Frying of Foods: Vassiliki Oreopoulou, Magdalini Krokida, and Dimitris Marinos-Kouris

Frying of Foods
52 Vassiliki Oreopoulou, Magdalini Krokida,

and Dimitris Marinos-Kouris
CONTENTS
52.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1225

52.2 The Frying Process............................................................................................................................. 1227
52.2.1 Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................................ 1228
52.2.2 Mass Transfer........................................................................................................................ 1230
52.3 Properties of Oils Related to Frying .................................................................................................. 1232
52.3.1 Thermal Properties ................................................................................................................ 1232
52.3.1.1 Specific Heat ......................................................................................................... 1232
52.3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity ........................................................................................... 1232
52.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ......................................................................................... 1233
52.3.2.1 Vapor Pressure...................................................................................................... 1233
52.3.2.2 Smoke, Fire, and Flash Points.............................................................................. 1233
52.3.2.3 Viscosity................................................................................................................ 1234
52.3.2.4 Surface Tension .................................................................................................... 1234
52.3.2.5 Color..................................................................................................................... 1235
52.3.2.6 Alteration of Frying Oil........................................................................................ 1235
52.4 Industrial Frying Systems .................................................................................................................. 1236
52.4.1 Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 1236
52.4.1.1 Oil Tank................................................................................................................ 1237
52.4.1.2 Conveying System................................................................................................. 1237
52.4.1.3 Heating Units........................................................................................................ 1238
52.4.1.4 Exhaust System..................................................................................................... 1239
52.4.1.5 Recirculation of the Oil and Oil Turnover ........................................................... 1239
52.4.1.6 Filtration Systems ................................................................................................. 1239
52.4.2 Process Temperature and Time ............................................................................................. 1240
52.4.3 Fryer Operation and Control ................................................................................................ 1241
52.4.4 Frying Medium ..................................................................................................................... 1241
52.5 Product Quality and Shelf Life .......................................................................................................... 1242
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................................... 1243
References .................................................................................................................................................... 1244
52.1 INTRODUCTION interior should be consumed shortly after prepar-

ation, or can be stored for a relatively short time
Frying is defined as a process of cooking and drying under chilling conditions or for a longer time under
through contact with hot oil. It is intended to make freezing conditions. Most of these foods—with the
food more palatable and tasteful, but at the same time exception of par-fried goods—are not produced on a
makes food safer and provides a preservative effect commercial scale for distribution to retail stores, but
that results from thermal destruction of microorgan- are important in catering applications. Foods that are
isms and enzymes, and a reduction in water activity at dried throughout during frying have a shelf life up to
the surface or throughout the food. The shelf life of several months, which is mostly limited by quality
fried products is mostly determined by the moisture deterioration of the absorbed oil and development of
content after frying. Products that retain a moist a rancid odor and flavor. Storage stability of these
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

products may be increased by using packaging mater- other ingredients, as well as various flavors are used in
ials with adequate barrier properties. the fried products.
The term ‘‘industrial frying’’ is used to describe Doughnuts and other fried bakery goods like pies
high-volume deep-fat frying conducted usually as a probably exceed in tonnage, in the United States, any
primary business. Most industrial fryers are continu- other type of sweet dough product [41]. They have
ous and highly automated with capacities up to some intermediate or high moisture content and can be
tons per hour. Large batch frying systems are also preserved for a short period before consumption.
included in the industrial frying classification. Fried Doughnuts are usually prepared from yeast-leavened
foods have a unique flavor—texture combination that dough, where honey or flavor ingredients may be
makes them highly acceptable by the consumers. added. The familiar doughnut shape predominates,
Therefore, a wide range of products has been devel- but other shapes, e.g., twists, sticks, honey buns,
oped and new products are continuously introduced and rolls are also produced through sheeting and
in the market. The main categories of fried products cutting or extrusion processes. After frying they may
are presented in Table 52.1. be coated with powdered sugar, glazes, icings, and
Potato chips, extruded snacks, nuts, and nut toppings or filled with jellies, fruits, and jam. Fried
mixtures are dried throughout during frying, there- pies present special problems during frying due to the
fore, they have a low moisture and can be stored for a filling they contain. The crust must be thoroughly
long time at ambient temperature. Potato chips cooked to a medium brown color and the filling
(crisps) are the original savory snack food and the must be cooked to an optimal point before significant
leading one in the United States and Canada [48,52]. steam evolution occurs in the interior of the pie that
In addition to the traditional thin, salted slices of may lead to bursting.
potatoes, chips of different sizes, shapes, and flavors Par-fried (or prefried) french fries is one of the
are currently produced in several countries [58,69]. most important products of potato processing indus-
Also, fabricated chips are prepared from dough con- tries [33]. They have high moisture content and are
taining mainly dried potatoes, gelatinized starch, and stored under freezing until the finish frying. The in-
gluten [33]. Moreover, corn and tortilla chips are dustrial process includes a water-blanching step, prior
becoming popular in many parts of the world [48,69]. to frying, in order to obtain a more uniform color and
Extruded fried snack foods consist another major improved texture of the fried product, to reduce fat
produce of the food industry [69]. As extruder tech- absorption by gelatinizing the surface layer of starch
nology has developed, the sizes and shapes of ex- and to reduce frying time. The use of additives during
truded products have become almost limitless. blanching can further improve color and texture [33].
Having a milled cereal, e.g., corn, wheat, oats and Coating with hydrocolloids may also be used to re-
rice, potatoes, or legumes as starting material, the duce oil absorption and to improve texture [34]. Other
extruded snacks are flavored with various ingredients par-fried foods include, e.g., fish sticks and pieces of
to provide many common flavors, e.g., pork, cheese, chicken. Most of them are also stored under freezing
and pizza, and new ones are also continuously intro- until the finish frying, but storage under chilling and
duced in the market [1,69]. Nuts and nut-based consumption in a few days may be also practiced.
snacks are very popular all over the world. Nut mix- Some of these products are covered with some batter
tures containing rice, legumes, vegetables, and many before prefrying. This coating results in the formation
TABLE 52.1
The Main Classes of Fried Products
Class Products Fat Content (%)
(Potato) Chips Potato chips of various shapes and flavors, tortilla chips, and corn chips 25–40
Extruded snacks Snacks of various shapes, flavors and texture, prepared with cereal, potato, or legume flour 20–40
Nuts Nuts or nut mixtures with legumes and flavorings 5–6a
Bakery products Doughnuts and fried pies 10–25
Par-fried frozen food French fries, fish, chicken, and pancakes 5–7
Food-service products Chicken, fish, meat, and potatoes Broad range
a
Exchanged with natural oil.

of a crust with the desirable color and texture [2,56]. 1. Initial heating—It begins with immersion of
Par-frying aims to decrease the necessary frying time the food in the frying oil and lasts until the
at home or restaurant, while at the same time reduces temperature at the surface of the food becomes
the load of microorganisms in food, offering a pre- equivalent to the elevated boiling point of the
servative effect. liquid. The duration of this stage does not ex-
The foods mentioned so far are the main products ceed a few seconds. During this short period the
of industrial frying operations. Several other foods mode of heat transfer between the oil and the
like chicken, fish, meat, and potatoes are fried in food is natural convection and no vaporization
large quantities in fast food, catering enterprises, of water occurs from the surface of the food.
and restaurants. The fried-chicken-on-the-bone is a 2. Surface boiling—Water vaporization signals
typical example of a product with annual sales of the beginning of this stage. The bubbles formed
few billion dollars [60]. cause turbulence in the oil surrounding the
food and, therefore, the mode of heat transfer
to the food surface changes from natural to
52.2 THE FRYING PROCESS forced convection. Crust starts to form at the
surface of the food.
When food is placed in hot oil, a complex heat-and- 3. Falling rate—During this stage, that resembles
mass-transfer phenomenon takes place. Heat is the falling-rate period observed in food dehy-
transferred by convection from the surrounding oil dration processes, more internal moisture
to the surface of the food and by conduction within leaves the food, the internal core temperature
the solid food. Water is vaporized and escapes from rises to the boiling point of the liquid, and
the surface of the food to the oil, while oil penetrates the crust layer increases in thickness. After a
into the food. Some food components may also dif- sufficient time and more removal of moisture,
fuse and dissolve into the oil. As water vapor moves the vapor transfer at the surface decreases.
away, the surface begins to dry and crust is formed. 4. Bubble end point—If the frying process is
Additionally several physicochemical changes occur extended to a considerably long time, the rate
in food, e.g., starch gelatinization and protein de- of moisture removal diminishes due to effective
naturation. Also physicochemical changes take place decrease of moisture content, and no more bub-
in oil, e.g., oxidation reactions, hydrolytic cleavage, bles escape from the surface of the product. This
change of color, and viscosity. Dissolvement of food final stage is referred to as the bubble end point.
components into the oil may affect the rate of these
changes. Oil penetrates into the food at the dried region
Convective heat transfer at the surface of the food that has a porous structure, consisting of different-
is complicated due to vigorous movement of vapor sized capillaries. As more water leaves the food and
bubbles escaping from the food that cause a consid- the crust thickness increases, more oil is absorbed in
erable turbulence in the oil. Additionally vapor bub- the food. At the end of frying, when the food material
bles are entrapped under the bottom surface of the is removed from the oil bath, an oil layer remains at
food being fried and prevent efficient heat transfer to the surface of the food and oil from this layer is
that side of the food. Another problem is the accu- further absorbed into the pores of the material due
mulation of some food items at the top of the oil bath to capillary forces.
where oil foam is formed that presents a significantly Foods that retain a moist interior are not fried
different heat transfer coefficient. to the bubble endpoint stage, but it is essential for
As frying proceeds the amount of water vapor food safety that the thermal center has received
bubbles escaping from food decreases as a result of adequate heat to destroy microorganisms. This is
decrease in the remaining moisture in the material. particularly important for foods that are able to
The crust that is initially formed at the surface of the support pathogenic bacteria, like meat and fish
material moves towards inside and the temperature of products.
the dried regions rises above the boiling point of the There are two main methods of commercial fry-
water. The moist core of the material cannot exceed ing: (1) the deep-fat frying and (2) the swallow frying.
the boiling point of the liquid phase. Since the liquid In deep-fat frying or immersion frying, the food is
phase is water with some solutes, its boiling point is covered by the oil and all surfaces receive a similar
slightly elevated above the boiling point of water. heat treatment to produce a uniform color and ap-
Based on experimental observations Farkas [66] sug- pearance (Figure 52.1). Heat is transferred by convec-
gested that the frying process is composed of four tion to the surface of the food material and by
distinct stages: conduction to the interior of the food. Frying follows

