to the installation of the flow meter and
the general lifespan of the equipment might also weigh in on the flow meter decision making process.
02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 113
Considerations When Selecting a Flow Meter
5. Budget
• What is the cost of the flow meter and related equipment? What about
installation and maintenance costs? What are the costs of operations?
Have you considered the expected lifespan of the flow meter or
depreciation values?
• You should plan to assign costs to the installation, preventative
maintenance, repair, and running costs of a particular flow meter during
the decision making process.
Flow Meters - Select the Right Instrument for Your Specific Application
• Various parameters influence maintenance requirements and the life span
of flow meters. Keeping in mind all parameters will direct buyers and users
to select the best suited flow meter for their respective application.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 114

Assignment
• State importance of flow measurement in process • Explain working principle of Flow nozzle.
industries.
• List merits & demerits of flow nozzle.
• Enlist different type of flow and define any one.
• Draw figure of venture tube.
• Give difference between turbulent and laminar flow.
• Explain construction of venture tube.
• List units of Flow Measurements.
• Write merits of venture tube.
• What do you mean by reynold’s number?
• Define Stagnation point. Explain working principle of pitot
• State Bernoulli’s theorem with equation. tube.
• List types of Orifice plate. • Explain construction of Pitot tube.
• Explain detail construction for Orifice plate. • Explain target flow meter.
• Write merits and Demerits of Orifice Plate. • Draw figure of target and magnetic flow meter.
• List applications of orifice plate. • Classify differential flow sensing element and explain any
one.
• Explain pressure profile through orifice plate with
diagram.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 115

Assignment
• Why rotameter is called variable area meter? • Explain ultrasonic flow meter in detail with diagram.
• Explain working principle of Rotameter. • List merits and demerits of ultrasonic flowmeter.
• Explain construction and working of rotameter. • Write types of positive displacement meter.
• List out merits and demerits of rotameter • List various types of flow switch.
• Explain working principle of Magnetic Flowmeter • State need of square root extractor in flow measurement.
• List out application of magnetic and mass flow meter • Draw diagram of Mass flow meter.
• Write merits and Demerits of Ultrasonic Flow meter. • Explain pneumatic type flow transmitter.
• Explain Working principle of turbine flowmeter. • Discussed about factor consideration for flow meter
selection.
• List merits & demerits of turbine flow meter.
• Draw diagram of vortex flow meter.
• Explain working principle of vortex flowmeter.
• Explain working of vortex flow meter.

02-Apr-18 UNIT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT 116

Thanks