the stages mentioned above and convective heat A model for heat transfer in chips, which are dried
transfer coefficient changes with bubble formation throughout frying, was developed by Moreira et al.
because of turbulence. Deep-fat frying is suitable for [48]. Since thickness of the chips was one order of
foods of all shapes, but irregularly shaped food tends magnitude smaller than the other dimensions, infinite
to entrain a greater volume of oil when it is removed slab geometry was considered, with negligible shrink-
from the fryer. The deep-fat frying is the method used age. The food was considered homogeneous during
almost exclusively by the food industry, to produce the frying process and a unique differential equation
snacks, potato chips, and several fried goods. was used to describe heat transfer through the chip
Shallow frying or contact frying is most suited to with a constant thermal diffusivity
foods that have a large surface/volume ratio. The food 2
@Q Q
is placed in the frying pan that contains a thin layer of ¼a (52:1)
oil and heat is transferred to the bottom surface of the @t @x2
food material mostly by conduction from the hot sur-
and with the boundary condition
face of the pan through the thin layer of oil (Figure
52.1). The thickness of the oil layer varies owing to @Q @Mw
irregularities in the surface of the food. This, together k jx¼xo ¼ h(Qx¼xo T) hfg Dr j (52:2)
@x @x x¼xo
with the escape of water vapor bubbles from the hot
surface of the food, causes temperature variations and where Q is the tortilla chip temperature (8C), t is the
produces the characteristic irregular browning of time (s), a is the thermal diffusivity (m2 s1), x is the
shallow-fried foods. Shallow frying has high surface variable distance across the thickness of the chip (m),
heat transfer coefficients, but not stable across the k is the thermal conductivity of the chip (W m1
entire surface of the food. 8C1), h is the convective heat transfer coefficient
(W m2 8C1), hfg is the latent heat of vaporization,
52.2.1 HEAT TRANSFER (kJ kg1), D is the mass diffusivity (m2 s1), r is the
density (kg m3), and Mw is the moisture content (%
Heat transfer has been studied in deep-fat frying of dry basis).
various foodstuffs. All the developed models consider Farkas et al. [19,20] studied heat transfer in larger
that only conductive heat transfer occurs inside the items of food, which retain a moist core after frying,
product. The liquid water is considered to move from e.g., french fries. They considered the food as a semi-
the inside of the product being fried to the evapor- infinite slab and the movement of the crust/core inter-
ation zone, leaving the product surface as a vapor. face as a moving boundary problem. The properties of
Therefore, the rate of water loss is accounted for, in the crust were considered to be uniquely different from
heat transfer models. The oil penetrates into the food those of the core and separate mathematical expressions
mainly during the cooling period after frying, as were developed to describe heat transfer in each region.
proved by many investigators, therefore, heat transfer The crust region was assumed to contain a negligible
due to oil migration in the product is considered amount of water and the conductive heat transfer coef-
negligible. ficients of each region were considered constant.
In core region
@2Q @Q @Q
Crust kII þ Nbx cpb ¼ («b rb cpb þ «s rs cps ) (52:3)
@x2 @x @t
In crust region
@Q @2Q @Q
(«g rg cpg þ «s rs cps ) ¼ kI 2 þ Ngx cpg (52:4)
@t @x @x
Oil
Metal
where kI, kII are the thermal conductivities in crust
Heat, Oil
and core regions, respectively (W m1 8C1), Q is the
temperature (8C), Nix is the flux of species i in x-
Moisture direction (kg m2 s1), cpi is the specific heat of spe-
(a) (b) cies i (J kg1 8C1), «i is the volume fraction of species
i (mi3mt3), ri is the density of species i (kg of i m3
i ),
FIGURE 52.1 Heat and mass transfer in: (a) shallow frying and subscripts b, g, and s refer to liquid water, water
and (b) deep-fat frying. vapor, and solid, respectively.

Several initial and boundary conditions were and (2) another for the following stages where bub-
considered, as well as, different values for the con- bling occurs. It is generally accepted that the convect-
vective heat transfer coefficient for free convection ive heat transfer coefficient depends on the type of
(250 W m2 K1) and convection when boiling exists shortening used for frying, its viscosity, and the tur-
(500 W m2 K1). Experimental results were in good bulence caused by water vapor bubbles released dur-
agreement with values of temperature predicted by the ing the process. In the stage of initial heating, when
model. The crust temperature raised quickly at the no vaporization of water occurs surface heat transfer
boiling point of water, remained for a short period is accomplished by natural convection. Using a metal
until the water present vaporized and raised subse- transducer, simulating the food being deep fried Cali-
quently much higher than the boiling point of water, fano and Calvelo [9] found that the convective heat
depending on the oil temperature. The crust/core inter- transfer coefficient ranged between 150 and 165 W
face remained at a constant temperature of 1028C after m2 K1 for temperatures of 50 to 1008C. Following
the crust was formed. The temperature profile in the the same method Miller et al. [46] determined the
core region remained unaffected by the oil temperature convective heat transfer coefficients for canola oil,
because of the presence of the boundary at the crust/ palm oil, corn oil, and soybean oil at 170, 180, and
core interface. The same results in potato strip frying 1908C and found that they ranged between 250 and
were observed by Pravisani and Calvelo [57], who 280 W m2 K1. Determination of the convective
found the boundary temperature equal to 1038C. heat transfer coefficient during frying was attempted
Vijayan and Singh [70] to predict heat transfer by Sahin et al. [64], who assumed a constant value
during frying of frozen foods developed a similar during the whole process. They used sunflower oil at
model. The model involves two moving boundaries, different frying temperatures and found that the con-
one between frozen and unfrozen regions and the vective heat transfer coefficient increased from 90 W
other between crust and core. m2 K1 at 1508C to 200 W m2 K1 at 1908C. The
For products that do not form a crust during dependence of heat transfer coefficient on the water
frying, e.g., sausages, a model considering the food loss rate of potato during frying was studied by Costa
material as homogeneous and isothermal throughout et al. [13]. They found that the convective heat trans-
frying was proposed by Dincer [15], and a new par- fer coefficient increased, following the increase of
ameter defined as frying coefficient was inserted to water loss, until complete drying of the potato surface
facilitate and accurately determine thermal diffusivity and then decreased until the end of frying. The max-
of the product, which was considered constant. imum values were up to two times greater than the
values obtained in the absence of frying, and ranged
@ 2 (Q T) 1 @(Q T) 1 @(Q T) (for sunflower oil) between 443 and 750 W m2 K1,
þ ¼ (52:5) depending on the oil temperature and product geom-
@r2 r @r a @t
etry. Higher values (30% on an average) were ob-
where Q is the food temperature (8C), T, is the oil served for potato chips, compared with french fries.
2
temperature (8C), a ¼ FR m2I
is the thermal diffusivity They also commented that when the water loss rate is
(m2 s1), F is the frying coefficient (s1), R is the very high, the bubbles near the product surface may
radius (m), and m is the root of the transcendental hinder the heat transfer. Hubart and Farkas [31] pre-
characteristic equation. sented values starting from 300 W m2 K1 before the
The sausages were considered as infinite cylinders beginning of bubbling, increasing to 1100 W m2 K1
and thermal diffusivity was calculated equal to 3.846 and then decreasing below 200 W m2 K1 after 900 s.
107 m2 s1. Constant thermal diffusivity and Fellows [21] reported values of 250 to 300 W m2 K1
homogeneity of the food were also the simplifying before bubbling and 800 to 1000 W m2 K1 during
assumptions necessary to develop a model to predict vigorous boiling. He also reported surface heat trans-
internal temperature profile in chicken pieces fried fer coefficients of 200 to 450 W m2 K1 during
under pressure [60]. For the chicken pieces a three- shallow frying.
dimensional heat transfer was considered and the Viscosity is another factor that affects the heat
predicted results were closer to experimental ones transfer coefficient between the oil and the food [46].
obtained at the center of the pieces, than those Viscosity increases with frying time at a very slow rate,
obtained near the boundaries. Better simulation was therefore, the oil has to be used for several hours
also obtained for more regularly shaped pieces. before any major difference is observed. The fresh oil
In the models described above, a constant con- has a higher convective heat transfer coefficient than
vective heat transfer coefficient was assumed during the used oil. Thus, the value for fresh soybean oil at
the hole frying process, or two independent values 1888C was found equal to 282 W m2 K1 compared
were considered: (1) one for the initial frying stage with 261 W m2 K1 for the used oil [45], while similar

values, i.e., 285 W m2 K1 for fresh oil compared the slice is removed from the frying medium as a
with 273 W m2 K1 for used one were obtained for result of a pressure drop, caused by the cooling of
soybean oil at 1908C [48]. It should be noted, however the product. Moreira et al. [50] measured the oil
that the increase of viscosity is accompanied by de- content on the surface and at the core of tortilla
crease in surface tension, which facilitates the contact chips during frying and cooling, and found that only
between the oil and the food and increases the rate of 20% of the total oil contained in the product was
heat transfer, according to Blumenthal [5]. absorbed inside the chip during frying, while it
Another parameter considered as constant in most amounted to 64% during cooling. Oil absorption is
models is thermal conductivity. In fact thermal con- affected by the porosity of the product. Porosity in-
ductivity decreases with frying time, as water is re- creases during frying and longer frying times resulted
moved from the product and oil, which has a lower in more uniform pore size distribution [35]. For
thermal conductivity than water, is absorbed. Thermal longer shelf life the moisture content of chips and
conductivity is also affected by other changes that may other products that are dried throughout during fry-
occur in the food, e.g., starch gelatinization. Results ing should be within 2 to 3%, and from the eco-
for tortilla chips fried in soybean oil at 1908C showed nomic point of view, their oil content should be as
that the thermal conductivity decreased from 0.23 to low as possible. Nutrition studies on fried products
0.09 W m1 K1[47]. Most of this change occurred are related to oil uptake.
during the first 10 to 15 s of frying when most of the Moreira et al. [49] observed that moisture loss and
water evaporated from the chips and almost all free oil absorption rates were faster during the first 15 s
starch granules gelatinized. Similarly, Sahin et al. [64] of frying of tortilla chips and became fairly constant
found a decrease in thermal conductivity with frying as frying continued. Oil absorption as a function of
time, which was greater at the beginning of frying and frying time was described by a first-order exponential
leveled off towards the end. They also found that, for equation
the same frying time, thermal conductivity decreased
as frying temperature increased. O(t) ¼ Oe ½1 exp (kt) (52:6)
Thermal diffusivity is also expected to change dur-
ing frying, depending up on the change of specific heat where Oe is the final oil content and k is the rate
and density of the product being fried, in addition to constant, with values varying from 0.223 to
the change in thermal conductivity. For example, for 0.330 s1. The increase of frying temperature from
tortilla chips the change was not significant as the 150 to 1908C increased the moisture loss rate; the oil
decrease in thermal conductivity was balanced by a absorption rate was not affected during the first 15 s,
decrease in specific heat and bulk density [47]. but the final oil content was higher for tortilla chips
fried at higher temperature [49,50]. On the contrary,
52.2.2 MASS TRANSFER according to Guillaumin [28] a temperature variation
between 150 and 1808C had no significant effect on oil
Dehydration in hot oil at temperatures between 160 absorption.
and 1808C is characterized by very high drying rates. Baumann and Escher [4] developed a correlation
This rapid drying is critical for ensuring favorable for the quantitative description of oil uptake between
structural and textural properties of the final product. frying time t (s), oil temperature T, initial dry matter
Dehydration in oil inevitably leads to a substantial content DMr, wet basis (kg/kg), and final moisture
uptake of oil on or into the potato chips. In the early content W, wet basis (kg/kg), while the thickness of
stages, surface water is lost by a combination of water the potato slices b (mm), was considered to be in-
droplets leaving the food surface and evaporation of versely related to the oil uptake, assuming that the
boiling water. Water loss is not uniform through the oil is deposited primarily on the surface of the slice. It
entire food slice. It occurs first on the edges and is expressed as
gradually evolves to the core. Crust formation is a
characteristic of fried foods and is closely linked to oil 1
penetration. A dry surface crust is formed and a F ¼ C1 þ C2 t þ C3 T þ C4 DMr þ C5 W þ C6 (52:7)
b
1038C isotherm evolves towards the center. It is a
complex process in which factors such as temperature where F is the fat content of chips, wet basis (kg/kg),
of the oil, food weight/frying-oil volume ratio, and C1 (kg/kg), C2 (kg/(kg s)), C3 (kg/(kg 8C)), C4
surface area/volume ratio, length of frying time, oil (kg/kg), C5 (kg/kg), and C6 (kg mm/kg) are con-
source, food characteristics, and industrial method stants.
used, are involved. Oil adsorption into the voids Reddy and Das [61] presented a model for the
created by the release of vapor occurs mostly when prediction of moisture M0 , and oil O content (wt %),

of chips that include time of frying t (s), oil tempera- frequency factor (g oil/g potato solids, min), k1 coef-
ture T (8C), and thickness of slice b (mm), as param- ficient (N1), k2 coefficient (g oil–g potato/g potato
eters. It is given by the regression equations solids–g water, min) and T is the temperature of
frying oil (K).
M 0 ¼ 192:42 0:426807t 0:795T þ 9:958b (52:8) Gamble et al. [26] came to the conclusion that oil
content is closely correlated to the square root of the
O ¼ 54:98 þ 0:21156t þ 0:398T 4:904b (52:9)
frying time. To a reasonable approximation the oil
Rice and Gamble [62] proposed a similar model that content was twice the square root of the frying time in
can be expressed as seconds. The oil content was not directly related to
frying temperature, but was more closely related to the
Ð remaining moisture present. An overall correlation of
M 2 ¼ 19:2t þ 40T 6036 (52:10)
all data independent of frying temperature produced a
Ð
where M is the moisture loss (% initial weight), t is direct relation between oil and moisture content (if not
the frying time (s), and T is the oil temperature (8C). mechanistically linked), which can be expressed as
Costa and Oliveira [14], assuming that the potato
slice consists of two compartments, proposed the fol- O ¼ 37:8 0:483M 0 (52:14)
lowing relationship for the kinetics of water loss dur-
and stands in the temperature range from 145 to
ing potato frying
1858C.
m Moreover, they proposed the following equations
¼ aeKc t (1 þ Kc t) þ (1 a)eKe t (1 þ Ke t) to correlate moisture and oil content with the frying
mo
(52:11) time t (s), and square root frying time:
where m is the moisture content at time t, mo is the initial M 0 ¼ 62:9 0:189t (52:15)
moisture content, Kc and Ke, are the rate constants of O ¼ 7:87 0:0888t (52:16)
the mass lumped capacity of the core and the edge, pffiffi
respectively, and a is the fraction of the total water M 0 ¼ 100 5:34 t (52:17)
contained in the core of the raw material. pffiffi
Kozempel et al. [36], proposed the use of Fick’s O ¼ 9:70 2:53 t (52:18)
law (for an infinite slab) for the estimation of the
moisture content of fried french fries, which depends Krokida et al. [37] presented the following kinetic
on the diffusion of water vapor in the material model for water loss during frying of french fries:
X Xe
M 8 ¼ exp (KX t) (52:19)
¼ Xo Xe
Mo p2

2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
where X is the potato moisture content (kg/kg db), in
e(Dp t=L ) þ e9(Dp t=L ) þ e25(Dp t=L ) þ
9 25 frying time t (min), Xo is the initial moisture content (kg/
(52:12) T KXT b KXd 1 C KXC
kg db), KX ¼ KoX 170 10 2 þ 100 is the rate
1
where M is the potato moisture, t is the residence time, constant of moisture content kinetics (min ), b is the
Mo is the initial moisture, L is the nominal thickness of sample size (mm), C is the concentration of hydrogen-
T XT b Xd 1 C XC
cut potato, and D ¼ Doe(E/RT) is the diffusion coef- ated oil in total oil (%), Xe ¼ Xoe 170 10 2 þ 100
ficient, which has to be calculated as a function of is the moisture content in equilibrium (kg/kg db), and
temperature due to rapid temperature change that the KoX, KXT, KXb, KXC, Xoe, XT, Xb, XC are parameters.
potato pieces undergo in the oil bath. It should be For the oil uptake they proposed the kinetic model,
noted that only the first term is significant.
They also develop the following equation for the Y ¼ Ye [1 exp (KY t)] (52:20)
estimation of oil absorption, assuming that it depends
on the moisture and texture of the potato pieces, where Y is the oil content of potato strips (kg/kg db),
T YT b Yd 1 C YC
Ye ¼ Yoe 170 10 2 þ 100 is the oil content at
dS (k1 TX ) T KYT
¼ ko e þ k2 (M) e(E=RT) (52:13) infinite process time (kg/kg db), KY ¼ KoY 170
dt b KYd 1 C KYC
10 2 þ 100 is the rate constant of oil uptake
where S is the concentration of oil (wt oil/wt potato), (min1), and Yoe, YT, Yb, YC, KoY, KYT, KYb, KYC are
t is the time (h), TX is the texture (N), ko is a parameters.

Oil content of tortilla chips was higher for higher According to values tabulated by Rahman [59]
initial moisture content [50]. specific heat of cottonseed oil varied from 2.176 kJ
The oil quality, especially its viscosity and surface kg1 K1 at 808C to 2.489 kJ kg1 K1 at 2208C, and
tension, affects the oil absorbed in the product. Viscos- that of soybean oil from 2.063 kJ kg1 K1 at 208C to
ity increases and surface tension decreases with 2.502 kJ kg1 K1 at 2208C. The results obtained
extended oil use due to the formation of polymers and by Kasprzycka-Guttman and Odzeniak (cited by
polar compounds, respectively, through degradation Rahman [59]) for various oils, in the range of 70 to
reactions. Consequently, absorption is greater if the 1408C, are presented in Table 52.2. Choi and Okos
oil is extensively used [28]. However, Moreira et al. (cited by Rahman [59]) proposed a general equation
[50] found that higher viscosity and lower surface ten- for specific heat of fats as a function of temperature,
sion caused an increased oil adherence on the surface of T, from 40 to 1508C:
the product, but not an increased final oil content.
Krokida et al. [38] studied the osmotic pretreat- cp ¼ 1:9842 þ 1:4733 103 T 4:8008 106 T 2
ment and came to the conclusion that it affects all the
quality attributes for the french fries. Both the Figure 52.2 presents the change in specific heat of
mass transfer phenomena (e.g., water loss and oil pure triglycerides and natural oils according to data
uptake) that take place during frying get less intense published by Formo [24] and Rahman [59].
due to the osmotic pretreatment before frying. Color
darkness takes place during osmotic dehydration and
browning reactions during frying are promoted 52.3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity
resulting in more dark and red colored fried product.
Salt treated samples have the most acceptable color. Thermal conductivity data for oils, fats, and deriva-
The structural properties are also affected by osmotic tives are very limited. They are poor conductors of
pretreatment, which can be an effective method to heat and the thermal conductivity values decrease
produce low-fat french fries. with temperature. For example, thermal conductivity
of olive oil is 0.1675 W m1 K1 at 198C and 0.1611
W m1 K1 at 718C [24]. Sligthly higher values, i.e.,
52.3 PROPERTIES OF OILS RELATED 0.1887 W m1 K1 at 5.68C and 0.1627 W m1 K1 at
TO FRYING 1008C, were presented by Polley et al. (cited by
Rahman [59]). The effect of temperature increase on
52.3.1 THERMAL PROPERTIES thermal conductivity of commercial fatty acids is
52.3.1.1 Specific Heat given in Table 52.3 [24]. Choi and Okos (cited by
Rahman [59]) proposed the following equation for
Oils, fats, and their derivatives such as fatty acids at thermal conductivity of fats as a function of tempera-
temperatures just above their melting points have spe- ture in degree Celcius, T, from 40 to 1508C:
cific heats of about 1.9 kJ kg1 K1 or somewhat higher.
Published data on the specific heats of fatty acids or k ¼ 0:181 2:76 103 T 1:77 107 T 2
triglycerides indicate that, in the liquid state, the specific
heat increases with fatty acid chain length and decreases
as fat becomes more unsaturated. In the solid state there TABLE 52.2
is little change in specific heat with chain length and a Specific Heat Correlation of Edible Oils
progressive increase with increase of the degree of un- as a Function of Temperature
saturation. In both solid and liquid states there is a
progressive increase in specific heat as temperature in- Edible Oil Equationa
creases [24]. For example, for simple and hydrogenated Olive Coi ¼ 1.9518T þ 0.0006T2 þ 6.2992T3
cottonseed oils the specific heat (kJ kg1 K1) as a Sunflower Coi ¼ 1.5951T þ 0.0097T2 0.0000T3
function of temperature in degree Celsius was found as: Soybean Coi ¼ 2.1339T 0.0034T2 þ 0.0000T3
simple oil (iodine value, 108.3): Rape Coi ¼ 1.9339T þ 0.0005T2 þ 0.0000T3
cp ¼ 1.934 þ 0.00255T for T: 15 to 608C Linen Coi ¼ 1.9460T þ 0.0022T2 4.3697T3
partially hydrogenated oil (iodine value, 59.5): Castor Coi ¼ 2.0676T þ 0.0035T2 0.0000T3
cp ¼ 1.989 þ 0.00230T for T: 40 to 708C Lard Coi ¼ 2.0849T 0.0043T2 þ 0.0000T3
highly hydrogenated oil (iodine value, 0.85): a
T in K.
cp ¼ 1.917 þ 0.00406T for T: 60 to 808C Source: From Rahman, S. 1995. Food Properties Handbook, CRC
Similar equations have been published by Formo [24] Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 327, 238–264. With permission.
for simple and hydrogenated peanut oil.

3
2.5
Specific heat (kJ/kg ⬚C)

Trilaurin
2
Trimyristine
Tripalmitin
1.5 Tristearin
Cottonseed oil
Soybean oil
1
0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature (⬚C)
FIGURE 52.2 Specific heat of common pure triglycerides and natural oils.
52.3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES physical properties of the oils, but also the sensorial
properties and nutritional value.
Fresh oils consist mainly (up to 98%) of triglycerides.
Characteristics permitting oil use for deep fat frying
52.3.2.1 Vapor Pressure
are high vapor pressure and resistance to decompos-
ition. Decomposition of oils during frying proceeds Vapor pressure, related to boiling point, is one of the
through thermal, oxidative, and hydrolytic reactions. most important characteristics for the application of
The first reactions result in the formation of various oils to frying processes. Triglycerides of long-chain
oxidized and polymerized products, while the latter in fatty acids have extremely low vapor pressure, which
free fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides. All these increases as the fatty acid chain length decreases.
substances cause an alteration of not only the Vegetable oils, consisting mainly of triglycerides
with long-chain fatty acids, have consequently very
low vapor pressure, e.g., 0.001 and 0.05 mm Hg at
254 and 3088C, respectively, for soybean and olive
TABLE 52.3 oil [24].
Thermal Conductivities of Commercial Fatty Acids Monoglycerides have considerably higher vapor
pressures, and fatty acids are even more volatile.
Acid Temperature (8C) Thermal Conductivity (W/m 8C)
Therefore, these products of hydrolytic cleavage are
Lauric 72.5 0.192 a source of smoke arising from used frying oil. The
90 0.185 vapor pressures or boiling points of some saturated
106 0.174 fatty acids are given in Table 52.4 [24]. The logarithm
148 0.138 of vapor pressure of fatty acids and typical synthetic
Oleic 72.5 0.188 triglycerides is a linear function of the reciprocal of
90 0.178
the absolute temperature [24]. The heat of vaporiza-
106 0.155
tion of fatty materials has been calculated from vapor
148 0.115
Palmitic 72.5 0.172
pressure data by means of the Clausius-Clapeyron
90 0.157 equation and amounts to 238 kJ kg1 for oleic and
106 0.138 stearic acids at atmospheric pressure and 209 kJ kg1
148 0.102 for soybean oil at 0.001 to 0.05 mm Hg [24].
Steatic 72.5 0.160
90 0.146 52.3.2.2 Smoke, Fire, and Flash Points
106 0.132
148 0.096 The smoke, fire, and flash points of a fatty material
are measures of its thermal stability when heated in

TABLE 52.4
Boiling Points of Saturated Fatty Acids
Pressure (mm) Boiling Point (8C)
Caproic Caprylic Capric Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic
1 61.7 87.5 110.3 130.2 149.2 167.4 183.6

2 71.9 97.9 121.1 141.8 161.1 179.0 195.9
4 82.8 109.1 132.7 154.1 173.9 192.2 209.2
8 94.6 121.3 145.5 167.4 187.6 206.1 224.1
16 107.3 134.6 159.4 181.8 202.4 221.5 240.0
32 120.8 149.2 174.6 197.4 218.3 238.4 257.1
64 136.0 165.3 191.3 214.6 236.3 257.1 276.8
128 152.5 183.3 209.8 234.3 257.3 278.7 299.7
256 171.5 203.0 230.6 256.6 281.5 303.6 324.8
512 192.5 225.6 254.9 282.5 309.0 332.6a 355.2a
760 205.8 239.7 270.0 298.9 326.2a 351.5a 376.1a
a
Values obtained by extrapolation.
contact with air. The smoke point is the temperature 52.3.2.4 Surface Tension
at which smoking is first detected in a laboratory
apparatus protected from drafts. The flash point is Fresh oils consist mainly of triglycerides and are im-
the temperature at which the volatile products are miscible with water, which is the main constituent of
evolved at a rate sufficient to be ignited, but not to all foods. The surface tension between oil and food
support combustion. The fire point is the temperature reduces by the action of polar compounds that are
at which the volatile products support continued formed through degradation reactions and leaching
combustion. of food materials into the oil during the frying pro-
Fatty acids are much more volatile than glycer- cess. As a result, oil and food contact increases and
ides; therefore, smoke, flash, and fire points of oils heat transfer becomes more effective. Blumenthal [5]
depend principally on the content of free fatty acids, observed that the contact time of fresh oil at the food
and decrease if hydrolytic degradation is extended surface is only about 10% of the food immersion time.
during frying. The smoke point of cottonseed, corn, As the oil continues to be used, the contact time
or peanut oils, e.g., decreases from about 2328C at a increases to about 20%, then optimally to about
free fatty acid content of 0.01% to 938C at a free fatty 50%. This causes normal absorption of oil into food
acid content of 100%. The unsaturation of oil has and proper cooking of the exterior and the interior.
hardly any effect on its smoke, flash, and fire points. If the oil degrades further, more surfactants are
formed, causing an increased contact time (80% or
52.3.2.3 Viscosity higher). As a result, an excessive oil pickup by the
food and an increased rate of heat transfer to the
The viscosity of an oil is strongly affected by the surface of the food is observed, while conduction of
degradation during frying, increasing as a result of heat to the interior cannot be sped up by changes in
the formation of dimers and polymers through ther- the oil. Thus, excessive darkening and drying at the
mal and oxidative degradation [5,11,55]. Keeping the surface occur.
oil at frying temperature caused an increase of viscos- Sodium oleate, a water-activated surfactant, was
ity with time, which was even higher when the oil was isolated from the polar fraction of frying fat [6,27].
aerated [12]. The increase observed during continuous Other water-activated surfactants are phospholipids
heating of the oil was higher than that during frying and inorganic salts. Lipid-activated surfactants in-
at the same temperature (27% compared with 11% clude low-polar thermal polymers and high-polar oxi-
after 90 h at 1858C [11]. Experiments of potato frying dated compounds. The mono- and di-glycerides
with corn oil showed that after 36 h of frying, when formed through hydrolysis also cause a rapid drop
smoking and foaming of the oil indicated that it was of the interfacial tension between oil and water [23].
no longer suitable for frying, its viscosity had in- The oil–air surface tension was found to decrease
creased by 28.6% [27]. by 2.20% after 36 h of potato frying [27]. At high

surfactant concentration, the reduction of the inter- The rate of the oxidation reactions is higher for the
facial tension causes the formation of persistent vapor fatty acids that contain more double bonds. However,
bubbles at the air/oil interface, or in other words, even saturated fatty acids undergo oxidation. The rela-
foaming. tive reaction rates of oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), and
linolenic acid (C18:3) with oxygen are 1, 10, 25, respect-
52.3.2.5 Color ively [18]. Therefore, the inherent stability to oxida-
tion, expressing the relative reaction rate with oxygen
Carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments are responsible
of oil depends on the fatty acid content of its triglycer-
for the color of the fresh oils. Usually color is one of
ides and can be calculated as [18]:
the properties most frequently determined at the pur-
chase of the oil in the frying industry [53]. The color
Inherent stability ¼ (% oleic acid 1
of frying oil darkens with use and eventually affects
þ % linoleic acid 10
the color of the fried product. Perhaps, the color
þ % linolenic acid 25)=100
change is the most noticeable of all changes occurring
during frying. Food introduces various components
The primary oxidation products are hydroperoxides,
to the oil during frying. Many of these components
which decompose quickly at frying temperature
contribute to color formation by reacting with oil or
and cannot be detected. The decomposition products
its degradation products. Maillard browning reac-
include several volatiles. The volatile compounds in-
tions are believed to be the source of some of the
crease at the beginning of frying until they reach a
color development [32,54]. Since Maillard reactions
plateau, as a result of simultaneous evaporation, de-
are greatly accelerated by increasing temperature,
composition, and formation [11,55]. Other secondary
dark coloration at the surface of the fried food and
products formed are nonvolatile polar compounds,
in the frying oil can readily occur. Furthermore, al-
e.g., dimers and oligomers. The content of polar com-
dehyde groups of triglyceride molecules, derived from
pounds increases linearly with frying time [29,30,
lipid degradation react with amino groups to form
43,65] and may be considered as the most representa-
dark coloring compounds. However, a darkening is
tive index of oil degradation during frying [25,63,71].
observed even when the oil is simply heated at frying
Several countries have established 25 to 27% total
temperature, without the addition of any food. In fact
polar content as the regulatory limit for use of
darkening during heating is more intense than that
the frying oil [22]. The polar content increase is ac-
developed during frying [11,25].
companied with interfacial tension decrease, as polar
52.3.2.6 Alteration of Frying Oil materials act as surfactants and viscosity increase,
since dimers and oligomers are formed. Thus, the
During the frying process the lipid material is exposed decrease in surface tension was highly correlated
to high temperature in the presence of air and mois- with the increase in viscosity [27], and a higher
ture. Under these conditions a wide variety of reac- fat absorption in frying food was observed as the
tions takes place and the main groups of alteration viscosity of the frying oil increased [55]. The viscosity
compounds generated are summarized in Table 52.5 increase is not only due to the polymers formed
[11,25,7,16]. through secondary reactions of hydroperoxides, but
TABLE 52.5
Main Groups of Compounds Formed during Deep-Fat Frying
Type of Reaction Causative Agent Resulting Compounds
Oxidation Oxygen Oxidized monomeric triglycerides

Dimeric and oligomeric triglycerides
Volatile compounds (e.g., aldehydes, ketones, alcohols,
esters, hydrocarbons, and aromatic compounds)
Thermal degradation Temperature Cyclic monomeric triglycerides
Nonpolar dimeric and oligomeric triglycerides
Hydrolysis Moisture Fatty acids
Monoglycerides
Diglycerides

also due to polymers formed through thermal 1. The entry zone where the food is rapidly heated
alterations. and is covered in a few seconds with small
The polyunsaturated fatty acids upon oxidation steam bubbles, more or less uniform in size
tend to form conjugated structures. Thus, the conju- and distribution. Bubbles keep the food pieces
gated dienes content increases with frying time, when separated and, along with the flow of oil, pre-
oils rich in linoleic acid are used [25,30,71] and con- vent clump formation. Mechanical pressure or
jugated trienes are also formed when linolenic acid is even pressure due to excessive oil flow that
present. would force the food pieces into close contact
The rate of all oxidation reactions increases with must be avoided in the entry zone. The food
temperature. However, the increase from 155 to must move freely with the aid of a smooth oil
1958C was moderate [30]. The elimination of air, on flow. At the end of the entry zone a ‘‘breaker
the other hand, seems to affect greatly the degrad- bar’’ or any other appropriate device may be
ation reactions [55]. used for the separation of any clumps that have
Products formed through hydrolytic cleavage, i.e., been formed. Starch, in starch containing foods
free fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides increase at like savory snacks and potato products, begins
the beginning of frying and remain almost constant to gelatinize in the entry zone, first on the
afterwards [30]. Normally 0.5 to 0.8% free fatty acids surface and later through to the interior.
content is encountered in frying oils [55]. Higher con- 2. The case-hardening zone where the bubble pat-
tents may cause extensive smoking of the oil, but tern on the food surface changes, with some
usually the simultaneous formation and evaporation areas emitting larger and more frequent steam
of the acids leads to a plateau. bubbles and others smaller and at a slower rate.
The larger bubble sites mark surface points
where steam channels have erupted due to
52.4 INDUSTRIAL FRYING SYSTEMS
steam pressure generated in the interior of the
52.4.1 EQUIPMENT product. The steam pressure increase may cause
intercellular separation and formation of chan-
The equipment used in industrial frying consists nels that break through to the surface or
mainly of continuous, highly automated deep-fat fry- formation of blisters in the interior of the
ers. Large batch frying systems are also included in product. The smaller bubble sites reflect the
the industrial frying classification. The first continu- dehydration of cells close to and on the surface.
ous fryer was developed in 1929 for the production of An outer layer of a crust begins to form as a
potato chips. A wide variety of industrial fryers fol- result of this dehydration and food begins to
lowed, suitable to produce every type of fried food case harden. When case hardening is complete
from savory snacks, doughnuts, and vegetables to food pieces have less tendency to stick together,
breaded meat and seafood. The more widely used but they are still pliable and malleable.
are the traditional fryers for chips and several snacks, 3. The shape-firming zone where the larger bubble
but pressure fryers, vacuum fryers, shaped product sites on the food surface continue to emit
fryers, and a number of others are also commercially steam, while the smaller bubble points further
available in a variety of sizes and configurations. diminish. The thickness of the crust layer in-
They have production capacities from a few hundred creases and cells below the crust dehydrate and
kilograms per hour for some snacks to tens of tons become fixed. Crust thickness and subsurface
per hour for par-fried french fries. structure depend greatly on frying temperature.
Continuous deep-fat frying systems consist of five Higher temperatures result in a thinner crust
independent sets of equipment: (1) an oil tank where layer. The original subsurface cellular struc-
the food to be fried is submerged; (2) a conveying ture, interlaced with some voids, is generally
means for moving the food into, through, and out maintained, although cell walls are distorted,
of the oil; (3) a heating unit; (4) an exhaust system to in nominal frying conditions. When a tempera-
remove the vapors emerging from the oil tank; and ture profile, typical of kettle frying, is used, the
(5) an oil recirculation system, which pumps the oil original cellular structure is almost completely
through filters (and external heaters if used) and destroyed and a porous, cavernous structure is
replenishes it from a bulk supply to maintain a steady formed.
volume in the tank. Banks [3] designated six zones or 4. The cooking or moisture reduction zone where
fryer areas in an industrial fryer used for snacks the food having a nonsticky surface and a rela-
production, where product handling and processing tively firm shape continues to loose moisture
conditions are controlled to regulate frying: through steam emission and cooking. The

temperature that was maintained slightly over casual contact. Some metals are strong catalysts of oil
the boiling point of water until now begins to oxidation. Their catalytic activity varies following the
rise, initiating the final phase of frying. Usually order: copper > copper alloys > iron > zinc > stainless
there is a need to keep the products under the steel > magnesium. Copper and copper alloys are det-
surface of the oil in this zone by a submerger rimental for oil deterioration; therefore, all metal sur-
belt. faces that come in contact with the oil should not
5. The finish frying zone which starts as the prod- contain any of these metals.
uct approaches the end of the submerger belt The size of a fryer varies depending on the finished
and continuous until the product is removed product output, which may range from 100 to 5000 kg/
from the fryer by the carry out conveyor. Fin- h for potato chips and other snacks, or 14,000 kg/h for
ish frying is very important for the quality of par-fried french fries [3]. The proper sizing of the fryer
the product and must be carefully controlled. If is very important. The best quality products are pro-
the product is removed from the fryer before duced when fryers operate at full capacity and on a
finish frying is completed it would have poor continuous basis. Operating the fryer outside of its
flavor, light color, poor textural characteristics, designed capacity can cause both unacceptable prod-
and low oil content. It is the final dehydration uct quality and equipment failures, with risks increas-
and temperature rise that support chemical re- ing in proportion to the deviation from design
actions generating much of the flavor and color capacity. Operating the fryer below the rated capacity
of the products and create the desired texture. results in unnecessary quantities of frying oil being
6. The takeout zone where the product is moved kept heated and reduction of oil turnover, which
out of the oil by a conveyor. The product is still increases oxidative deterioration. Therefore, extended
hot in that zone and continues to cook. Its operation below the rated capacity affects negatively
surface is covered with oil and has a wet ap- the frying oil quality and the flavor, nutritive quality,
pearance. As the product cools, the residual and shelf life of the fried product. Operating above the
water vapor condenses, creating a pressure dif- rated capacity changes the frying temperature profile
ference that pulls the oil from the surface into and may result in undercooked products with a bland
the pores and leaves the surface almost dry. unacceptable flavor. Also, it forces extensive heat
Handling of the product at the takeout zone input, which can lead to early equipment failure [3,10].
influences its moisture, texture, flavor, color, Apart from the conventional frying process, some
and especially oil content. To increase oil up- frying systems have a short frying step followed by a
take, additional oil can be sprayed on the hot finish-cook step in an oven with steam or hot air. In
product, to be absorbed as the product cools. impingement ovens, high-velocity hot air is forced
On the contrary, if low oil content is desired the against the food at 908 angle [32]. In a reverse situ-
product has to be maintained at temperature as ation, microwaves or steam have been used for the
it leaves the oil bath and the surface oil can be initial cook, followed by a finish-frying step. One of
removed by a stream of hot gas. Some of the the main goals in this procedure is to reduce oil
early commercial processes utilized a stream of absorption in the food.
hot air to reduce surface oil, but caused rapid
oxidation and decrease of product shelf life. To 52.4.1.2 Conveying System
avoid oxidation, units developed later use dry
steam in conjunction with an oxygen-free The food to be fried is carried into and through the oil
chamber [3]. Centrifugal force is also used in tank by an appropriate conveyor. Food can also be
some operations to reduce oil content of the fed by slow-moving paddles and it either sinks to
products. the submerged conveyor or, if it floats, is held below
the surface by a second conveyor. The conveyor speed
52.4.1.1 Oil Tank controls the frying time. The fried food is removed
from the fryer by an inclined conveyor and excess oil
The oil tank is usually constructed of stainless steel is drained back into the tank.
and may have a rectangular shape or a V-shaped Matz [41] has classified the following conveying
bottom. The V-shaped bottom facilitates settling mechanisms: (1) spacer bar conveying, in which the
and removal of sediment. Tubes or electrical elements frying piece floats between transverse bars that push it
may be placed in the tank, if an internal heating over the surface at a rate adjusted to give it the
system is used. The thermal insulation of the tank is desired cook by the time it emerges from the end of
a very important feature since it improves fryer effi- the tank; (2) drop plate conveying, in which the prod-
ciency and lessens the risk of burns to those making uct rests on shelves moving below the fat surface until

the pieces develop enough buoyancy to rise to the bottom heating systems a problem may arise from
surface where they contact an upper conveying the accumulation of sediments on the bottom of the
means; (3) hold-down conveying, in which a mesh vat and formation of an insulating layer between the
band moving just underneath the surface of the oil heat source and the oil. Moreover solids are over-
contacts the upper surface of the buoyant product heated and deteriorate quickly affecting the frying
and carries it along; (4) restrained conveying, in oil quality. This situation can be overcome to a cer-
which products are carried between two horizontal tain extent by constructing the tank with a V-shaped
mesh belts; (5) conveyors for nonfloating products, bottom, so that the solid material accumulates on the
traveling well below the surface of the oil and utilizing lowest part of the vat, bellow the level at which heat is
baskets, belts, or other holding devices having no being applied.
covers; (6) compartmentalized conveying, in which The tubular heating systems transfer heat by pass-
dough pieces are held in small molds that may help ing burning gases, thermal oil, or steam through tubes
to shape the product as it cooks (e.g., fabricated that run through the vat from side to side. One ad-
chips); and (7) conveying by the current of the oil vantage of tubular systems, as compared with direct
that is being created by pumps. Some other types bottom heating is that there is a cooler zone below
also have been devised to transport foods requiring the heating tubes, where solids settle away from the
special treatment. An example is the rotating drum high heat and turbulence so that they do not interfere
conveyor described by Bullock (cited by Matz [41]), in with heat transfer and do not deteriorate very fast.
which the drum has internal shelves. During part of The V-shaped bottom facilitates settling and removal
the drum’s rotation, the food is immersed into hot oil. of solid sediment in this case, as well. Another advan-
Some products, e.g., doughnuts, must be turned tage is the large heating surface that enables a suffi-
over a little more than half way through the frying cient heat transfer rate, at a lower temperature
process in order to get a symmetrical shape and a difference between the surface of the tubes and the
uniform crust color. For these products conveyors surrounding oil. As a result of overheating of the oil,
that automatically turn the dough pieces at the proper generation of burnt deposits on the heating surfaces,
time are used. and quality deterioration are diminished. Disadvan-
The food may be transferred out of the fryer by an tages are the greater difficulty of cleaning tubes and
inclined conveyor or some more complex mechanism. the need for a larger quantity of frying oil for the
Usually foods have to be cooled before packaging in same output.
order to become firmer and to slow moisture migra- Electrical heating systems are convenient, but they
tion from the crumb to the crust for those products are used mostly in batch fryers, or in small continuous
that retain a moist interior. systems, due to higher energy cost. Electricity is used
Improved product quality is closely related to to heat resistance elements inside small stainless steel
appropriate gentle handling through the fryer. Con- tubes assembled in grids. These grids are fixed in the
temporary fryers often feature interchangeable inlet fryer, just above the bottom of the tank and can be
sections produced in a cartridge design, which pro- raised out of the tank to make cleaning easier. Elec-
mote simple and rapid product changeover and easy trically heated fryers have the advantage of require-
height adjustment to support various types of trans- ment of smaller amount of oil than the tubular ones.
fers. Developments in hold-down conveyors permit Also it is very easy to create different temperature
an easier vertical adjustment to provide the needed zones inside the fryer by the appropriate position of
gap to ensure both product control and minimal the heating elements.
damage from the belting. To minimize belting dam- Microwave heating, as an additional source to con-
age conveyors with Teflon slats that present a nearly ventional heating, has been claimed to offer advantages
smooth, nonstick surface are now available [68]. to the cooking of some products, e.g., doughnuts [68].
Microwave radiation is applied when the doughnuts are
52.4.1.3 Heating Units fried on their first side and result in a faster increase of
the temperature inside the doughnut and consequently
Fryers are heated by electricity, gas, fuel oil, or steam. in a faster expansion. The total volume of the product is
Dual-fuel systems convertible from fuel oil to gas are larger and fat absorption may be reduced up to 25%.
available. A direct heating system for heating the oil A patent of a short-wave infrared heated conveyor,
in the tank may be applied, or an external one by simulating contact frying, was proposed for pizzas and
means of a heat exchanger. pancakes by Dagerskog et al. (cited by Matz [41]).
The direct heating systems include bottom-fired External heat exchangers are of direct or indirect
gas strip burners, tubular heating systems, or elec- heating type. Direct heating is accomplished by gas, oil,
trical heating elements installed inside the tank. In or propane burning. Indirect systems use chlorinated

hydrocarbon heat transfer fluids or steam. The exter- the blowers. Volatile organic compounds are directed
nal heat exchangers allow the fryer tank to be shal- to the burner used to heat the oil, as already men-
lower and, therefore, a smaller amount of oil is needed tioned, or to a combustion chamber if such a burner is
in the tank, but a considerable amount is needed to fill not used.
the heat exchanger and the piping to and from it. A
major advantage of the external heat exchangers is the 52.4.1.5 Recirculation of the Oil and Oil Turnover
more uniform temperature of the oil in the fryer, as
compared with heating systems installed in the tank. Industrial fryers are equipped with pumps for con-
The initial cost of external heating is higher [41], but a tinuous recirculation of the oil through external heat-
longer equipment life, an improved product quality, a ers and filters. Fresh oil (makeup oil) is added
higher safety, and environmental protection are automatically to replace the oil absorbed by the
achieved according to Swackhamer [68]. For fryers food and maintain the desired level in the fryer.
with multiple temperature zones, oil can be pumped Oil turnover is usually expressed as the number of
from an external heat exchanger through separate hours required for the fresh oil added during frying to
pipes at a different flow. The flow into each separate equal the total quantity of oil in the frying system,
zone is controlled individually to maintain the preset and is calculated as:
temperature of the zone.
Heat and oil recovery systems are used to reduce Oil turnover ¼
energy and oil costs. The exhaust vapor escaping total weight of oil in the frying system, kg
from the vat is used to preheat incoming food or oil. (% oil in product)(fryer output, kg=h)
If direct contact of this vapor with the incoming food
is applied some of the oil carried by exhaust vapor is Industrial fryers commonly have oil turnover rates
absorbed in the food reducing the amount of oil that ranging from 5 to 10 h, with some fryers ranging a
is required in the fryer. Alternatively a heat exchanger few hours higher [3]. After one turnover, one half of
may be mounted in the exhaust hood to recover heat the original oil remains in the frying system and is
and use it to preheat incoming food or oil, or to heat further halved with each subsequent turnover. Usu-
process water. Oil recovery systems are also used to ally equilibrium in the oil analytical values is achieved
remove the oil entrained in exhaust vapor and to after four turnovers and reflects blending of the fryer
return it to the oil tank. In addition, pollution control and fresh oil at a constant rate. A low value of oil
systems prevent smoke and other volatile products of turnover indicates a reduced stress of the oil during
oil degradation from being discharged to the atmos- processing and is an important consideration in fryer
phere, by feeding the exhaust air into the burner used selection together with the type of oil, the fried prod-
to heat the oil. By appropriate controlling, thermal uct, and the operating conditions. Some frying sys-
efficiencies of 80 to 90% can be achieved [21]. tems operate successfully with an oil turnover rate of
12 h, while others, involving different products and
52.4.1.4 Exhaust System fryers, require a turnover rate <7 h [3].
A large amount of vapor is generated by the fryer 52.4.1.6 Filtration Systems

and contains droplets of oil, volatile products
formed through oil degradation, and gases given Screens and filters are used to remove solid particles
off by the food. Therefore, exhaust systems are in- and to extend the life of the frying oil. Screens, lo-
stalled in industrial fryers to collect and dispose the cated ahead of the oil circulation pumps, to remove
hot gases in a safe and sanitary manner. The fryer large particulates and to protect heat exchanger tube
may be completely enclosed in the exhaust system, or bundles from becoming clogged, have been widely
an overhead hood may be used. The exhaust gases used in industrial frying systems. These basic crumb-
are not emitted directly to the environment. Several removal screens do not remove small particles from
oil and heat recovery systems are used, as mentioned the oil. The particles that sink to the bottom may be
above. carried out of the tank by a screw conveyor or special
Oil droplets entrained in the exhaust vapor are augers [41,51]. The discharged material is pumped
usually separated by cyclones. Water spray is mixed together with surface oil to filters. The particles that
with the hot gases as they enter the centrifugal remain in suspension are effectively removed by more
blower, where violent turbulence disperses the water complex multistage filters [68].
and throws the oil and water droplets to the blower Passive filtration with possible addition of an inert
walls by centrifugal force. Separation is completed in filter aid such as diatomaceous earth has been a com-
a tangential entry centrifugal separator that follows mon practice in frying industry for several years

[8,74]. Passive filtration may be defined as the oper- and circulated through the filter and back into the
ation or removal of particulates with an inert filter fryer until a filter bed is established and the fryer is
medium. However, within the last 15 y demands for free of fines and particulates. Filter media suppliers
better quality along with the augmenting use of vege- recommend a dose between 0.1 and 2.0%, by weight
table oils, have created the need for filter absorbents, on the frying medium [8].
which aid in the removal of degradation products. In depth filtration a thick layer of porous material
This type of filtration is designated as active filtration. with irregular channels is used. A depth filter can be a
In processing of foods that absorb a significant pad made of thick nonwoven fabric, or a cake of filter
amount of oil, e.g., potato chips or doughnuts, the aid type. Depth filters may retain particles down to
oil turnover value is low enough, and the oil quality about 1 mm [72] and do not blind as easily as absolute
never deteriorates to the point where the oil must be filters because they have a greater filtering area.
discarded. Passive filtration is sufficient for this type Diatomaceous earth, or perlite is used as inert
of operation. On the contrary for high values of turn- powders in depth filters. Active absorbents are also
over, degradation products may accumulate and ac- incorporated in filter pads, e.g., bonded on refined
tive filtration may help in slowing the rate of oil cellulose fibers [74].
decomposition.
Many natural and synthetic absorbents have been 52.4.2 PROCESS TEMPERATURE AND TIME
promoted for use in active filtration of frying oils [72].
Processors concern free fatty acids as one of the main The necessary frying time for the product to obtain
degradation products that they want to keep at a low surface color, crispness, and organoleptic quality de-
level and evaluate absorbents relevantly. Natural pends greatly on oil temperature. It seems that there is
absorbents in combination with diatomaceous earth no optimum time–temperature combination for each
were judged effective to control free fatty acids, off- product and depends on the size and configuration of
flavors, smoke, and foaming, without negatively the product and its ingredients.
affecting the flavor of the oil [8]. Nevertheless, an For potato chips the use of two different frying
increased concern of producers is observed about temperatures provides an example of how tempera-
the level of total polar compounds, oxidized com- ture can affect product attributes. If potato slices are
pounds and polymers in fried oil and consequently fried at 1858C, a frying cycle of approximately 3 min
in fried food. The different absorbents have different is required and a delicate texture and a thin crust are
selectivity towards each group of degradation prod- obtained. If a temperature of 1678C is used, the frying
ucts. Alumina absorbs free fatty acids, while it is cycle is extended to about 7 min and the chips have a
almost inert for other polar compounds [73]. Silica harder texture and a thicker and firmer crust. In
and active silica are effective in absorbing free fatty general the lower the temperature and the longer the
acids and mono- and di-glycerides, and less effective process time, the slower the cooking rate of the prod-
for other polar compounds [42,72]. Activated carbon uct, the firmer the crust and texture, and the higher
is effective in removing saturated and unsaturated the oil absorbed by the product. Products, e.g., fabri-
carbonyl compounds [42]. Synthetic magnesium sili- cated chips or various snacks, made from dough with
cate absorbs more polymeric substances and other low moisture content (i.e., 40%) are often fried at
polar compounds than silica absorbents [73]. Mix- higher temperature (200 to 2058C) for a very short
tures of activated carbon and activated silica were time amounting to a few seconds. Under these condi-
effective in removing cholesterol oxidation products tions a small quantity of oil is absorbed in the prod-
too [74]. Also, mixtures of commercial absorbents, ucts and an additional amount is sprayed on them at
based on calcium silicate, magnesium silicate, and the exit of the fryer, if higher oil content is desired.
porous rhyolite removed free fatty acids and polar Tortilla chips, which also have moisture content
compounds and improved the stability of the frying around 40% before frying, are fried at approximately
oil [40]. 1908C for 60 s and the oil content of the product
Filtration can be distinguished in two types: (1) amounts to about 20% [35].
absolute and (2) depth. In absolute filtration a steel or For products that expand during frying, e.g.,
plastic screen, cartridge, or paper filter removes par- doughnuts, the frying temperature is critical for max-
ticles from the oil. These filters have certain porosity imum expansion. Temperatures in the range of 190 to
and most of them retain particles down to 5 mm, 2028C have been recommended for yeast-leavened
when used for passive filtration [72]. If diatomaceous doughnuts [41]. Higher temperatures within this
earth or other absorbents are used, they are mixed range may encourage greater expansion, but excessive
with the oil in the fryer at the end of the day and/or temperatures firm up the skin too fast so that max-
shift and the suspension is pumped through the filter imum expansion cannot occur. Frying at temperatures

that are too low allows too much fat to penetrate the circulation is not stopped until the temperature
crust before the interior is cooked. Optimum frying reaches the allowed limit, which is usually defined by
times in the above-mentioned temperature range are the manufacturer. If production is restarted the fol-
110 to 120 s for round doughnuts weighing 1.5 oz. lowing day, the oil is left in the fryer; otherwise it is
Other products, e.g., pies, may present bursting better to be transferred to a storage tank in order to
problems before they are sufficiently cooked, if not minimize oxidative degradation.
fried properly. Some times temperature combinations Contemporary industrial fryers are computer con-
have been proposed for various sizes of pies ranging trolled. In the absence of computer control a set of
from 1808C for 225 s for smaller pies to 1958C for systematic operating procedures is developed. Energy
255 s for larger ones [41]. requirements and operating parameters are deter-
Par-fried french fries are usually subjected to a mined for the full range of variations in raw material
fast frying for approximately 30 s at 175 to 1858C. type and feed rate, and translated into fryer settings.
A partial drying of the raw material may be applied During production, operating parameters can be
after blanching, to adjust the solid content and to add adjusted to the predetermined settings as changes in
to the crispness of the final product. raw material occur.
A temperature variation along the fryer has been
increasingly recognized as offering certain advantages 52.4.4 FRYING MEDIUM
for some products. A higher temperature may be
applied at the entry zone of the fryer. Another such The products used for frying range from nonhydro-
zone may be needed in the area where pieces are genated refined fats and oils to hydrogenated prod-
turned over, in doughnuts fryers. ucts specifically designed for frying. The selection of
an oil or fat is influenced by many factors as the
52.4.3 FRYER OPERATION AND CONTROL inherent stability to oxidation, the fried product and
especially its flavor and eating characteristics, the
The highest quality and most consistent products are cost, the fryer design, and the historical usage.
produced when fryers are operated at full capacity on Quite often the most important factor, apart from
a continuous basis, stopping production only for cost, is the inherent stability to oxidation since it
schedule maintenance and cleaning at the end of affects the quality and shelf life of the finished prod-
each week. However for business and staffing reasons uct. The inherent stability of a frying oil decreases
many business use a daily schedule, therefore, appro- with increasing content of polyunsaturated fatty acids
priate oil and fryer management programs must be and can be calculated as described in Section 3.2.6.
carefully developed and utilized to produce a com- This is the reason why cottonseed oil is considered the
petitive product. first vegetable oil for deep frying and why several fats,
At fryer start-up, preheating of the oil at 1008C is e.g., palm kernel, are used in mixtures specially pre-
usually required and maintaining at that temperature pared for frying. Olive oil also has a good inherent
until moisture is completely removed. Heating to pro- oxidative stability, due to high content in oleic acid,
cess temperature and starting production must follow which is monounsaturated and low content in poly-
immediately in order to minimize oil degradation. unsaturated fatty acids, but it may have a smoking
Any interruption in production, when the oil is circu- problem due to its nontriglyceride constituents
lated at frying temperature, creates a high-risk period [17,18].
for the oil and finished product. According to Banks Pourable frying oils are popular because of their
[3] in industrial operations, increased consumer com- convenience in handling. They range from clear to
plaints are correlated with product made following opaque fluids at room temperature. Refined,
interruptions in production exceeding 20 min. Each bleached, and deodorized (RBD) vegetable oils, e.g.,
interruption should be managed as a potential prob- soybean, cottonseed, corn, and canola may be used,
lem. When it is apparent that an interruption will last but they are not stable to oxidation. Therefore, par-
longer than a few minutes, a partial fryer shutdown tially hydrogenated vegetable oils are preferred and
should be initiated by stopping the addition of they are frequently used in blends that may contain a
makeup oil and heating, while continuing oil circula- small amount of solid fat. Also new varieties of oils
tion. After the last product is removed from the fryer, with low content of linolenic acid and high content of
the conveyor system should also be stopped to min- oleic acid are promoted for use in frying [44,10]. Clear
imize oil aeration. The same steps are followed at the liquid frying oils are also made by fractionation of
end of production. The proper time to stop heating is hydrogenated oils. Cottonseed oil, hydrogenated
determined so that the oil is at the minimum frying soybean or canola oil, and palm olein are mostly
temperature as the last product leaves the fryer. Oil used in liquid frying oil formulations.

A wide variety of plastic or solid frying fats, e.g., ation, and contamination, PV should be maintained
RBD palm, palm stearine, coconut, palm kernel, lard, below 1.0 and 2.0 meq/kg at the end of first and
and tallow are also used in frying. They are mainly second week, respectively. Longer storage times may
blended with RBD oils, hydrogenated oils, or with require additional protection by nitrogen to depress
each other to prepare heavy-duty shortenings. Lauric oxidation.
acid oils (e.g., palm kernel and coconut) can be
blended only with each other and not with fats and
oils containing longer fatty acids, because in the last 52.5 PRODUCT QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE
case an early onset of excessive foaming is observed
[17,18]. Although solid fats and hydrogenated oils The sensorial attributes of a fried product, i.e., flavor,
generally present a higher oxidative stability their color, and crispness, depend on the raw material, the
use may be limited by the sensorial characteristics frying medium, and the frying conditions. The frying
they impart in fried foods. A shortening with high medium is absorbed in the products and, therefore, is
solid content and elevated melting point creates a an important ingredient of some of them, especially
waxy surface of the product and an unpleasant chips and other snacks. Consequently, the nutritional
mouthfeel. On the other hand, a greasy surface may quality of the fried product depends on the quality of
be created with a shortening of very low solid fat the fried oil. The compounds produced through the
content. Another cause that has limited or even ex- oil deterioration occurring during frying, are uni-
cluded animal fats from frying blends is their content formly distributed in the oil remaining in the fryer
in saturated fat and cholesterol, which were linked to and in the oil absorbed by the food [28]. If the oil has
increased risks of coronary disease. Consequently deteriorated extensively a product of unacceptable
consumers concern has forced the industry and quality will be produced.
food-service processors to switch to all vegetable During storage, the quality of the fried snacks
blends containing partially hydrogenated oils [8]. mainly depends on the deterioration of the absorbed
Erickson [17,18] presents the properties of some oils oil, which continues under storage. This deterioration
and blends that are suitable as frying media in differ- is accompanied by the formation of off-odors, and
ent applications. products that may cause some health problems. The
Apart from the properties of the bulk oil, its frying oils undergo oxidative and hydrolytic alteration
performance is evaluated by frying tests and analyt- under storage, similar to the ones occurring during
ical measurements when the frying system has frying, although the reaction rates are much slower.
reached steady-state conditions. The fresh oil placed Hydrolytic alterations are caused by lipase enzymes in
in the fryer is free of degradation products and may the presence of moisture. Therefore, preservation of
contain some antioxidant additives, therefore, analyt- foods from hydrolytic rancidity can be achieved by
ical measurements conducted before the system the control of processing conditions, in order to in-
reaches equilibrium lead to misleading results. In activate enzymes, and to maintain low moisture dur-
most industrial frying operations, the status of the ing storage. Oxidative alterations during storage are
oil approaches equilibrium after four oil turnovers. the most important of the two mechanisms, with
The analytical values recorded usually include color, respect to food acceptability. These alterations are
flavor, viscosity, and free fatty acids. If analytical caused by oxygen attack and are accelerated by tem-
laboratory facilities are available measurements perature increase and presence of light. Preservation
more representative of the oxidative status of the oil from oxidative rancidity can be achieved by storage at
are executed, e.g., polar compounds content, anisi- lower temperature, elimination of oxygen and light,
dine value, polymers, oxidized triglycerides, and con- or addition of antioxidants. Several synthetic and
jugated dienes. Especially the polar compounds natural antioxidants have been added either to the
content determination is practiced by many industries frying oil or to the final fried product. It should be
because an upper limit is allowed by the legislation of reminded that the oils that contain higher amounts of
several countries [22]. unsaturated fatty acids deteriorate faster and, there-
The storage of the bulk oil is another very import- fore, need a higher protection against oxidation.
ant factor, which affects its quality. The storage tank Another important quality defect of fried snacks is
must be sized properly to assure rapid oil turnover the reduction of crispness during storage due to ab-
and frequent fresh oil supplies, e.g., on a one- or two- sorption of moisture. In addition, moisture gain accel-
week basis. Peroxide value (PV) determination can be erates rancidity. Data concerning the effect of water
conveniently used to monitor storage oil quality. PV activity (aw) on oxidation rate are presented by Labusa
on receipt should be bellow 1.0 meq/kg, preferably [39]. As aw increases above the monolayer, the reaction
bellow 0.5. By avoiding temperature increase, aer- is slowed up to the value where intermediate moisture

foods begin (i.e., approximately 0.4). A further mois- E/R activation energy/gas constant, K
ture increase tends to increase the rate of oxidation. F fat content, kg/kg wb
Data on water activity that results in loss of crispness h convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 8C
to an extent where the chips are perceived as not hfg latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
acceptable are not available, but Labusa comments Kc rate constant of the mass lumped capacity of
that it probably occurs at an aw of 0.4 to 0.5. the core, s1
Potato chips are fried to a final moisture level of Ke rate constant of the mass lumped capacity of
3% or less, which accounts to an aw of about 0.2. the edge, s1
Tortilla chips, corn chips, and other snacks have a KoX parameter in Equation 52.19
final moisture content of <3%. From a study on KoY parameter in Equation 52.20
potato chips a moisture content of 3.57% was the KX rate constant in Equation 52.19 min1
point at which a taste panel rejected the chips because KY rate constant of oil uptake min1
of their texture deterioration [39]. Moisture absorp- KXb parameter in Equation 52.19
tion and the consequent deteriorative changes can be KXC parameter in Equation 52.19
prevented by the use of packaging materials with KXT parameter in Equation 52.19
appropriate moisture barrier properties. In this case KYb parameter in Equation 52.20
the shelf life of the products can be extended to sev- KYC parameter in Equation 52.20
eral months. If the packaging material is not trans- KYT parameter in Equation 52.20
mitted by light and if the air inside the packaging is k thermal conductivity, W/m2 K
replaced by an inert gas, e.g., nitrogen, a considerably ko frequency factor, g potato/g potato solids, min
longer shelf life can be obtained. k1 coefficient in Equation 52.13, N1
Fried nuts are subjected to deterioration, similar k2 coefficient in Equation 52.13 (g oil–g potato/g
to potato chips. Their shelf life can be extended by the potato solids–g water, min)
use of appropriate packaging too. Long-term storage L potato strip thickness, m
up to 1 to 2 y can be achieved by vacuum or inert gas M moisture, g water/g potato
packaging, while it can be extended to 3 y by storage m moisture, gr
0
under refrigeration. Of particular concern with nuts, M moisture content, wt %
especially peanuts, is the potential presence of afla- MÐ moisture loss (% initial weight)
toxins. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic compounds, Mo initial moisture, gr
which are produced by certain fungi. If they are pre- Mw moisture content (% dry basis)
sent in the raw material, they are hardly destroyed by mo initial moisture content, gr
roasting and frying; therefore, inspection of the raw Nix flux of species i in x-direction (kg m2 s1)
material is obligatory. Prevention of the formation of O oil content, wt %
these toxic compounds during storage relies on the Oe oil content at equilibrium, wt %
prevention of the development of fungi, which can be S concentration of oil, g oil/g potato solids
achieved by the elimination of moisture migration to T temperature of frying oil, 8C
the product. t frying time, s (min in Equation 52.19 and
Equation 52.20)
TX texture, N
NOMENCLATURE W final moisture content, kg/kg wb
X moisture content, kg/kg db
x variable distance across the thickness of the
b thickness of slice, mm chip, m
C concentration of hydrogenated oil in total oil (%) Xb parameter in Equation 52.19
C1 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/kg Xc parameter in Equation 52.19
C2 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/(kg s) Xe moisture content in equilibrium, kg/kg db
C3 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/(kg 8C) Xo initial moisture content, kg/kg db
C4 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/kg Xoe parameter in Equation 52.19
C5 constant in Equation 52.7, kg/kg XT parameter in Equation 52.19
C6 constant in Equation 52.7, kg mm/kg Y oil content, kg/kg db
cp specific heat (kJ kg1 K1) Yb parameter in Equation 52.20
D diffusion coefficient, m2/min YC parameter in Equation 52.20
D mass diffusivity, m2/s Ye oil content at infinite process time, kg/kg db
Do frequency factor, m2/min Yoe parameter in Equation 52.20
DMr initial dry matter content of potato, kg/kg wb YT parameter in Equation 52.20

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Frying of Foods

52 Vassiliki Oreopoulou, Magdalini Krokida,

52.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1225

52.1 INTRODUCTION interior should be consumed shortly after prepar-

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Class Products Fat Content (%)

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Specific heat (kJ/kg ⬚C)

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Pressure (mm) Boiling Point (8C)

Caproic Caprylic Capric Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic

1 61.7 87.5 110.3 130.2 149.2 167.4 183.6

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Type of Reaction Causative Agent Resulting Compounds

Oxidation Oxygen Oxidized monomeric triglycerides

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A large amount of vapor is generated by the fryer 52.4.1.6 Filtration Systems

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ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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